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The exact moment when I won the Spanish poetry contest was last Friday afternc at 3:15 p.m. Do you recall the day when we got married? The exact moment when I won the Spanish poetry contest = The exact moment in which I won the Spanish poetry contest. The day when we got married =The day on which we got married.

Adjective Clauses That Express Time: when Use the relative adverb when to express time and time relationships. In adjective clauses, when can replace in which or on which.

The reason for which Dr. Hughes won the hospital award was his hard work. The reason that Dr. Hughes won the hospital award was his hard work. Incorrect: The reason why he bought that car is its good fuel efficiency. Correct: The reason that he bought that car is its good fuel efficiency.

Adjective Clauses That Give Reasons: why To give reasons and answer why, you can use for which or that to begin the adjective clause. Do not use WHY to introduce adjective clauses.

Because it was raining, we decided to cancel our trip to the mountains. Because of the rain, we decided to cancel our trip to the mountains.

Because and because of show reason and take different grammatical structures. It's important to know the difference. Adverb clauses can begin with because Adverb phrases can begin with because of The two sentences have the same meaning, but note that in the second sentence, because of must be followed by a noun.

Correct: While Irene was studying, the dog began to bark. Incorrect: While studying, the dog began to bark. (The dog was not studying, so studying is a dangling modifier. It does not have anything to modify that makes sense.)

Dangling Modifiers If you are not careful when you reduce adverb clauses, it is easy to create a dangling modifier. First, make sure that the subject of the adverb clause is the same as the subject of the independent clause. If the subjects are different, reducing the adverb clause to an adverb phrase creates a dangling modifier.

May I leave as soon as I finish the exam? (formal) Can I leave as soon as I finish the exam?(informal) He will leave at noon.(100% certain) He can leave at noon.(100% possible) He must be from France.(probable or logical conclusion)

Modals

Many people who work in customer service experience stress. (Who describes people in the main clause and is the subject of the adjective clause.) The tennis match, which had been scheduled for noon, was canceled. (Which describes tennis match in the main clause and is the subject of the adjective clause.)

Subject Relative Pronouns: who, which, that, whose

Although it did not rain, the crops did not die. Despite the lack of rain, the crops did not die.

Use of with in spite of but not with despite. Although and in spite of or despite show concession and take different grammatical structures. It is important to know the difference. Adverb clauses can also begin with although

You have a number of options to consider. The number of people coming is small.

a number(+plural; noncount)= several, many, unspecified number The number(+singular; noncount): the total, unspecified

I worked with him three years ago. I've worked with him before.

ago = in the past; used with amount of time; reference point is present time before = in the past; used with or without amount of time; reference point is present time

I got them to reduce my taxes. We got her to reconsider taking the job.

get: to cause something to happen(get + Pronoun + Infinitive) avoid get for formal writing

be going to (will) have to (must) ought to(should) be able to (can OR could) had better (should)

modals must and have to are used for necessary, but must is more formal the modals should and had better are similar but not interchangeable always . Had better much stronger and implies a warning of some kind.

It is necessary that all the students take both English and science. Is it obligatory that people be at least eighteen years old to vote? No one understands what first causes this chemical reaction. What first causes this chemical reaction has perplexed scientists. (sub N clause)

n sentences with the structure It + be + ADJECTIVE + (NOUN CLAUSE: that + S + V) remember to include the word It as the subject. Every sentence needs a subject! Sometimes the relative pronoun that begins the noun clause is also the subject of the clause. This may happen with who, what, or which.

In her mind, *life was an adventure* or *simply wasn't worth living*. (possible) In her mind, *life was an adventure* or *life simply wasn't worth living*. (better)

subjects repetition

The young couple would have purchased the house if it had had two bathrooms. (the house had no bathrooms, so young couple didn't purchased it) The pie wouldn't have tasted so sweet if I had added the correct amount of sugar. (Pie tasted too sweet because speaker added wrong amount of sugar.)

would have + PAST PARTICIPLE (action did not happen. both condition didn't happen) would not have + PAST PARTICIPLE (action actually happened, but would not have happened if something else had occurred first)

The water pipes in the building broke, so the offices were closed for the day.

Compound Sentences Contain two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction Coordinating conjunctions connect two equal elements, such as two independent clauses. The seven coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS) Have clauses equal in importance

If Bolivia possessed a seacoast, the country's economy would be very different. (Bolivia does not possess a seacoast, so the economy is not different.) If cars were able to run on water, the world would have a better environment. (Cars cannot run on water, so the world does not have a good environment.) Formal: If more money were given to education, we would have better schools.

Conditional 3: Unreal or Imaginary Conditional In the third type of conditional sentence, the if-clause describes a condition that is not true and the main clause describes a result that is not true. In other words, the information in both the if-clause and the main clause is unreal or imaginary. Note about verbs: With unreal conditions, the if-clause takes a form that looks like a simple past tense verb. In the main clause, the verb for the unreal result is accompanied by the modals would or could. The verb be in the if-clause for unreal conditions is always expressed as were. In informal English, which is never good formal writing, you may hear was used instead of were.

One of the presidential candidates is in town today. Three of my classes were canceled yesterday! None of the paintings is interesting to me. None is interesting to me.

Expression of quantity none= no one

The boss made us all work late. Mike had Nancy complete the final inspection forms because everyone else was busy. I let the children stay up late tonight.

Three verbs- make, have, let- are followed by only the base form of the verb.

I got home too late to watch the news last night. incorrect: The food was too delicious. correct: The food was extremely delicious. (or The food was very delicious.)

too: emphasizer; implies excessiveness and often requires additional information to complete the meaning; used with a negative meaning( that is something is not possible) In formal writing, we do not use word too with a positive adjective or adverb

The government is investigating the cause of the hotel fire.(N Phrase) The government is investigating how the hotel fire began.(N clause) What really causes this skin reaction consumes millions of research dollars.

A noun clause functions in a sentence just like a noun—as subject, object of the verb, or object of a preposition. Remember that you can recognize a noun clause by one of the relative pronouns or adverbs

The man who is next to me must be a diplomat of some kind. The man next to me must be a diplomat of some kind. People who were born before 1960 in the United States are called "Baby Boomers." People born before 1960 in the United States are called "Baby Boomers." Shakespeare, who is the most well-known British author of all time, continues to fascinate readers today. Shakespeare, the most well-known British author of all time, continues to fascinate readers today.

Adjective Clause Reductions Sometimes a clause, which contains a subject and a verb, can be reduced or shortened to a phrase. Here are two rules about adjective clause reductions. 1. If the adjective clause contains the verb be (in an form , you can omit the relative pronoun and the verb be. The man who is next. Last particular reduction is called an appositive. it is a noun phrase that gives a definition or explanation of the previously mentioned noun.

We study in a university which consists of six separate colleges. We study in a university consisting of six separate colleges. People who live in cities generally do not exercise as often as those who live in rural areas. People living in cities generally do not exercise as often as those living in rural areas.

Adjective Clause Reductions Sometimes a clause, which contains a subject and a verb, can be reduced or shortened to a phrase. Here are two rules about adjective clause reductions. 2. You can sometimes reduce adjective clauses without the verb be. In this case, omit the relative pronoun and change the verb to the -ing or present participle form.

The city where I was born is an ancient Roman site. The rooms where George Washington slept are now famous landmarks. the city where I was born = the city in which I was born the room where George Washington slept = the room which George Washington slept in

Adjective Clauses That Express Place: where Use the relative adverb where to describe a place. In adjective clauses, the relative adverb where often replaces the phrase in which or at which.

Irene doesn't know the family whose car was stolen. Main sentence: Irene doesn't know the Smiths. Second sentence: Their car was stolen. The author whose book was published posthumously won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Main sentence: The author won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Second sentence: His book was published posthumously.

Adjective Clauses With the Possessive whose Sometimes when you combine two sentences using an adjective clause, the second sentence contains a possessive. In this case, use the relative pronoun whose. The possessive adjective his and their become whose in the adjective clause.

All of the restaurant was full. All of the restaurants were full. A lot of the money was torn. A lot of the bills were torn. Some of the pizza has been eaten. Some of the pizzas have been eaten. One-third of the population is going to vote. One-third of the people are going to vote.

All of the A lot of Some of the One-half (third quarter) of the

The firefighters tried to save the old house. (The adjective describes house.) The firefighters tried to save the old house that was burning. (The adjective clause describes house.)

An adjective clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that modifies or describes a noun or a pronoun. An adjective clause functions just like an adjective. You will recognize adjective clauses by the following relative pronouns: who, which, that, whom, whose.

My roommate will go home to visit her parents when she finishes her research paper.

An adverb clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb clause functions similarly to an adverb. (The adverb clause modifies, or tells more about, the verb will go.) recognize adverb clauses by the following subordinating conjunctions, most of which come at the beginning of the clause. (Subordinating conjunctions connect elements that are not equal, such as a dependent clause with an independent clause.

The cost of the trip includes the following: round trip airfare, hotel accommodations, transportation charges, and all meals. Most of the students share a common goal: they want to improve their writing.

Colon Introduces information in a list Introduces an explanation of the first clause

An adjustable rate mortgage is one option, a fixed rate mortgage is another.(incorrect) An adjustable rate mortgage is one option, and a fixed rate mortgage is another. (coordinating conjunction) An adjustable rate mortgage is one option while a fixed rate mortgage is another. (subordinating conjunction) An adjustable rate mortgage is one option; however, a fixed rate mortgage is another. (adverbial conjunction/transition)

Comma Splice Another problem is connecting two sentences with only a comma. This type of error is called a comma splice. To fix a comma splice, connect the two sentences with some type of connector. Common connectors include coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but, or, so), subordinating conjunctions (such as because, although, when), and adverbial conjunctions, or transitions, (such as however, therefore, consequently). The punctuation in the examples changes, depending on the kind of connector.

The car needs gas, but it does not need any windshield wiper fluid. Even though they have two biological daughters, they are adopting another daughter. Mr. Lantern, the owner of the corner bakery, just sold his shop and retired. "Dan," she said, "please don't forget to mail these letters."

Comma: Separates independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction Separates phrases or dependent clauses before independent clauses Sets off non-restrictive elements Sets off direct quotations

Although it was drizzling, the city held the parade as scheduled.

Complex Sentences Have one independent clause and one dependent clause joined by a subordinating conjunction Subordinating conjunctions connect elements that are not equal, such as a dependent clause with an independent clause. Examples of subordinating conjunctions include although, because, before, and after). Have an independent clause that has more importance than the dependent clause When an independent clause is followed by a dependent clause, generally no comma is needed

Present Tense If the price of gas goes up, the cost of a bus ticket goes up, too. If the President does not like a bill, he vetoes it before it becomes a law. the Past Tense If I was late for work, my boss got really angry at me. If people wanted to sail from Miami to Los Angeles before the Panama Canal was opened in 1914, they sailed all the way around the southern tip of South America. When the price of gas goes up, the cost of a bus ticket goes up, too. Whenever I was late for work, my boss got really angry at me.

Conditional 1 Note about verbs: To express situations that are always true, verbs in both the main clause and the if-clause are in the present tense. To describe a similar situation in the past, verbs in both clauses are in the past tense. Note that in this type of conditional sentence, the meaning of if is similar to when or whenever.

If I study tonight, I might get a good score on the final exam tomorrow. If Karkovia invades Bratlova, the army of Bratlova will fight back with nuclear weapons. If it rains tomorrow, we might not drive to the beach. Do not use will in the if-clause. Incorrect: If it will-rein tomorrow, we might not drive to the beach.

Conditional 2: A Real or Possible Condition for the Future In this type of conditional sentence, the main clause describes a situation that will or may be true if the situation described in the if-clause actually happens. In other words, both situations only take place or could take place if the stated condition is true. Note about verbs: To express conditions that may lead to future results, the if-clause takes a simple present tense verb. In the main clause, the verb for the result is accompanied by common modals such as will, can, may, might, should.

If the paparazzi had not chased Princess Diana, she would not have died in 1997. (The paparazzi chased Princess Diana, and she died.) If AIDS had been cured early, millions of people would have survived. (AIDS was not cured early, and millions of people did not survive.)

Conditional 4: In this conditional sentence, both the if-clause and the main clause describe a past condition and a past result, but neither of them actually happened. VERBS: in the if-clause is past perfect tense (had + PAST PARTICIPLE). In the main clause, the verb for the hypothetical result consists of the modal (usually would) + have + PAST PARTICIPLE.

Incorrect: When the world's population will rich 10,000,000,000, there might not be enough food. Correct: When the world's population reaches 10,000,000,000, there might not be enough food. Whenever the manager calls a meeting, the employees get nervous. (present tense) Because the manager called a meeting, the employees got nervous. (past tense,

Do not use future tense in an adverb clause even if the time of the action is clearly a future event. Instead, use the simple present tense. Adverb Clauses and Verb Tense In sentences with adverb clauses, use the same verb tense in both parts of the sentence—the main clause and the adverb clause.

Not only does she hold a full-time job Monday through Friday, but she also volunteers at a hospice on weekends. Either he turns in his report tomorrow or he starts looking for a new job.

Finally, balancing sentences with sentences adds parallelism to your writing. Just like words, phrases, and clauses, sentences can be joined with coordinating or correlative conjunctions.

One day he was there, and the next day he was gone. (simple) He was tired, and he looked ill, so I urged him to see a doctor, and he saw one the next day. (compound) If you leave now, you can still catch a bus, but if you stay, you'll have to take a cab home. (complex)

Finally, balancing sentences with sentences adds parallelism to your writing. Just like words, phrases, and clauses, sentences can be joined with coordinating or correlative conjunctions.

Passive voice: The thief was bitten by the dog. (The writer's focus is the thief.) Active voice: The dog bit the thief. (The writer's focus is the dog.) Smoking is prohibited in this area. (you want the receiver of the action to be the main topic of your words)

Focusing writing Some writers use passive voice too often, especially just after they have learned it. Active voice is generally much more effective than passive voice. Use passive voice when

We decided to abandon the idea of buying a house, for the prices had risen dramatically and were now out of our range.

For as a coordinating conjunction means because and is considered formal usage.

Not only my parents but also my brother visits Colorado every winter. Either my brother or my parents are coming to Colorado to visit this winter. Neither my sister nor her son has ever been to Colorado.

For the following paired correlative conjunctions, the subject closer to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

Taking good class notes makes it easier to review for exams. Eating vegetables is a good way to stay healthy. Eating vegetables and exercising are excellent ways to stay healthy. Eating broccoli, carrots, and tomatoes is an excellent way to stay healthy. Not cooking vegetables allows you to prepare a meal faster.

Gerund acts as singular but multiple gerund act a plural To form negative of a gerund, simply place not immediately before gerund

If we had had more time, we would have stayed in Greece an extra week. Had the paparazzi not chased Princess Diana, she would not have died in 1997. (The paparazzi chased Princess Diana, and she died.) Had AIDS been cured early, millions of people would have survived. (AIDS was not cured early, and millions of people did not survive.)

If the verb in the if-clause is have, then the correct form for the past perfect is had had. If-clause without if: You can write a past conditional if-clause without if by moving had before the subject. This structure is characteristic of advanced writing, and you should try to include it in your writing when possible. Conditional 4: both are hypothetical VERBS: in the if-clause is past perfect tense (had + PAST PARTICIPLE). In the main clause, the verb for the hypothetical result consists of the modal (usually would) + have + PAST PARTICIPLE.

1. Separate the two independent clauses with a period. Do this if the sentence is too long or if the clauses are not closely related. 2. Separate the two independent clauses with a semicolon. Do this if the sentences are not too long or if they are closely related. -A fifteen-year mortgage will mean high monthly rates; a thirty-year mortgage will lower the monthly mortgage payment. 2. Connect the two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction. -A fifteen-year mortgage will mean high monthly rates, but a thirty-year mortgage will lower the monthly mortgage payment.

It is easy to mistakenly connect two sentences when you add sentence variety to your paragraphs, especially in the form of compound and complex sentences. If you don't add a connector or punctuation correctly, the result can be a run-on, or fused, sentence. Here are two simple ways to fix run-ons:

Correct: In this area, the noon temperature never drops below 100 degrees in duly. Incorrect: In this area, the noon temperature drops never below 100 degrees in July. Businesses with low capital rarely survive past their first year. SUB + NEG ADVRB + PSNT TENS Change to: Rarely do businesses with low capital survive past their first year. NEG ADVRB + DO + SUB + VERB A composition class should never have more than twenty students. SUBJ+ MODAL + NEG ADVRB Change to: Never should a composition class have more than twenty students. NEG ADVRB + MODAL + SUB+ VERB

Negative Adverbs of Frequency The normal position for adverbs of frequency is before the main verb but after be, modals, and auxiliary verbs. When using a negative adverb of frequency (never, rarely, seldom, barely, hardly ever), your writing will sound more advanced if you occasionally put the negative adverb in front of the subject. However, this placement means that you must rewrite the verb using "question" order, the same order as if it were a question.

My only sister, who lives in California, is a doctor. (The adjective clause gives extra information. You can take out the information between the commas and not change the meaning of the sentence.) The Eiffel Tower has an elevator, which I rode to the top. Incorrect: My only sister, that lives in California, is a doctor. The Eiffel Tower has an elevator, that I rode to the top. Correct: My only sister, lives in California, is a doctor. The Eiffel Tower has an elevator, I rode to the top.

Non-restrictive Adjective Clauses When the information in the adjective clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, set it off with a comma or commas. Non-restrictive clauses always use a comma. clauses. Do not use that with non-restrictive adjective

Many people whom I know work in customer service. (Whom describes people in the main clause and is the object of the verb know in the adjective clause: I know whom.) The book that I read was very interesting. (That describes book in the main clause and is the object of the verb read in the adjective clause: I read that.)

Object Relative Pronouns: whom, which, that, whose Because whom is considered formal language, you will see it more often in written English than you will hear it in spoken English.

The women whom I regularly see on Sundays are my mother's friends. The women I regularly see on Sundays are my mother's friends. The job advertisement that the company provided to the newspaper appeared last week. The job advertisement the company provided to the newspaper appeared last week. Incorrect: The girl is sitting in the park looks nervous. Correct: The girl who is sitting in the park looks nervous.

Omitting the Object Relative Pronoun When the relative pronoun is the object of the adjective clause, native English speakers often omit the relative pronoun. It is incorrect to omit the relative pronoun when it is the subject of the adjective clause.

Why the pilot didn't show up a mystery.(incorrect) Why the pilot didn't show up remains a mystery.(correct)

Omitting the Verb from noun clause is a common mistake. Don't forget the verb in the main sentence!

He appreciated neither what she said nor how she said it. (2 noun clauses) She's asking not where he went but when he went. (2 noun clauses) They won the contract either because they bid low or because they knew someone on the committee. (2 adverb clauses)

Parallel Clauses In your writing, be sure to balance noun, adjective, and adverb clauses to give them equal weight. Use coordinating and correlative conjunctions to join your clauses.

Unfortunately for all of us, what she says and what she does are very often two different things! (2 noun clauses) I am a person who works hard and who gets along well with others. (2 adjective clauses) He appreciated neither what she said nor how she said it. (2 noun clauses) She's asking not where he went but when he went. (2 noun clauses) They won the contract either because they bid low or because they knew someone on the committee. (2 adverb clauses)

Parallel Clauses In your writing, be sure to balance noun, adjective, and adverb clauses to give them equal weight. Use coordinating and correlative conjunctions to join your clauses.

The cat climbed over the fence, up the tree, and onto the roof of the house next door. (3 prepositional phrases) The judge told her to take the stand and to tell the truth. (2 infinitive phrases) They usually spend their weekends entertaining their friends or fixing up their house. (2 gerund phrases) His satisfaction lies not in his title but in his daily work. (2 prepositional phrases) They can't decide whether to take a cruise or to go on a safari. (2 infinitive phrases)

Parallel Phrases, as well as words, must be balanced in your writing. Be sure to balance like elements: prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases with infinitive phrases, and gerund phrases with gerund phrases. Phrases may be joined with coordinating conjunctions or correlative conjunctions.

My favorite subjects are history, psychology, and math. (3 nouns) The dentist did not let me eat or drink anything for at least an hour. (2 verbs) Their wedding day was beautiful, bright, and festive. (3 adjectives) The ambassador spoke quietly yet forcefully. (2 adverbs)

Parallel Words connected with coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

I like neither Vivaldi nor Mozart. (2 nouns) To succeed in this job, you must both learn fast and work hard. (2 verb phrases) The morning dawned not foggy but clear, not humid but dry. (4 adjectives) Both my plane ticket and my passport were lost. (2 subjects)

Parallel Words connected with correlative conjunctions. (These conjunctions work only in pairs, such as both/and, neither/nor.) Two subjects connected by both ... and take a plural verb

The engine noises were frightening the passengers. (present participle in progressive tense) The passengers were nervous because of the frightening noises. (present participle as adjective) The engine noises were frightening. (present participle as adjective) The car was stolen by two young men. (past participle in passive voice) The police found the stolen car a week later. (past participle as adjective)

Participial Adjectives The verb forms known as participles can also be used as adjectives. The present participle, which is used to form progressive tenses, can also act as an adjective with an active meaning. The past participle, which is a necessary part of forming the passive voice, can also act as an adjective with a passive meaning.

The audience heard the results. The audience did not expect the results. (The audience was surprised. The surprised audience was silent.) The teacher explained the lesson. The students did not understand anything. (The students were confused. The confused students need more help now.)

Past participles are verb forms that end in -ed or an irregular form: Past participles used as adjectives: are passive refer to the person who feels or has the experience describe how the person is affected Usually describe animated(living) nouns

The audience heard the results. The audience did not expect the results = The results were surprising; no one could believe the surprising results. The teacher explained the lesson. The students did not understand anything. =The explanation was confusing. The confusing explanation did not help.

Present Participles Used as Adjectives As you have seen, present participles are verb forms that end in -ing: are active refer to the cause of the experience describe what the effect is often describe inanimate (nonliving) nouns

The period in American history to which you are referring is called the Depression. The candidate whom we were talking about is a Democrat. The candidate about whom we were talking is a Democrat.

Relative Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions in Adjective Clauses In addition to functioning as subjects or as objects, relative pronouns can also begin adjective clauses that function as objects of prepositions Remember: Of all of these options, the preferred way to construct a relative clause with a preposition in writing is using PREPOSITION + which or whom at the beginning of the clause.

My sister who lives in California is a doctor. (If you have more than one sister, then the adjective clause gives essential information. If you take out the information, it is not clear which sister you mean.) The car that has a broken headlight belongs to Mrs. Williams. (The adjective clause specifies a particular car. Without this descriptive information, you would not know which car belongs to Mrs. Williams.)

Restrictive Adjective Clauses When the information in the adjective clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence, do not set it off with a comma or commas. If you take a restrictive clause out of the sentence, either the sentence will not make sense or the meaning will not be correct.

Joey came on Saturday; Bobby will come tomorrow. Last week they bought a plane ticket to Los Angeles; however, today they changed their minds and decided to drive there instead. Please be sure to bring your passport, if it is current; your inoculation card, which must be certified; and your admission letter, which needs to be stamped and signed by the school official.

Semicolon Separates two independent clauses with related information Separates two independent clauses connected by an adverbial conjunction or transition Separates items in a list whose items contain comma!

The First United Bank was robbed early this morning. (don't know who did the action) Abraham Lincoln was considered an honest man. (the subject of the active sentence would be people or one) Taxes will be increased. All of my important e-mails were deleted! (reporting unwelcome news or avoiding blame) Ethanol production is the latest hot topic for discussion. It is seen as a possible solution to the country's dependence on oil. (the topic has already been mentioned)

Some writers use passive voice too often, especially just after they have learned it. Active voice is generally much more effective than passive voice. Use passive voice when

The little girl in the light blue jumper and matching tennis shoes is crying. (prepositional phrase) The new board members who decisded to vote down the proposed stock split are renegotiating their positions. (adj clause) The thundershowers pounding the coastline have caused some damage to the sand dunes. (reduced adj clause)

Sub that are separated from the verb It is difficult to find sub and verb connection if there any extra information between them. Prepositional phrase, adjective clause, or reduced clause.

Forget: I forgot taking this picture of the Eiffel Tower. In fact, I took several. (forget + GERUND refers to an earlier action that occurred) I forgot to take a picture of the Eiffel Tower. Maybe I'll do it on my next trip. (forget + INFINITIVE refers to an action that did not occur regret I regret telling you last week that you would be laid off. I was wrong (regret + GERUND refers to an earlier action) I regret to tell you today that you will be laid off next week. (regret + infinitive refers to an earlier action)

The verbs forget, regret, remember, stop, and try are also followed by either a gerund or infinitive. However, the meaning is different for each usage.

Remember: Now I remember taking this picture. It was on May 8th. (remember + GERUND refers to an earlier action) I remembered to take this picture. I did not forget to do this. (remember + INFINITIVE refers to an action at the same or later time) stop: I was driving my car. I stopped to make a phone call. (stop + INFINITIVE means to interrupt an action to do something else) My phone bill got too high, so I stopped making so many calls. (stop + GERUND means to finish an action in progress) try : You have hiccups? You should try holding your breath. (try+ GERUND means to experiment with a solution to a problem) The doctors tried to save her life, but she died. (try + INFINITIVE means to make an effort to do something that is usually difficult)

The verbs forget, regret, remember, stop, and try are also followed by either a gerund or infinitive. However, the meaning is different for each usage.

Why the accident happened is a mystery. (subject) No one knows whether the meeting is on the first floor or the second floor (direct object) The witnesses said that the man entered the bank around 9 a.m. (direct object) You can talk to whomever you choose. (object of preposition) It is important that all of the passengers arrive at the airport early. (subject complement)

These are the words that commonly begin noun clauses. who whom what when where why which how how (adjective) whether if that -ever Words whoever whomever whatever whenever whichever wherever however however (adjective)

Is anyone coming to the party tomorrow night? Something has to be done about the increasing crime rate. If you believe in yourself, nothing is impossible.

Though these pronouns (-one, -body, -thing) often refer to thing, they take singular verb when the act as the subj.

When John is tired, he usually goes home to take a nap. When tired, John usually goes home to take a nap. While Karen ate the pizza, she watched a horror movie on TV. While eating the pizza, Karen watched a horror movie on TV.

To reduce an adverb clause to an adverb phrase, you usually omit the subject and sometimes alter or omit the verb. The following subordinating conjunctions begin adverb clauses that can be reduced. if even if unless when while although though after before until whenever even though There are two ways to form an adverb phrase from an adverb clause. 1. Delete the subject and the be verb. Sometimes you need to change the pronoun in the main clause to the specific noun. John replaces the pronoun he in the main clause. 2. If the adverb clause contains a verb that is not a be verb, you can sometimes delete the subject and change the verb to the progressive form.

1) Begin sentences with prepositional phrases instead of putting the subject first 2) Use a combination of simple, compound, and complex sentences Intersperse short, simple sentences with longer, more complex ones 3) Use modifiers or appositives in simple sentences. An appositive is usually set off by commas. George Washington, the first U.S. president, was born in 1732. 4) Convert compound sentences into complex ones 5) Use phrases in simple sentences

Vary Sentence Structure and Length One way to add interest to your writing and increase its effectiveness is to vary the structure and length of your sentences. Academic writing almost never features a high percentage of simple sentences.

The movie is supposed to be on Channel 8 at 10 pm.( planned event, convey expectation) He had better finish that report by 9.00 tomorrow morning or his boss will be upset.(very strong suggestion that implies that something bad will happen if the advice is not taken) He should arrive at 6 pm.(strong expectation) He may/might/could arrive at 6pm.(possible) The plane will be leaving in a few minutes. (modals with progressive)

Verb after modal is not infinitive

We all warned Jason to stop eating so much junk food. (noun before infinitive) My father taught me to play tennis when I was young. (pronoun before infinitive)

Verbs That Need Nouns or Pronouns Before the Infinitive These verbs often need either a noun or a pronoun before the infinitive. advise allow cause convince forbid force invite permit remind teach tell warn

During the earthquake, we felt the building move violently. During the earthquake, we felt the building moving violently. The flight attendant heard the young passenger scream. The flight attendant heard the young passenger screaming.

Verbs of perception- see, hear, watch, feel- are followed by base form of verb. these may be followed by gerund to emphasize the length or repetition of the action

I went to the library so I could print my paper on a laser printer. (purpose) 1 went to the library, so I was able to print a copy of my paper on the laser printer. (result) Hee-jon went to the park because the weather was fine. Because the weather was fine, Hee-jon went to the park.

When the conjunction so introduces an adverb clause of purpose, we do not need a comma. In this case, so can also be replaced with so that. When the conjunction so introduces a result, we use a comma. Therefore, whenever an adverb clause begins a sentence (i.e., it comes before the main clause), you need a comma.

The TV newscaster whose opinions I trust most is on channel 7. The Japanese food that Keith likes best is sashimi. Two news articles which appeared in the latest edition of Nova were written by my science professor. The boy who lives down the street is my friend.

Who and whom are used only for people. Which is used only for things. That is used for both people and things (less formal than who(m) and which). Whose is the possessive and is used for both people and things. Note that what is not used as a relative pronoun.

The professor, along with her students, is in his library. The students, along with their professor, are in the library. The anatomy books, together with the corresponding instructor's guide, look band new. The instructor's guide, together with the corresponding anatomy books, looks band new.

With the connecting phrases along with and together with, the verb must agree the first noun mentioned

Incorrect: I don't know when happened accident. Correct: I don't know when the accident happened. Incorrect: Can you remember who is she? Correct: Can you remember who she is?

Wrong Word Order. Remember that the word order for noun clauses is RELATIVE PRONOUN or ADVERB / SUBJECT / VERB or, if the relative pronoun or adverb is also the subject, SUBJECT (= RELATIVE PRONOUN or ADVERB) / VERB

His view of the world changed immediately. Immediately, his view of the world changed. The experiment succeeded because the data were collected by hand. Because the data were collected by hand, the experiment succeeded. The child's cat sat on the roof and meowed loudly. On the roof, the child's cat sat and meowed loudly. Meowing loudly, the child's cat sat on the roof.

adverb, adverb clause and prepositional phrase position on sentence

People say we look alike. John looks like his brother. Like Bolivia, Austria has no seacoast.

alike = (adjective, used after linking verbs) = similar like (preposition) = having the same characteristics; equivalent

For the first time in his life he had a good job, a home, and a family. For the first time in his life he had a good job, home, and family. Now is the time to organize, plan and act. Now is the time to organize, to plan and to act. She told her son to play not in the living room but in the yard.

articles, prepositions, to before a verb or other words to emphasize repeating can be short

After dinner, I felt really sick. It could have been the fish. It tasted a little strange. (speaker think one possible reason for being sick was the fish) The evidence proves that the woman could not have killed her husband because she was traveling in a different country when he was killed. ( according to evidence it was impossible for the women to have killed the man)

could have + PAST PARTICIPLE (action is possible but not sure about this is really happened) could not have + PAST PARTICIPLE (almost positive that action did not happened. Impossible to be occured)

*Going to a movie* is *more* expensive *than renting a video*. (correct) Going to a movie is more expensive than to rent a video.(Incorrect) Investing in his company is the same as throwing your money away. (correct) Investing in his company is the same as to throw your money away. (Incorrect)

er / more / less .. than/similar to/ as .. as/ the same as 3 rules for parallel comparisons: complete, clear and similar

The cost of a house in Mississippi is less than Texas. (House and Texas are not similar. incorrect) The cost of a house in Mississippi is less than one in Texas. (correct) Popular music in the United States is similar to your country. (Music B and your country are not similar. incorrect) Popular music in the United States is similar to music in your country.(correct)

er / more / less .. than/similar to/ as .. as/ the same as Parallel Comparisons should be between similar items. The comparison must make sense.

I think your boss likes Angela more than you. (Does this mean more than you like Angela or more than your boss likes you? The meaning is unclear. incorrect) I think your boss likes Angela more than you like Angela.(correct) I think your boss likes Angela more than your boss likes you.(correct)

er / more / less .. than/similar to/ as .. as/ the same as Parallel Comparisons should be clear. Make sure the meaning of your comparison is obvious.

I am happier at my new job than at my old one. (correct) I am happier at my new job than I was at my old one. (correct) I am happier at my new job. (incorrect)

er / more / less .. than/similar to/ as .. as/ the same as Parallel Comparisons should be complete. Repeat the whole parallel structure in each item and include all the comparison words.

What time does your plane get to Atlanta? When did you get home? She got excited about the party. Are you getting hungry? He's getting a raise.

get: arrive(get + To + place; get + HOME) get: become(get + adj) (get sick, get sleepy, get upset, get busy, get engaged, get well, get tired) get: receive(get + Noun) avoid get for formal writing

in bed(sleeping) on the bed(sitting) at home at work in/at school or church at the hospital(visiting,working) in the hospital(a patient)

idiomic prepositions of location

I'll see you in a week after final exams.

in, after: to indicate time (in + length of time; after + name of the time or event) in for future is the opposite of ago for the past

Incorrect: It is important that Mr. Thompson is here at 9 a.m. Correct: It is important that Mr. Thompson be here at 9 a.m. Incorrect: The airline recommended that Kate arrives two hours early. Correct: The airline recommended that Kate arrive two hours early.

it is important that ... subject + suggest that ... subject + request that .. it is imperative that ... subject + recommend that ... subject + insist that ... it is necessary that ... subject + demand that .. subject + propose that . For certain expressions that signal importance, you must a ways use e base form of the verb in the noun clause—not future tense, past tense, or even the added -s in third-person singular

The dog wagged its tail as I approached. It's true. It's been years since I visited Chicago. Whose car keys are these? Who's going with me?

its, whose: possessive form of it's, who's: contracted from it is or it has Its' is NOT a word in English

After dinner, I felt really sick. It may have been the fish. It tasted a little strange. (One possible reason was fish) The teacher believes that Joe may not have written his paper by himself. (possible that someone helped Joe)

may have + PAST PARTICIPLE (action was possible, but not sure about it) may not have + PAST PARTICIPLE ( negative situation was possible but not sure)

After dinner, I felt really sick. It might have been the fish. It tasted a little strange. (speaker thinks one possible reason for being sick was the fish) The train trip took us several hours. I don't know why we came by train. We might have flown. It would have been so much faster. The teacher believes that Joe might not have written his paper by himself. (it is possible someone helped him

might have + PAST PARTICIPLE (action was possible but you are not sure if it happened. same meaning as may have/ could have + past participle) might have + PAST PARTICIPLE (has a second meaning past suggestions of past event, like could have or form of complaint) might not have+ past PARTICIPLE (used for negative situation was possible but not sure same as may not have + past participle)

Joe looks really tired today. He must have gone to bed late last night. Irene failed her spelling test. She must not have studied very much.

must have + PAST PARTICIPLE (almost certain that action happened. Based on the fact or current situation you conclude that action happened) must not have + PAST PARTICIPLE (almost certain that action happened. Based on the fact or current situation you conclude that action happened)

I got home quite late last night. The test was quite hard.

quite: intensifier; not as strong as very

The candidates believes *that this country is ready for change, that the people are willing to sacrifice,* and *that there can be no change without sacrifice*. (repeated that makes grammar clear) The candidates believes *that this country is ready for change, the people are willing to sacrifice,* and *there can be no change without sacrifice*. (long sentence may increase confusion)

relative pronoun repetition

I failed the test. I should have studied last night. ( speaker did not study and he regrets) My stomach hurts! I shouldn't have eaten those four doughnuts.( ate them and regret for that) She must have taken the 7am flight to New York

should have + past participle (when action did not happen and regret for that) should not have + past participle (when action happened and regret for that) with past modal constructions, never use had, always use HAVE

I got home so late last night that I couldn't function at the office today. The test was so hard. ( Usually mean that I'm sure I failed it. It is necessary to say the second part. It is understood. )

so(+ adjective/adverb that): emphasizer; if an explanation is not given, the assumption is that the listener knows the result.

How was your interview? Did it go well? I'm afraid not. Will it rain? I hope so. I hope not. Is Liz working today? I think so. I don't think so.

so, not: used to respond to a question or comment

I got home at such a late hour last night (that I'm tired today) It was such a difficult test. (that I'm sure I failed it)

such(+ a/an+ adjective + Noun that): emphasizer; if an explanation is not given, the assumption is that the listener knows the result.

He didn't turn in his final paper. I didn't either. He didn't turn in his final paper. Neither did I. Julie is confused about all of this. So am I. Julie is confused about all of this. I am, too.

too, so, either, neither: used to avoid repeating words or phrases

The people whom my brother and I saw are friends of his. The presidential candidate who won the party's nomination doesn't have much experience.

who and whom: To know when to use who or whom, read the adjective clause. After whom, you should always have a subject: After who, you should always have a verb:

Neither the professor nor her students are in the library. Neither the students nor the professor is in the library. Either my mother or my uncles are taking a vacation next week. Either my uncles or my mother is taking a vacation next week.

with connecting words neither + nor and either + or, the verb must agree with the sub that is closer to the verb.

My editor is good at researching background facts, researching hard-to-find material, and researching information just published. (Repeating researching causes wordiness. weak) My editor is good at researching background facts, hard-to-find material, and information just published. (Statement is more concise and still clear. better)

wordiness parallel