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empirical approach

That is, they engage in research methods to find evidence for or against various theoretical positions

o Ecological systems theorists explain

development in terms of the interaction between people and the settings in which they live

operant conditioning

do bc of its affects

behavior patterns are termed instinctive or species-specific because they

evolved within certain species • The nervous systems of most, and perhaps all, animals are "prewired" to respond to some situations in specific ways

scaffolding vygotsky

Vygotsky's term for temporary cognitive structures or methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to function independently

Vygotsky's theory include: o The zone of proximal development (ZPD

a range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of someone who is more skilled, as in an apprenticeship

Adaptation consists of

assimilation and accommodation, which occur throughout life

o Equilibration

balance, between assimilation and accommodation

negative reinforcers

increase the frequency of behaviors when they are removed Fear acts as a negative reinforcer in that its removal increases the frequency of the behaviors preceding it

exosystem

involves the institutions in which the child does not directly participate but which exert indirect influence on the child

macrosystem

involves the interaction of children with the beliefs, values, expectations, and lifestyles of their cultural settings

microsystem

involves the interactions of the child and other people in the immediate setting, such as the home, the school, etc.

mesosystem

involves the interactions of various settings with the microsystem

Biological Perspective

o Physical development o Gains in height and weight o Development of the brain o Developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity

• Piaget identified four major stages of cognitive development:

o Sensorimotor o Preoperational o Concrete operational o Formal operational

ecological systems theory

of development addresses aspects of psychological, social, and emotional development as well as aspects of biological development

schemes

pattern of action or mental structure that is involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge

• Cognitive theorists focus

peoples mental process

assimilation

process by which someone responds to new object or event according to existing schemes or ways of organizing knowledge

o Fixed action patterns (FAPs

refers to a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is evoked by a "releasing stimulus"; an instinct • Research into the ethological perspective suggests that instinct may play a role in human behavior

evolutionary psycology

studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior o One of the concepts of evolutionary psychology is that not only physical traits but also patterns of behavior, including social behavior, evolve and are transmitted genetically from generation to generation

ethology

study of behaviors that are specific to a species—is concerned with instinctive, or inborn, behavior patterns

o At the other extreme, educators who view children as active may assume

that they have a natural love of learning

• At one extreme, educators who view children as passive may assume

that they must be motivated to learn by their instructors

cognitive-developmental theory—

the child's abilities to mentally represent the world and solve problems unfold as a result of the interaction of experience and the maturation of neurological structures—advanced by Swiss biologist Jean Piaget and further developed by many theorists

The Sociocultural Perspective

• The sociocultural perspective teaches that people are social beings who are affected by the cultures in which they live

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

• Whereas genetics is concerned with the biological transmission of traits from generation to generation, Vygotsky's theory is concerned with the transmission of information and cognitive skills from generation to generation

o It also appears that many cognitive skills may develop

gradually and not in distinct stages