3. Brunner Chapter 11 Shock Prep-U

A nurse is assessing a client who is experiencing significant stress due to septicemia.

Pg 102 monitor temperature, administer oxygen therapy obtain the lactate level. Explanation: The nurse should expect to administer oxygen therapy to support perfusion, monitor temperature to assess metabolic response, and obtain lactate levels, which serve as a critical predictor of the client's metabolic stress response. The nurse should not place a client with septicemia in a prone position because this would lead to further respiratory compromise. The nurse should not increase PO fluid intake because this would also lead to respiratory compromise and fluid volume overload.

The nurse is concerned that a client is developing multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Place the signs/symptoms in the classic sequence in which this syndrome develops. Use all options.

Pg 297 lung dysfunction fluid balance hypermetabolism liver dysfunction kidney dysfunction bleeding disorder cardiovascular instability neurologic deterioration Explanation: The classic pattern for the development of MODS begins with the lungs as the client experiences progressive dyspnea and respiratory failure. Increasing amounts of IV fluids and vasoactive agents are then needed to support blood pressure and cardiac output. Signs of a hypermetabolic state occur next, which is characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperlactic acidemia, and an increased blood urea nitrogen level. After 7 to 10 days, signs of liver dysfunction (elevated bilirubin and liver function tests) and kidney dysfunction (elevated creatinine and anuria) develop. As the lack of tissue perfusion continues, the hematologic system becomes dysfunctional, which increases the risk of bleeding. The cardiovascular system becomes unstable and unresponsive to vasoactive medications, and the neurologic system deteriorates to a state of unresponsiveness or coma.

Which drug is a vasodilator used in the treatment of shock?

Pg 283-285 Nitroglycerin Explanation: Nitroglycerin is a vasodilator used to reduce preload and afterload and reduce oxygen demand of the heart. Dopamine and dobutamine are sympathomimetic and are used to improve contractility, increase stroke volume, and increase cardiac output. Norepinephrine is a vasoconstrictor used to increase blood pressure by vasoconstriction.

A nurse is assisting with the orientation of a newly hired graduate. Which of the following behaviors of the graduate nurse would the other nurse identify as not adhering to strict infection control practices?

Pg 284 Correct response: Hanging tape on the bedside table when changing a wet-to-dry sterile dressing Explanation: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention do not recommend hanging tape on bedside tables, siderails, linens, or clothing to use for dressings. The other options are activities that are proper infection control practices.

The nurse obtains a blood pressure of 120/78 mm Hg from a patient in hypovolemic shock. Since the blood pressure is within normal range for this patient, what stage of shock does the nurse realize this patient is experiencing?

Pg 276 Compensatory stage Explanation: In the compensatory stage of shock, the BP remains within normal limits. Vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, and increased contractility of the heart contribute to maintaining adequate cardiac output. In all other stages of shock, hypotension is present as compensatory mechanisms no longer suffice to maintain normal blood pressure.

You are holding a class on shock for the staff nurses at your institution. What would you tell them about the stages of shock?

Pg 276 In the compensation stage, catecholamines are released. Explanation: Compensatory mechanisms include the release of catecholamines, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, production of antidiuretic and corticosteroid hormones are all mechanisms activated in the compensation stage of shock. Shock does not begin in the decompensation stage.

The nurse is reviewing diagnostic lab work of a client developing shock. Which laboratory result does the nurse note as a key in determining the type of shock?

Pg 292 WBC: 42,000/mm3 Explanation: Septic shock has the highest mortality rate and is caused by an overwhelming bacterial infection; thus, an elevated WBC can indicate this type of shock. The other lab values are within normal limits.

A client experiences an acute myocardial infarction. Current blood pressure is 90/58, pulse is 118 beats/minute, and respirations are 30 breaths/minute. The nurse intervenes first by administering the following prescribed treatment:

Pg 275 60 mm Hg Explanation: Mean arterial pressure is cardiac output × peripheral resistance. The body must exceed 65 mm Hg MAP for cells to receive oxygen and nutrients

The nurse knows when the cardiovascular system becomes ineffective in maintaining an adequate mean arterial pressure (MAP). Select the reading below that indicates tissue hypoperfusion.

Pg 275 60 mm Hg Explanation: Mean arterial pressure is cardiac output × peripheral resistance. The body must exceed 65 mm Hg MAP for cells to receive oxygen and nutrients.

During preshock, the compensatory stage of shock, the body, through sympathetic nervous system stimulation, will release catecholamines to shunt blood from one organ to another. Which of the following organs will always be protected?

Pg 276 Brain Explanation: The body displays a "fight-or-flight" response, with the release of catecholamines. Blood will be shunted to the brain, heart, and lungs to ensure adequate blood supply. The organ that will always be protected over the others is the brain.

Morphine sulfate has which of the following effects on the body?

Pg 208 Reduces preload Explanation: In addition to relieving pain, morphine dilates the blood vessels. This reduces the workload of the heart by both decreasing the cardiac filing pressure (preload) and reducing the pressure against which the heart muscle has to eject blood (afterload).

The nurse is caring for a motor vehicle accident client who is unresponsive on arrival to the emergency department. The client has numerous fractures, internal abdominal injuries, and large lacerations on the head and torso. The family arrives and seeks update on the client's condition. A family member asks, "What causes the body to go into shock?" Given the client's condition, which statement is most correct?

Pg 273 "The client is in shock because the blood volume has decreased in the system." Explanation: Shock is a life-threatening condition that occurs when arterial blood flow and oxygen delivery to tissues and cells are inadequate. Hypovolemic shock, where the volume of extracellular fluid is significantly diminished due to the loss of or reduced blood or plasma, frequently occurs with accidents.

The nurse caring for the patient in shock recognizes which physiologic responses that are common to all shock states? (Select all that apply.)

Pg 274 Activation of the inflammatory response Hypoperfusion of tissues Must produce energy through anaerobic metabolism Explanation: Regardless of the initial cause of shock, certain physiologic responses are common to all types of shock. These physiologic responses include hypoperfusion of tissues, hypermetabolism, and activation of the inflammatory response. The body responds to shock states by activating the sympathetic nervous system and mounting a hypermetabolic and inflammatory response. Failure of compensatory mechanisms to effectively restore physiologic balance is the final pathway of all shock states and results in end-organ dysfunction and death. In shock, the cells lack an adequate blood supply and are deprived of oxygen and nutrients; therefore, they must produce energy through anaerobic metabolism. This results in low energy yields from nutrients and an acidotic intracellular environment. Because of these changes, normal cell function ceases (Fig. 14-1). The cell swells and the cell membrane becomes more permeable, allowing electrolytes and fluids to seep out of and into the cell

The nurse assesses a patient who experienced a reaction to a bee sting. The patient's clinical findings indicate a pre-shock condition, which is evidenced by:

Pg 274 Cold, clammy skin and tachycardia. Explanation: In the preshock stage, the patient begins to lose tissue perfusion but compensates initially. Therefore, early signs of shock are evident.

A nurse is evaluating a mechanically ventilated client in the intensive care unit to identify improvement in the client's condition. Which outcome does the nurse note as the result of inadequate compensatory mechanisms?

Pg 274 Correct response: Organ damage Explanation: When the body is unable to counteract the effects of shock, further system failure occurs, leading to organ damage and ultimately death. Liver dysfunction may occur as one of the organs that fail. Weight fluctuations may occur if the client retains fluid or is administered a diuretic. Large fluctuations are not noted between shifts. The client's unsteady gait is not a result of an inadequate compensatory mechanism with shock but a result of immobility.

The nursing student is preparing to care for an ICU client with shock. The instructor asks the student to name the different categories of shock. Which of the following is a category of shock?

Pg 274 Distributive Explanation: The four main categories of shock are hypovolemic, circulatory (distributive), obstructive, and cardiogenic, depending on the cause. Distributive, restrictive, and cardiotonic are not categories of shock.

The nurse is caring for a critically ill client. Which of the following is the nurse correct to identify as a positive effect of catecholamine release during the compensation stage of shock?

Pg 276 Increase in arterial oxygenation Explanation: Catecholamines are neurotransmitters that stimulate responses via the sympathetic nervous system. Catecholamine release increases heart rate and myocardial contraction as well as bronchial dilation improving the efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. They do not decrease WBCs or decrease the depressive symptoms. They do not regulate sodium and potassium.

The nurse is caring for a client newly diagnosed with sepsis. The client has a serum lactate concentration of 6 mmol/L and fluid resuscitation has been initiated. Which value indicates that the client has received adequate fluid resuscitation?

Pg 276-277 Mean arterial pressure of 70 mm Hg Explanation: The nurse administers fluids to achieve a target central venous pressure of 8 to 12 mm Hg, mean arterial pressure >65 mm Hg, urine output of 0.5 mL/kg/hr, and an ScvO2 of 70%

When a client is in the compensatory stage of shock, which symptom occurs?

Pg 276-277 Tachycardia Explanation: The compensatory stage of shock encompasses a normal blood pressure, tachycardia, decreased urinary output, confusion, and respiratory alkalosis.

The nurse is reporting the current nursing assessment to the physician. Vital signs: temperature, 97.2° F; pulse, 68 beats/minute, thready; respiration, 28 breaths/minute, blood pressure, 102/78 mm Hg; and pedal pulses, palpable. The physician asks for the pulse pressure. Which would the nurse report?

Pg 277 24 Explanation: The pulse pressure is the numeric difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure. By subtracting the two numbers, the physician would be told 24. The pulse pressure does not report quality of the pulse.

What can the nurse include in the plan of care to ensure early intervention along the continuum of shock to improve the client's prognosis? Select all that apply.

Pg 277 Assess the client who is at risk for shock. Administer intravenous fluids. Monitor for changes in vital signs. Explanation: Early intervention along the continuum of shock is the key to improving the client's prognosis. The nurse must systematically assess the client at risk for shock, recognizing subtle clinical signs of the compensatory stage before the client's BP drops. Early interventions include identifying the cause of shock, administering intravenous (IV) fluids and oxygen, and obtaining necessary laboratory tests to rule out and treat metabolic imbalances or infection. In assessing tissue perfusion, the nurse observes for changes in level of consciousness, vital signs (including pulse pressure), urinary output, skin, and laboratory values (e.g., base deficit and lactic acid levels). Administering vasoconstrictive medications or prophylactic packed red blood cells is not necessary as an early intervention.

Shock occurs when tissue perfusion is inadequate to deliver oxygen and nutrients to support cellular function. When caring for patients who may develop indicators of shock, the nurse is aware that the most important measurement of shock is:

Pg 277 Blood pressure. Explanation: By the time the blood pressure drops, damage has already been occurring at the cellular and tissue levels. Therefore, the patient at risk for shock must be monitored closely before the blood pressure drops.

The nurse is obtaining physician orders which include a pulse pressure. The nurse is correct to report which of the following?

Pg 277 The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure The nurse would report the difference between the systolic blood pressure number and the diastolic blood pressure number as the pulse pressure.

The nurse is using continuous central venous oximetry (ScvO2) to monitor the blood oxygen saturation of a patient in shock. What value would the nurse document as normal for the patient?

Pg 278 70% Explanation: Continuous central venous oximetry (ScvO2) monitoring may be used to evaluate mixed venous blood oxygen saturation and severity of tissue hypoperfusion states. A central catheter is introduced into the superior vena cava (SVC), and a sensor on the catheter measures the oxygen saturation of the blood in the SVC as blood returns to the heart and pulmonary system for re-oxygenation. A normal ScvO2 value is 70%.

A client has a pulse rate of 142 beats per minute and a blood pressure of 70/30. To promote venous return, the nurse

Pg 278 Raises the foot of the client's bed Explanation: The description of the client is that of a person experiencing shock. In addition to administering fluids to a client in shock, the nurse positions the client with the legs elevated, which promotes venous blood return. Elevating the head of the bed will cause the client's blood pressure to drop even more. The Trendelenburg position will make breathing difficult and does not increase blood pressure or cardiac output. Placing the client in a side-lying position does not increase venous blood return.

A patient is in the progressive stage of shock with lung decompensation. What treatment does the nurse anticipate assisting with?

Pg 279 Correct response: Intubation and mechanical ventilation Explanation: Decompensation of the lungs increases the likelihood that mechanical ventilation will be needed. Administration of oxygen via a mask would be appropriate in the compensatory stage but insufficient in the event of lung decompensation. Pericardiocentesis or thoracotomy with chest tube insertion would not be necessary or appropriate.

Which stage of shock is best described as that stage when the mechanisms that regulate blood pressure fail to sustain a systolic pressure above 90 mm Hg?

Pg 279 Progressive Explanation: In the progressive stage of shock, the mechanisms that regulate blood pressure can no longer compensate, and the mean arterial pressure falls below normal limits. The refractory or irreversible stage of shock represents the point at which organ damage is so severe that the client does not respond to treatment and cannot survive. In the compensatory state, the client's blood pressure remains within normal limits due to vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, and increased contractility of the heart.

The nurse assesses a BP reading of 80/50 mm Hg from a patient in shock. What stage of shock does the nurse recognize the patient is in?

Pg 279 Progressive Explanation: In the second stage of shock, the mechanisms that regulate BP can no longer compensate, and the MAP falls below normal limits. Patients are clinically hypotensive; this is defined as a systolic BP of less than 90 mm Hg or a decrease in systolic BP of 40 mm Hg from baseline.

The nurse is caring for a client in the early stages of sepsis. The client is not responding well to fluid resuscitation measures and has a worsening hemodynamic status. Which nursing intervention is most appropriate for the nurse to implement?

Pg 279 kidney failure disseminated intravascular coagulation acute respiratory distress syndrome Explanation: When shock is treated adequately and promptly, the client usually recovers but may be at risk for secondary complications that result directly from tissue hypoxia and organ ischemia due to reduced oxygenation. Life-threatening complications include kidney failure, neurologic deficits, bleeding disorders such as disseminated intravascular coagulation, acute respiratory distress syndrome, stress ulcers, and sepsis that can lead to multiple organ dysfunction.

At what point in shock does metabolic acidosis occur?

Pg 280 Decompensation (Progressive) Explanation: The decompensation or progressive stage occurs as compensatory mechanisms fail. The client's condition spirals into cellular hypoxia, coagulation defects, and cardiovascular changes. As the energy supply falls below the demand, pyruvic and lactic acids increase, causing metabolic acidosis.

The nurse is monitoring the patient in shock. The patient begins bleeding from previous venipuncture sites, in the indwelling catheter, and rectum, and the nurse observes multiple areas of ecchymosis. What does the nurse suspect has developed in this patient?

Pg 280 Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) Explanation: Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) may occur either as a cause or as a complication of shock. In this condition, widespread clotting and bleeding occur simultaneously. Bruises (ecchymoses) and bleeding (petechiae) may appear in the skin. Coagulation times (e.g., prothrombin time [PT], activated partial thromboplastin time [aPTT]) are prolonged. Clotting factors and platelets are consumed and require replacement therapy to achieve hemostasis. The other conditions listed would not result in bleeding simultaneously at multiple sites.

The community health nurse finds the client collapsed outdoors. The nurse assesses that the client is shallow breathing and has a weak pulse. Emergency medical services (EMS) is notified by the neighbor. Which nursing action is helpful while waiting for the ambulance?

Pg 280 Elevate the legs higher than the heart. Explanation: The client has shallow respiration and a weak pulse implying limited circulation and gas exchange. Most helpful would be to elevate the legs higher than the heart to promote blood perfusion to the heart, lungs, and brain. A cool compress would not be helpful nor would shaking the client to arouse. A client can be covered with a blanket, but this is not the most helpful.

The nurse is caring for a client diagnosed with shock. During report, the nurse reports the results of which assessments that signal early signs of the decompensation stage? Select all that apply.

Pg 280 Vital signs Skin color Urine output Peripheral pulses Explanation: Although shock can develop and progress quickly, the nurse monitors evidence of early signs that blood volume and circulation is becoming compromised. Vital signs, skin color, urine output related to blood perfusion of the kidneys, and peripheral pulses all provide assessment data relating blood volume and circulation.

A client who experienced shock is now nonresponsive and having cardiac dysrhythmias. The client is being mechanically ventilated, receiving medications to maintain renal perfusion, and is not responding to treatment. In this stage, it is most important for the nurse to

Pg 281 Encourage the family to touch and talk to the client. Explanation: The client is in the irreversible stage of shock and unlikely to survive. The family should be encouraged to touch and talk to the client. A spiritual advisor may be of comfort to the family. However, this is not definite. The second option provides false hope of the client's survival to the family as does the third option.

The nurse, a member of the health care team in the ED, is caring for a client who is determined to be in the irreversible stage of shock. What would be the most appropriate nursing intervention?

Pg 281 Provide opportunities for the family to spend time with the client, and help them to understand the irreversible stage of shock. Explanation: The irreversible (or refractory) stage of shock represents the point along the shock continuum at which organ damage is so severe that the client does not respond to treatment and cannot survive. Providing opportunities for the family to spend time with the client and helping them to understand the irreversible stage of shock is the best intervention. Informing the client's family early that the client will likely not survive does allow the family to make plans and move forward, but informing the family too early will rob the family of hope and interrupt the grieving process. The chance of surviving the irreversible (or refractory) stage of shock is very small, and the nurse needs to help the family cope with the reality of the situation. With the chances of survival so small, the priorities shift from aggressive treatment and safety to addressing the end-of-life issues.

You are talking with the family of a client who is in the irreversible stage of shock. They ask you why the physician has told the family that the client is going to die. What would you explain to this family?

Pg 281 The client is not responding to medical interventions. Explanation: The irreversible stage occurs when significant cells and organs become damaged. The client's condition reaches a "point of no return" despite treatment efforts. The client no longer responds to medical interventions. Multiple systems begin to fail. When the kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, and brain cease to function, death is imminent. Options A, B. and D are not indicated in the scenario, and therefore, are incorrect.

Which colloid is expensive but rapidly expands plasma volume?

Pg 282 Explanation: Albumin is a colloid that requires human donors, is limited in supply, and can cause congestive heart failure. Dextran interferes with platelet aggregation and is not recommended for hemorrhagic shock. Lactated Ringer solution and hypertonic saline are crystalloids, not colloids

The nurse is caring for a client in shock who is deteriorating. The nurse is infusing IV fluids and giving medications as ordered. What type of medications is the nurse most likely giving to this client?

Pg 283 Adrenergic drugs Explanation: Adrenergic drugs are the main medications used to treat shock due to their action on the receptors of the sympathetic nervous system.

A vasoactive medication is prescribed for a patient in shock to help maintain MAP and hemodynamic stability. A medication that acts on the alpha-adrenergic receptors of the SNS is ordered. Its purpose is to:

Pg 283 Constrict blood vessels in the cardiorespiratory system. Explanation: Alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors work synergistically to improve hemodynamic stability. Alpha receptors constrict blood vessels in the cardiorespiratory and gastrointestinal systems, as well as in the skin and kidneys.

A client who experienced shock remains unstable. Which medication classes would the nurse anticipate to be ordered to prevent or minimize stress ulcers? Select all that apply.

Pg 284 antacids H2 blockers proton pump inhibitors Explanation: Stress ulcers occur frequently in acutely ill patients because of the compromised blood supply to the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, antacids, H2 blockers [e.g., famotidine (Pepcid)], and proton pump inhibitors [e.g., lansoprazole (Prevacid), esomeprazole magnesium (Nexium)] are prescribed to prevent ulcer formation by inhibiting gastric acid secretion or increasing gastric pH. Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids and help with digestion. A promotility agent such as metoclopramide is used to decrease nausea, vomiting, heartburn, a feeling of fullness after meals, and loss of appetite

Stress ulcers occur frequently in acutely ill patient. Which of the following medications would be used to prevent ulcer formation? Select all that apply.

Pg 284-285 Famotidine (Pepcid) Nizatidine Lansoprazole Explanation: Antacids, H2 blockers (Pepcid, Axid), and/or proton pump inhibitors (Prevacid) are prescribed to prevent ulcer formation by inhibiting gastric acid secretion or increasing gastric pH. Desmopressin (DDVAP) is used in the treatment of diabetes insipidus. Furosemide (Lasix) is a loop diuretic and does not prevent ulcer formation.

The nurse recognizes that many risk factors exist for the development of hypovolemic shock. Which are considered "internal" risk factors? Select all that apply.

Pg 285 Burns Dehydration Explanation: The internal (fluid shift) causes of hypovolemic shock include hemorrhage, burns, ascites, peritonitis, and dehydration. The external (fluid loss) causes of hypovolemic shock include trauma, surgery, vomiting, diarrhea, diuresis, and diabetes insipidus

What is a negative effect of IV nitroglycerin for shock management that the nurse should assess for in a client?

Pg 285 Decreased blood pressure. Explanation: A potentially serious side effect of IV nitroglycerin (Tridil) is hypotension. Blood pressure needs to be monitored frequently according to the manufacturer's recommendation and institutional policy.

The central venous pressure (CVP) reading in hypovolemic shock is typically which of the following?

Pg 285 Low Explanation: The CVP reading is typically low in hypovolemic shock. It increases with effective treatment and is significantly increased with fluid overload and heart failure.

Which positioning strategy should be used for a client diagnosed with hypovolemic shock?

Pg 285 Modified Trendelenburg Explanation: A modified Trendelenburg position is recommended in hypovolemic shock. Elevation of the legs promotes the return of venous blood and can be used as a dynamic assessment of a client's fluid responsiveness.

A client experiencing vomiting and diarrhea for 2 days has a blood pressure of 88/56, a pulse rate of 122 beats/minute, and a respiratory rate of 28 breaths/minute. The nurse places the client in which position?

Pg 285 Modified Trendelenburg Explanation: The client is experiencing hypovolemic shock as a result of prolonged vomiting and diarrhea. The modified Trendelenburg position is recommended for hypovolemic shock because it promotes the return of venous blood. The other positions may make breathing difficult and may not increase blood pressure or cardiac output.

Elevating the patient's legs slightly to improve cerebral circulation is contraindicated in which of the following disease processes?

Pg 286 Head injury Explanation: An alternative to the "Trendelenburg" position is to elevate the patient's legs slightly to improve cerebral circulation and promote venous return to the heart, but this position is contraindicated for patients with head injuries.

A client is experiencing vomiting and diarrhea for 2 days. Blood pressure is 88/56, pulse rate is 122 beats/minute, and respirations are 28 breaths/minute. The nurse starts intravenous fluids. Which of the following prescribed prn medications would the nurse administer next?

Pg 286 ondansetron Explanation: An antiemetic medication, such as ondansetron (Zofran), is administered for vomiting. It would be administered before loperamide (Imodium) for diarrhea so the client would be able to retain the loperamide. There is no indication that the client requires medication for pain (meperidine [Demerol]) or heartburn (magnesium hydroxide [Maalox]).

A nurse practitioner visits a patient in a cardiac care unit. She assesses the patient for shock, knowing that the primary cause of cardiogenic shock is:

Pg 287 A myocardial infarction. Explanation: Cardiogenic shock is seen most frequently as a result of a myocardial infarction.

The nurse is caring for a client with shock. The nurse is concerned about hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis with the client. What finding should the nurse analyze for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis in a client with shock?

Pg 287 Arterial blood gas (ABG) findings Explanation: Analysis of ABG findings is essential for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis. Low RBCs and hemoglobin correlate with hypovolemic shock and can lead to poor oxygenation. An elevated white blood cell count supports septic shock. Serum thyroid level findings do not help determine the presence of hypoxemia or metabolic acidosis.

You are caring for a client with shock. You are concerned about hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis with your client. What finding should you analyze for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis in a client with shock?

Pg 287 Arterial blood gas (ABG) findings Explanation: Analysis of ABG findings is essential for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis. Low RBCs and hemoglobin correlate with hypovolemic shock and can lead to poor oxygenation. An elevated white blood cell count supports septic shock. Serum thyroid level findings do not help determine the presence of hypoxemia or metabolic acidosis.

You are caring for a client with shock. You are concerned about hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis with your client. What finding should you analyze for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis in a client with shock?

Pg 287 Correct response: Arterial blood gas (ABG) findings Explanation: Analysis of ABG findings is essential for evidence of hypoxemia and metabolic acidosis. Low RBCs and hemoglobin correlate with hypovolemic shock and can lead to poor oxygenation. An elevated white blood cell count supports septic shock. Serum thyroid level findings do not help determine the presence of hypoxemia or metabolic acidosis.

A large volume of intravenous fluids is being administered to an elderly client who experienced hypovolemic shock following diarrhea. The nurse is evaluating the client's response to treatment and notes the following as a sign of an adverse reaction:

Pg 287 Jugular venous distention Explanation: When administering large volumes of fluid replacement, the nurse monitors the client for cardiovascular overload, signs of difficulty breathing, and pulmonary edema. The nurse assesses for jugular vein distention. Decreased pulse rate, when the client is tachycardic as in hypovolemic shock, would indicate improvement. The client would also exhibit a positive increase in the fluid balance ratio when responding appropriately to treatment. The client should exhibit vesicular breath sounds

A confused client exhibits a blood pressure of 112/84, pulse rate of 116 beats per minute, and respirations of 30 breaths per minute. The client's skin is cold and clammy. The nurse next

Pg 288 Administers oxygen by nasal cannula at 2 liters per minute Explanation: The client is exhibiting the compensatory stage of shock. The nurse performs all the listed options. The nurse needs to address physiological needs first by administering oxygen.

A patient arrives in the emergency department with complaints of chest pain radiating to the jaw. What medication does the nurse anticipate administering to reduce pain and anxiety as well as reducing oxygen consumption?

Pg 288 Correct response: Morphine Explanation: If a patient experiences chest pain, IV morphine is administered for pain relief. In addition to relieving pain, morphine dilates the blood vessels. This reduces the workload of the heart by both decreasing the cardiac filling pressure (preload) and reducing the pressure against which the heart muscle has to eject blood (afterload). Morphine also decreases the patient's anxiety and reduces the respiratory rate, and thus oxygen consumption.

What is the major clinical use of dobutamine?

Pg 288 increase cardiac output. Explanation: Dobutamine (Dobutrex) increases cardiac output for clients with acute heart failure and those undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Physicians may use epinephrine hydrochloride, another catecholamine agent, to treat sinus bradycardia. Physicians use many of the catecholamine agents, including epinephrine, isoproterenol, and norepinephrine, to treat acute hypotension. They don't use catecholamine agents to treat hypertension because catecholamine agents may raise blood pressure.

A client admitted with a massive myocardial infarction rapidly develops cardiogenic shock. Ideally, the physician would use the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) to support the injured myocardium. However, this client has a history of unstable angina pectoris, aortic insufficiency, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus. Which condition is a contraindication for IABP use?

Pg 289 Aortic insufficiency Explanation: A history of aortic insufficiency contraindicates use of the IABP. Other contraindications for this therapy include aortic aneurysm, central or peripheral atherosclerosis, chronic end-stage heart disease, multisystemic failure, chronic debilitating disease, bleeding disorders, and a history of emboli. Unstable angina pectoris that doesn't respond to drug therapy is an indication for IABP, not a contraindication. Hypertension and diabetes mellitus aren't contraindications for IABP.

A client is admitted to the hospital with reports of chest pain. The nurse is monitoring the client and notifies the physician when the client exhibits

Pg 290 Adventitious breath sounds Explanation: The nurse monitors the client's hemodynamic and cardiac status to prevent cardiogenic shock. He or she promptly reports adverse changes in the client's status, such as adventitious breath sounds. The other options are positive changes or indicative that the client did not experience myocardial infarction.

The nurse is caring for a client who is in neurogenic shock. The nurse knows that this is a subcategory of what kind of shock?

Pg 290 Distributive Explanation: Three types of distributive shock are neurogenic, septic, and anaphylactic shock. There is no such condition as carcinogenic shock. Obstructive and hypovolemic shock do not have subcategories

The nurse is caring for a 78-year-old client with extensive cardiovascular disease. Which type of shock is the client most likely to develop?

Pg 291-293 Administer norepinephrine as prescribed. Explanation: Vasopressor agents are used if fluid resuscitation does not restore an effective blood pressure and cardiac output. Norepinephrine centrally administered is the initial vasopressor of choice. Ongoing research has found that rhAPC does not positively affect the outcome of clients with severe sepsis and it is no longer available for use. IV insulin may be implemented to treat hyperglycemia but is not indicated to improve hemodynamic status. Enteral feedings are recommended but not to improve hemodynamic status.

The nurse is caring for a client in septic shock. The nurse knows to closely monitor the client. What finding would the nurse observe when the client's condition is in its initial stages?

Pg 292 Correct response: A rapid, bounding pulse Explanation: A rapid, bounding pulse is observed in a client in the initial stages of septic shock. In case of hypovolemic shock, the pulse volume becomes weak and thready and circulating volume diminishes in the initial stage. In the later stages when the circulating volume has severely diminished, the pulse becomes slow and imperceptible, and pulse rhythm changes from regular to irregular.

The client exhibits a blood pressure of 110/68 mm Hg, pulse rate of 112 beats/min, temperature of 102°F with skin warm and flushed. Respirations are 30 breaths/min. The nurse assesses the client may be exhibiting the early stage of which shock

Pg 292 Septic Explanation: In the early stage of septic shock, the blood pressure may remain normal, the heart rate tachycardic, the respiratory rate increased, and fever with warm, flushed skin. The client, in the other shocks listed, usually present with different signs such as a normal body temperature, hypotension with either tachycardia or bradycardia, skin that is cool and clammy, and respiratory distress.

What priority intervention can the nurse provide to decrease the incidence of septic shock for patients who are at risk?

Pg 292 Use strict hand hygiene techniques. Explanation: The incidence of septic shock can be reduced by using strict infection control practices, beginning with thorough hand-hygiene techniques. Inserting an indwelling catheter would increase the risk of infection and thus of septic shock, not decrease it. Hand hygiene is more of a priority than administering prophylactic antibiotics. Masks would not prevent many types of infections.

A client who is septic has started shivering violently. Which nursing intervention is necessary to care for this client?

Pg 295 Control the shivering. Explanation: Hyperthermia may develop related to altered temperature regulation secondary to sepsis. Because the act of shivering increases body heat through the contraction of skeletal and pilomotor muscles in the skin, it is important to get the shivering under control. Use of a warming blanket would not be an appropriate intervention because this client is septic and hyperthermic. Conduction and radiation transfer heat, which would increase the client's body temperature. Keeping the client dry and covered would not help this situation because measures that prevent evaporation and heat loss from radiation interfere with the loss of body heat. Supine positioning with elevated legs is appropriate for clients with ineffective peripheral tissue perfusion.

Which type of shock occurs from an antigen-antibody response?

Pg 296 Anaphylactic Explanation: During anaphylactic shock, an antigen-antibody reaction provokes mast cells to release potent vasoactive substances, such as histamine or bradykinin, causing widespread vasodilation and capillary permeability. Septic shock is a circulatory state resulting from overwhelming infection causing relative hypovolemia. Neurogenic shock results from loss of sympathetic tone causing relative hypovolemia. Cardiogenic shock results from impairment or failure of the myocardium.

A client admitted for outpatient surgery has been NPO for several hours. The client, sitting in bed, experiences a transient neurogenic shock following insertion of an intravenous catheter. The nurse first

Pg 296 Lays the client flat with the feet elevated Explanation: The client may have fainted, which is a sign of transient neurogenic shock. To minimize pooling of blood in the legs and to restore blood flow to the brain, the nurse lays the client flat and elevates his or her feet. Another cause may be hypoglycemia. If the above action does not resolve the client's problem, the nurse should assess the client's blood glucose level. Raising the head of the bed would be done if the client had received spinal or epidural anesthesia. A bolus of IV fluids would be given if the client were dehydrated.

Following a motor vehicle collision, a client is admitted to the emergency department with a blood pressure of 88/46, pulse of 54 beats/min with a regular rhythm, and respirations of 20 breaths/min with clear lung sounds. The client's skin is dry and warm. The nurse assesses the client to be in which type of shock?

Pg 296 Neurogenic Explanation: The client in neurogenic shock experiences hypotension, bradycardia, and dry, warm skin. A client experiencing septic shock would exhibit tachycardia. A client in anaphylactic shock would experience respiratory distress. A client in cardiogenic shock would exhibit cardiac dysrhythmias and adventitious lung sounds.

A client presents to the community health office experiencing rapidly increasing symptoms of anaphylactic shock. Which nursing action would be completed first?

Pg 297 Correct response: Administer an epinephrine injection as ordered by the health care provider. Explanation: The key words in the question are "increasing symptoms." The first action of the nurse is to administer an epinephrine injection to abort the rapidly increasing symptoms. Next, the nurse will call 911.