658 Midterm Study Guide
Continuous versus Discontinuous View of Development
Continuous- a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with Discontinuous- a process of stages in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times
Mesosystem
second level which eccompassess connections between microsystmes like a child's academic process depends on more than just classroom activities but also parent involvement in school life at home
ID
largest portion of the mind. Source of basic biological needs and desires - instinctual drives. Life instincts which are constructive drives primarily of a sexual nature and constiute the libido (basic emotional and Pyshic energy of life) and dearth instincts which are destruvie drives that tend toward aggression = operates on the pleasure principle (only concerned with selfish needs)
Sociodramic play
make believe with others that is underway by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood. Big in per-operational stage
Diversity and Inequality in Middle Childhood - where do children learn privilege/power?
- Children learn privilege and power through media, social environment, segregated neighborhoods and classrooms - By age 5 or 6 white children generally evaluate their group favorably and other groups unfavorably
Cognitive Development and Improvements in Early Childhood
- Gain the executive functions of inhibition, shifting focus ability, and working memory - Parenting scaffolding assists and poverty creates stress for parents, which can negatively affect children's development - Less effective use of memory strategies for lists, but episode memory of events improves and becomes more detailed - Metacognition is present - Adults promote math development with counting The brain is rapidly developing during this stage while Body size tapers off into children becoming leaner and longer. Primary teeth start to fall out. Fibers in the brain continue to form synapses and to myelinate, followed by synaptic purging and increasing localisation of cognitive capacities in the cerebral cortex. Left brain is especially active supporting the preschool brain expanding language skills and improved executive function. Cerebellum to the cerebral cortex: enhances motor coordination and thinking Reticular formation: Alertness and consciousness Hippocampus: Memory and spatial understanding Amygdala: processing novelty and emotional information Corpus Callosum: Connecting the two hemispheres
Interventions for childhood obesity and diabetes
- most effective is family based interventions that focus on changing behaviors as a family - Schools can help by reducing obesity in serving healthier meals and ensuring regular exercise including more PE and additional recess - Weight related school screenings for all children, improved school nutrition standards, additional school recess time and PE, obesity awareness, weight reduction
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
Formal Operational
11 years and on The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents when faced with a problem to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Evalue logic of verbal statements without referring to real world circumstances
Preopertaional stage of cognitive development
2-7 years: Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make believe play takes place. Logic is lacking
Behaviorism
Directly observable events- stimuli and responses are the appropriate focus of study
concrete operational stage
7-11 years Children's reasoning becomes logical and better organized, school age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after it looks different. Organize objects in hierarchical classes. Think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can directly perceive.
Moro
A primitive reflex; in response to sudden head movement, arms extend and slowly retract.
Scaffolding
Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Almost all studies support Vygostky versus Piaget The theory stresses the social context of cognitive development Vygotsky believed children speak to themselves for self-guidance as opposed to egocentric ideals
Options to Reduce Pain during Childbirth
Analgesics are used to relieve pain Anesthetics are stronger type of painkiller that blocks sensations Epidural analgesia is the most common approach to controlling pain It also weakens uterine contractions so labor can be prolonged and chances of c section increase Because drugs rapidly cross the placenta newborns are exposed to respiratory distress
What are the four attachment styles?
Authoritative- warm, responsive, attention, snesnative to the child's needs Authoritarian- cold, rejecting, degrading. Parents may be imitating what their parents did, financial stress etc Permissive- warm but overindulgent and inattentive. They don't set any boundaries or expectations children can do whatever they want free of monitoring .sometimes parents are afraid of their children not liking them Uninvolved- emotionally detached and withdrawn- most likely depressed Research supports the most adaptive in creating confident, secure and resilient children is authoritative
sensiromotor stage of cognitive development
Birth- 2 years- Infants think by acting on the world with their eyes, easr, hands, and mouth. As a result they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems like pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box.
Cognitive Development Theory
Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world
Academic learned helplessness vs mastery-oriented
Children who hold mastery-oriented attributions believe ability can be improved by trying hard and attribute failure to controllable factors, such as insufficient effort. In contrast, children who receive negative feedback about their ability are likely to develop learned helplessness, attributing success to external factors, such as luck, and failure to low ability.
Why are children afraid of going to school and what remedys this?
Could be scared of a an overcritical teacher, a school bully, or too much parental pressure.There can be violence at home or at school Community can be dangerous The best way to remedy this is family therapy and Foster self acceptance, compassion, recognize their strengths and growth areas and promote safety and precautions
Diversity and inequality in middle childhood- in group versus out group bias?
Decrease in explicit bias but the implicit bias is present beyond their awareness Studies in western nations confirm that by age 5-6 white children generally evaluate their own radial group favorable and other racial groups less favorable. In group favoritism emerges first, children simply prefer their own group generalizing from self to similar others.
Ego
Develops after the first few months of life. The ego is the conscious, rational part of the personality. Redirects the IDs impulses so they are discharged according to the reality principle
Emotional Development from Ages 9-11
Distinguish ability, effort, and external factors in attributions of success and failure Empathetic responding extends to general life conditions Shifts adaptively between problem-centered and emotion centered strategies for coping with emotions More knowledgeable of socially approved ways to display negative emotions
what makes diversity and inequality in middle childhood better?
EXPOSURE
Freud-Pyshcosexual Thoery
Empahsizes how parents manage their chids sexual and agressive dreives in the first few years greatly depicts a healthy personality development
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Emphasized that in addition to mediating between id, impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society.
Vygostky's Sociocultural Theory of Development
Focuses on how culture, the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group- is transmitted to the next generation. Social interaction in particular cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society- is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a communities culture
operant conditioning
Frequency of a behavior can be increased by following it with a wide variety of reinforcers such as food, praise, or a friendly smile or decreased through punishment such as disapproval or withdrawal of privileges
What is Gender Typing ?
Gender Typing is well underway in early childhood. Preschoolers acquire a wide range of gender-stereotyped beliefs and they often apply them rigidly Gender Typing: refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex xor the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes
Babinski reflex
Infant reflex where if its foot is stroked, the baby's toes fan out
Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment
Infants emotional tie with their caregivers promotes survival and an internal working model for expectations for future relationships (like when you are dating someone and you look at their relationships with their parents as indicator
Bullying interventions
Interventions often aimed at victims becoming more responsive and gaining friends and more effective to promote more prosocial behavior in the environment
Bullying: What is it and where do you see it most often?
Peer victimization- verbal or physical abuse Tradition and cyberbullying (often from other peers that they learned this) More often in schools where teachers are seen as unfair and uncaring
Freud Psychoanalytic Perspective
People move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and cope with anxiety
Preterm Babies: Who are they most likely to be abused by, what do they stay in at the hospital, what helps preterm infants and where do they often live?
More likely to be abused by highly stressed parents who sometimes mention a high pitched grating cry as one factor that caused them to lose control and harm the baby Temperature needs to be controlled because they cannot regulate their own To protect from infection the air is filtered before it enters the isolate (enclosed bed in ICU) They can be fed through a stomach tube, breathe with a respirator and received medication through IV Stimulation can help preterm infants develop - lying on waterbeds designed to replace the motion in the mothers uterus, listening to soft music or recordings of the mothers voice When preterm infants live in stressed, economically disadvantaged households, long-term, intensive intervention is necessary
What are the gender typed responses influenced by in childhood?
Parents: set expectations based on gender. Celebrate and encourage staying within gender norms. Play differently based on gender Teachers: Act in ways that extend the gender role learning and affirm the beliefs children already have "girls line up on one side and boys on the other" Teachers tend to give more attention to boys disciplining them behaviorally and pricing them more for their academic knowledge Peers: If a child engages in "cross-gender" activities or toys, often the peers will criticize them. Boys are especially intolerant of cross gender play. Covertime children believe in the correctness of gender segregated play Community: Work, Leisure activities, media portrayal and achievement of men and women. Media stereotypes are especially prevalent in cartoons and video games -> all contributing to children biased beliefs about roles and behaviors
Five Pyschosexual Stages:
Oral (Birth -1 year) basic needs such as food, excretion, if needs aren't met then the child may develop thumb sucking etc Anal (1-3 years): Enjoy holding and realeasing uring and feces. If parent toilet train too soon, conflicts with disorder may develop Phallic (3-6 years): Gential stimulation from oedipus and Electra complex. Children feel sexual desire for opposite parent Latency (6-11 years): Sexual instincts die down, superrego stengths as children acqure new social values Genital (Adolescene): With pubert sexual impisles reappear. Successful developments prior to this stage result in marriage, mature sexuality and child rearing in this stage
What are the four Protective factors of resilience
Personal Characteristics: Genetically influenced characteristics can reduce exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for early stressful events. Temperament is particularly powerful- if they are easy going and can inhibit negative emotions and impulses Warm Parental Relationships: At close relationships with at least one parent that has appropriate expectations and monitoring the child activities and an organized home environment fosters resilience Social Support Outside of Immediate Family: most consistent asset of resilient children. Thi can be a grandparent or aunt or peer, especially rule abiding peers who have good values Community Resources and Opportunities: Community supports- supervision offered by neighborhood adults, high-quality child care centers, public schools, social services, libraries etc- that all foster both parents and children's well being.
What are the 3 forms of proactive and reactive aggression
Physical aggression (direct or indirect) Verbal aggression (direct) Relational aggression: damages another's peer relationship through social exclusion, malicious gossip etc (direct or indirect)
Changes in physical versus verbal aggression in middle childhood
Physical aggression rises between ages 1-3 and then diminishes as verbal aggression replaces it Proactive aggression declines as preschoolers improved capacity to delay gratification enables them to resist grabbing others possessions Reactive aggression in verbal and relational forms tend to rise over early and middle childhood
Negative Impacts on Physical Growth
Pituitary gland- releasing growth-inducing hormones Nutrition- fats, oils, sugat, and salt should be minimal (children often imitate food choices) Infectious diseases - immunization Injuries- unintentional injuries are the leading cause of childhood death in industrialized countries (auto, suffocation, drowning) Prevention: Safety policies, monitoring and modeling
Sucking
Place finger in infant's mouth Infant sucks finger rhythmically
Stages of Bowlby's Attachment Theory
Preattachment Phase: birth to 6 weeks Built in signals for smiling, grasping, crying, and gazing into the adult eyes Attachment in the Making: 6 weeks to 6-8 months Infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. Infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them and they benign to develop a sense of trust Clear Cut Attachment 6-8 months to 18 months Babies display separation anxiety Formation of a reciprocal relationships: 18 months to 2 years Rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parents coming and going to predict their return
Developmental Stages age range
Prenatal- Conception to Birth Infancy and Toddlerhood - Birth- 2 years Early Childhood- 2-6 years Middle Childhood- 6-11 years Adolescence- 11 - 18 Young Adulthood- 18- 40 Middle Adulthood- 40- 65 Late Adulthood- 65- death
Emotional Development from Ages 6-8
Recognizes that children can experience more than one emotion at a time If the therapist thinks the parent is a monster in the scenario ,that might take it too far and they will feel defensive Recognising a child's expression may not express his/her true feelings Recognizes contradictory facial and situational cues in understanding others feelings Empathy increases
Supporting Language Development in Infancy (babbling/cooing)
Respond to coos and babbles with words in baby voice Establish joint attention and comment on what a child sees Play social games Engage in joint make believe Engage in conversation Read and engage in dialogue about picture books
Gender Stereotyping in middle childhood- where does it come from?
School aged children extend gender stereotypes to personality traits and academic abilities Their view of what males and females can do broadens here Boys are more masculine while girls are more open to experimenting with masculinity and femininity Fostering balance
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies as those competences change with age. - Observations by ethologists have shown that many aspects of social behavior, including emotional expressions, aggression, cooperation, and social play resemble those of our primate relatives.
What is school refusal/phobia? What age does it appear at?
Severe apprehension about attending school, often accompanied by physical complaints such as dizziness, nausea, stomachache, and vomiting. Usually appears around ages 11-13.
Childhood sexual abuse factors
Sexual abuse is most often by male offenders to female children however they can be the other way around abusers have great difficulty controlling their impulses and may suffer from psychological disorders Physical assault is most often male offenders of male children Risk factors include low SES Severe consequences can last across the life span- anxiety, depress
What helps children during divorce?
Shield children from conflict Provide as much continuity as possible Explain divorce and tell children what to expect Emphasize the performance of the divorce Respond sympathetically to children's feelings Promote continuing relationship with both parents Authoritative parenting affection, acceptance, reasonable demands
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygostsky believed that the range between a child's knowledge and their potential knowledge is if they receive the proper guidance and instruction which is known as the zone of proximal development
Information Processing
Symbol-manipulating system through which information flows. From the time information is presented to the senses, at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output, information is actively coded, transformed and organized. Example: asking a child to build a bridge with various weighted books, it takes trial and error until they figure out and along the way they build schemas.
Private Speech
Vygotsky believes in private speech which shows that children use more of it when tasks are appropriately challenging, after they make errors or when they are confused about how to proceed
Resilliance
The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
TV Time During this Stage in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Toddlers demonstrate poorer performance after viewing a video than a live demonstration Increased TV watching is associated with negative language progress attention, memory and reading in early school years TV and videos that are effective teaching tools have close up to characters who look directly at the camera and address questions to views and pause them to response.- this creates presence, communication and people are paying attention to them. Solution :Look for shows that encourage learning, education and response
Traditional versus Constructivist Classrooms
Traditional Classroom: Teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive, listening, adn responding when called on and on completed tasks assigned by the teacher. Their process is evaluated with how well they keep up pace with a set of standards for their grade Constructivist Classroom: Encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Many are grounded in piaget's theory which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts. Richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self chosen problems and a teacher who guides and supports students. Children are evaluated by their own progress as opposed to compared to others
Bioecological Model of Development
Urie Bronfenbrenner) Views the person as development within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem
Infant Crying: Why, sound stimulations, parents, how to soothe
Usually because of hunger but also lets parents know they need comfort or stimulation The sound stimulates a sharp rise in blood cortisol, alertness, feelings of discomfort in men and women, parents and non-parents Parents who are high in empathy and hold child centered attitudes toward care are more likely to respond quickly and sensitively Soothing crying babies - Lifting the baby to the shoulder, socking, walking, or swaddling ' Cries of brain damages babies are often shrill, piercing and shorter ind duration than healthy infants Cause of colic is unknown
What does a bullying victim look like? What are the consequences?
Victims usually are more passive and physically frail- bully pick up on that they can also have over controlling parents, low self esteem, dependence and a fearful demeanor. Don't tell your kid who is being bullied that they need to be more assertive Consequences- low self esteem, school avoidance, depression, suicidal thoghts
classical conditioning
Watson was inspired by Pavlov animal studies where he associated a neutral stimulus (the trainer) with another stimulus (food) that produces a reflective response (salivation)
What is the strange situation?
a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style: Secure: Hold on to home base but start playing with toys or if the parent leaves they get upset but then start playing. Securely attached babies in middle SES families with favorable life conditions more often maintain their attachment pattern than insecure babies. Insecure - avoidant attachment: theres a sense that the caregiver is not reliable and they don't expect attention from them. The toddler wouldn't engage with the parent they feel anxiety Insecure and resistant- where the children are disengages from the caregiver because they feel its not secure that the parent might leave disorganized/disoriented attachment
infant arousal
a degree of sleep or wakefulness
Sensitive Period
a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. THe boundaries are less well defined than those if the critical period, development CAN occur later but it's hard to INDUCE.
Influences on Development
age-graded, history-graded, nonnormative
Newborn relfexes
an inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation some reflexes have survival value Eye blinking, rooting, sucking, palmar grasp, tonic neck, stepping, babinski
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience and medicine to s tudy the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing persons cognitive processing and behavior patterns
palmar grasp
place finger in infants hand so the infant grasps the finger 3-4 months
Gender schema theory
combines elements of both above but explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender-role development
Microsystem
consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person's immediate surroundings. Relationships here are bidirectional. Kids behavior affects adults behavior and vice versa
Exosystem
consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings. This can be work, religious institution, or community services
Superego
develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society. Superego must face the tasks of reconciling the demands of the ID, the external world, and the conscience. Concerning what is right and wrong.
Where does Vygotsky think learning takes place?
during the zone of proximal devekopment
Social Learning theory
emphasizes modeling also known as imitation or observational learning as a powerful source of development - Bandura found diverse factors that affect children's motivation to imitate their own history of reinforcement or punishment for the behavior, the promise of future reinforcement or punishment and even observations of the model being reinforced or punished.
Non Normative Influences
events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable- parent getting cancer.
Age graded influences
events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last Especially prevalent in childhood and adolescence when biological changes are rapid and culture imposes many age related experiences - prom, getting license
History-Graded Influences
explain why people are born around the same time called a cohort tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times Baby boomers
egocentrism
failure to distinguish others symbolic viewpoints from one's own Children tend to focus on their own viewpoint and simply assume that others think, percieve and feel the same way they do
stepping
hold infant under arms and permit bare feet to touch flat surface
rooting relfex (baby reflex)
in infant, brush cheek near mouth to stimulate them turning their head -appears at birth and disappears at 3-4 months
Macrosystem
outermost level which consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources
peer relationships in middle childhood - what are the determinants of peer acceptance
popular prosocial - both well liked socially and academically popular- antisocial -include tough boys, athletically skilled but poor academically rejected- agressive children- show high rates of conflict, physical and relationship aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior rejected-withdrawn children- passive and socially awkward
5 states of infant arousal
regular sleep, irregular sleep, drowsiness, quiet alertness, waking activity and crying
tonic neck
turn baby's head to one side while infant is lying awake on back
Difference in play between mothers and fathers
• Mothers tend to play by providing toys, talking to infant, and conventional games. • Fathers tend to play more physical games with bursts of excitement. • Both styles can help infants learn to regulate emotions and develop confidence.
