3.2.5 Causes, consequencces, and management of rural-urban migration in developing countries
India SEZs?
-1965 India was one of the first countries in Asia to recognise the effectiveness of export zone model in economic growth -today there are nearly 200 INdian SEZs
solutions to the impacts of rural urban imbalance in rural areas?
-2013 80% of the 193 UN countries had policies to try and lower rural urban migration -ruralisation -investing in agriculture -improving services/ infrastructure
china SEZs?
-Coastal SEZs were key to China's early economic growth and many of the world's largest MNCs were quick to establish offshore branch plants or outsorucing relationships with chinese owned factories in low tax areas -by 1990ss 50% of Chinas Gross domestic product was being generated in SEZs
Mumbai example of rapid megacity growht driven by rural-urban migration?
-India's mumbai urban area is now home to 21 million -people flock there from impoverished rural astates of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar -urban employment covers a range of economic sectors and skill levels -big global brands like hilton and starbucks are present -in retail areas like Colaba Causeway, large numbers of people work selling goods to the country's rising middle class -Dharavi is a slum housing area in Mumbai -it has a bouyant economy -5000 employed in Dharavis plastc recycling industry -rising land prices in Mumbai ean there is greater pressure to redevelop DHaravi and other slum areas
example of role of MNCs in rural urban migration?
-Kartuturi Global Ltd -largest producer of cut roses in the worl -in 2018 they leased 25 000 ha of land in Ethiopia to grow flowers for export -they have previously been known to abandon a large number of commerical farms leaving workers unemployed
global supply chains as a employment pull factor in rural urban migration?
-MNC offshoring creates employment in countries like China, India and those in south America and Africa -MNC outsourcing is dependent on rural-urban migrants who are willing to work for very low wages. -growth in demand for IT services has led to the growth of offshoring and outsourcing especially in places like India by companies like HP and Microsoft -these jobs in manufacturing are more appealing than working in agriculture especially for young more educated people -MNCs outsourcing and offshoring creates the jobs for rural urban migrants and so is a key pull factor
what is outsourcing?
-MNCs also use outsource production -this is were foreign companies are used to produce goods or provide a service for the MNC but the MNC itself stays in their base/origin
role of MNCs as a push factor?
-MNCs are involved in cultivating and exporting cash crops grown in developing countries -these can be large scale operations -MNCs may be responsible for mechanised agriculture developments -MNC involvement in agriculture can lead to land grabs as MNCs take advantage of uneducated subsistence farmers who are unable to prove they own their land, this causes farmers to relocate -jobs created by MNCs can be low paid and lack security -MNCs may develop infrastructure to help distribute their cash crops -this can make it easier for migrants to travel to urban areas
what is offshoring?
-MNCs based in developed/developing economies often move their factories/offices abroad to take advantage of lower wage costs -this creates employment opportunities in poorer developing countries
what is a megacity?
-a city with a population of 10 million or more
consequences of rural-urban migration in rural areas?
-ageing population structure -falling econonomic productivity
housing issues as an urban consequence of rural-urband migration
-an inability to meet the demand for housing in cities lead to the growth of squatter settlements on edges of urban areas -slum areas become important tothe economy of a city -Dharavi in Mumbai has over 7000 businesses and 15 000 single room factories with a turnover of £700million a year
Examples of SEZs in providing employment?
-asias top 3 populated countries, China India and Indonesia have all established SEZs -these are strong magnets of rural urban migration
top down urban growth strategies
-authorities plan and provide for growing populations -e.g. China is planning and contructing new housing and cities on a huge scale -3 major megacity clusters now exist in China's Yangtze River delta including Shanghai, pearl river delta includign SHenzhen and the Bohai Sea rim including beijing -there are 60 smaller chinese cities with populations greater than 1 million -by 2025 there will be more than 220 chinese cities with more than 1 million in each
how could technological change help solve the rural problems caused by rural urban migration?
-changes in solar power and mobile internet technology could help make rural areas more attractive -Kenya's M-Pesa mobile phone service has revoloutionised life for locals -people can transfer money using phones and around 1/2 of the country's GPD is now sent through the M-pesa system -fishermen and farmers use phones to check market prices before selling produce whihc maximises incomes and alleviates poverty -this encourages more people to stay in rural areas -women in rural areas are able to secure microloans from development banks by using their M-Pesa bills as proof they have a good credit record -this ability to borrow is vital in bringin rural families out of poverty
infrastructure costs as an urban consequence of rural-urban migration?
-cost of installing infrastructure in settled areas can be 9 times higher than installing it before development -rapid urban growth due to rural urban migration can lead to fast developments of slum settlements in which infrastructure has to be added at a later date
where does the greates rural-urban migration take place?
-developing countries with a growth of mega cities
Employment pull factors in urban areas in developing and emerging economies?
-global supply chain growth in export processing zones (EPZs) -emplloyment opportunities are nearly always the main pull factor -these opportunities can increase for a number of reasons -informal work sector opportunities
investment in services/infrastructure as a solution to rural-urban migratgion problems in rural areas?
-improvements in sercives such as healthcare and education makes rural quality of life better so more people are likely to stay -improvement in infrastructure like water, sanitation and transport links to aid transportation of agriculture produce may also help keep people in rural areas
physical demands of rural life as a push factor?
-in developing countries, infrastructure in rural areas is much less likely to be developed -this may often mean that life is much harder -farming is a common rural job and it can involve physical and demanding work which many do not want to do
patterns/numbers of rural-urban migrants?
-in terms of the numbers, rural-urban migration is the most significant population movement occuring globally -it is estimated since 2010 3 million people a week move into cities -in a few years there will be 1 billion rural-urban migrants living in cities -by 2030 almost 10% of the Earth's land surface will be urbanised
what is a special economic zone (SEZ)?
-industrial area often near the coastline where conditions are favourable to attraxct MNCs -these include low tax rates and exemptions from tarrifs -they are very similar to EPZs but are slightly more leniant for example in allowing movement of raw materials without customs permission
what is an export processing zone EPZ?
-industrial areas are especially set up by governments to attract foreign investment and create employment -companies operating in EPZs may get incentives such as duty free imports of raw materials, flexibility in labour laws and tax concessions
ruralisation?
-investing in creating modern self sufficient villages that young people are less likely to leave -for this to succeed essential developments such as roads , drinking water, sanitation, electricity and schools are needed -ruralisation is an initiative proposed in India
agricultural investment to try and stop rural urban migration?
-investment in agriculture may make it a more appealing profession -e.g. the investment in the production of Cocoa n Ghana led to the return of 2 million Ghanians
bottom up urban community development strategies?
-involve people working togethar to make their own improvements -poor migrant communities in Lagos must do this to improve their environment and access to housing without much state support -as a result squatter settlements have grown throughout Lagos ans are desnely populated -in Makoko a slum on the edge of Lagos makeshift homes have been built above the water ons tilits -people use materials like tin sheets and wooden planks -they have reclaimed land from the lagoon using waste materials and sawdust to create a new island for building on -the population of Makoko=250 000 -most make a living from informal economy and fishing
poorly paid jobs as an urban consequence of rural-urban migration?
-jobs available to migrants in EPZs /SEZs are often poorly paid with poor working conditions due to relaxed labour laws -workers have little money so cannot invest in improving living conditions
displacement of indigenous peoples by global systems as a push factor for rural-urban migration?
-land grabs by MNCs can result in individuals losing access to land they previously farmed -these people may migrate to cities in search of new livelihoos
informal work sector opportunities as an employment pull factor?
-many rural urban migrants work in the informal sector -they make their living by scavenging landfill sites for recyclable materials -this happens in places like lagos, Nairobi and Mumbai -they sell recyclable plastics and metals to fourth tier supply chain companies
mechanised agriculture as a push factor in rural-urban migration?
-mechanisation reduces need for labour -reducing jobs in rural areas pushes larger numbers out towards urban settlements -e.g. the introduction of tractors to Burkina Faso eliminated the need for male labourors tilling the land
push factors in rural areas?
-mechanised agriculture -role of MNC's indluding 'land grabs' -displacement of indigenous people by global systems -poverty -physical demands of rural life -service deprivation -shrinking world -land degradation
megacity growht as an urban consequence of rural-urban migration?
-megacities in low income (developing) and middle income (emergin) countries have grown especially rapidly -Sao Paulo gains 1/2 million people annually from migration -new growth takes place on the fringes of the city whete informal shanty hosuins is built by incomers -centripetal migration occurs brining incomers to areas of the city unsuitable for housing e.g. flood plains in sao paulo -overtime informal housing may consolidate as expensive and desireable districts -rios shanty town Rocinha is now electrified and boasts a McDonalds, hair salons and health clinics -in many cities growth of informal housing is a real problem
example of MNC outsourcing?
-outsourcing companies in Chinese cities such as Shenzhen and Dongguan have offered foreign MNCs inlcuding names like Bosch the opportunity to have their products made at low prices using a massive pool of low-cost chinese migrant labour -in recent years chinese wages have risen -this means some MNCs are increasingly looking towards Bangladesh and Vietnam for outsourcing partners -manufacturing work in china increasingly involves the production of higjher value goods such as apple
land degradation as a push factor of rural urban migration?
-over 3.6 billion hectares of arid land are affected by desertification and 10 million deteriorate each year -reduced yeilds and abandoned land results in increased rural poverty -this further encourages migration
consequences of rural-urban migration in urban areas?
-results in the rapid growth of cities and an increase in the number of megacities e.g. Lagos in Nigeria is expected to grwo from 10 million to 35 million in 2050 -as well as population growth cities also grow in size -lack of housing -poorly paid jobs -infrastructure costs associated with growing cities
management methods with a combination of bottom up and top down?
-rocinha in rio de janeiro -the authorities supported bottom up movements by providing residents with materials for building permanent accomodation -the money saved on labour allowed top down plans to provide services such as water, electricity, schools and health centres -the area is now home to many businesses
service deprivation as a push factor?
-rural areas in developed countries can often lack basic services -in some developing countries this can extend to basics such as water, sewage systems and electricity systems -education too can be limited
'shrinking world' technologies and knowledge as a rural urban push factor?
-rural dwellers are gaining knowledge of the outside world and its opportunities -the 'shrinking world' technologies we associate with globalisation foster rural urban migration -satellites, TVs and radio switch on people in remote rural areas -as poor individuals in rural areas begin to use cheap mobile phones knowledge is being shared -successful rural urban migrants also communicate useful inromation back home -like economic migration the 'shrinking world' makes rural urban migration a much easier prospect
how are Export Processin Zones and employment pull factor in rural-urban migration?
-the development of EPZs has encouraged MNCs to invest in many developing and emerging economies in the world -EPZs have increased by over 3000 in the last 20 years so that there are now over 4000 creating 70 million urban jobs -manufacturing in many EPZs in developing countries provides job for young, unmarried, poorly educated females whhose employment opportunities are very limited in rural areas
global shift of employment?
-the global shift of employemement to Asia, south america and increasingly Africa has created many new work opportunities in cities -in 1990s and early 2000s 300 million left rural areas of China to find work in urban areas -this work is often dependent on MNC global supply chain
falling economic productivity in rural areas as a consequence of rural-urban migration?
-the most educated and youthful often leave so rural areas are less likely to be introduced to new innovative ideas -changes in the workforce make rural areas less productive -this could make the area more vulnerable to land grabs -remittances however can be sent back to family in rural areas which supports the population
what is a global supply chain?
-the world wide netwrok an MNC relies on to produce and procure the commodities and services they sell -it is the combination of offshored and outsourced operations
poverty as apush factor in rural areas?
-this is usually the main push factor -land reforms and population growth often leads to not enough jobs for those who need them -people move in search of better jobs or opportunities -peoeple believe urban areas hold a better quality of life
methods to solve the urban consequences of rural-urban migration?
-top down urban growth strategies -bottom up urban community development
ageing population structure as a consequence of rural-urban migration in rural areas?
-young, economically active and ambitious men are most likely to migrate -elederly people who remain are the least able to do this physical rural agricultural work -relatively few young people remian in some rural districts leaving large numbers of elderly people to be cared for -e.g. India home to more than 100 million elderly people aged 60 years and above -the majority around 70% live in rural areas
