7.1-7.3 AP World
Editorial on China's Examination System (1898)
"The dynasty's examination system is extremely annoying and cumbersome. . . Students go through innumerable hardships before they can obtain the right to wear the robes designating them as officially authorized students. Hence year after year they persist in their studies until their hair turns white. One half of each year is taken up with examinations, and the other half is burdened with wife, children, home, and family. Any spare time is spent trying to master the eight-legged essay. And yet it is very difficult to attain satisfactory competence in the eight-legged style, even though it is considered so vital. For the court to use poetry, rhyme-prose, and fine script as the criteria for passing or failing the examinations for men of ability is truly vulgar and ridiculous. . . "
The Course of Mexican History, Meyer, Sherman, and Deeds
"The rebel armies were not armies, but neither were they merely peasant mobs. They were peones, to be sure, but in addition servants, shopkeepers, mechanics, beggars, miners, federal army deserters, idealists, students and teachers, engineers and day laborers, US soldiers of fortune, the bored and the overworked, the aggrieved and the adventuresome, all constituted rank and file. Some were attracted by commitment to the cause and some by the promise of spoils; some joined impulsively and others with careful forethought. Some preferred Flores Magon radicalism and some Madero liberalism; many had heard of neither. . . But they all had one thought in common: Diaz was the symbol of all Mexico's ills, and they were convinced that almost any change would be a change for the better. Thus they were willing to strap cartridge belts on their chests, find, buy, or steal rifles somewhere, and become guerrilleros. Indifferently armed, without uniforms, with no notion of military discipline, the disparate rebel bands lived off the land and attacked local authorities and small federal outposts in tiny pueblos."
Porfirio Díaz
(15 September 1830 - 2 July 1915) was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from February 17, 1877 to December 1, 1880 and from December 1, 1884 to May 25, 1911. Seizing power in a coup in 1876, Díaz and his allies, a group of technocrats known as "Científicos", ruled Mexico for the next thirty-five years, a period known as the Porfiriato. Díaz has always been a controversial figure in Mexican history; while the Porfirian regime brought stability after decades of conflict, it grew unpopular due to civil repression and political stagnation. His economic policies largely benefited his circle of allies as well as foreign investors, and helped a few wealthy estate-owning hacendados acquire huge areas of land, leaving rural campesinos unable to make a living. Despite public statements favoring a return to democracy and not running for office, Díaz reversed himself and ran again in 1910. After Díaz declared himself the winner of an eighth term in office in 1910, his electoral opponent, Francisco I. Madero, issued a call for armed rebellion against Díaz, leading to the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution. After the Federal Army suffered a number of military defeats against Madero's forces, Díaz was forced to resign in May 1911 and went into exile in Paris, the capital city of France, where he died four years later.
WWI Casualties
8-9 million soldiers died in WWI 21 million wounded 6 million to 13 million civilian casualties 600,000 and 1.5 million Armenians in Turkey 20th century's first genocide Influenza epidemic "Spanish flu" was another fatal blow at the end of the war In 1918 millions of soldiers returned home possibly spreading the flu Became a pandemic in 1919 killing 50-100 million people around the world That was 3-5% of the population! "Lost Generation" describes American expatriate writers living in Paris after the war
Battle of the Somme
A 1916 WWI (1914-1918) battle between German and British forces. Ending in a stalemate, the bitter three-month conflict is notable for the high number of casualties- 1.25 million men killed or wounded - and the first use of tanks in warfare.
Trench Warfare
A form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from trenches dug in the battlefield.
The Western Front
A line of trenches and fortifications in World War I that stretched without a break from Switzerland to the North Sea. Scene of most of the fighting between Germany, on the one hand, and France and Britain, on the other.
Pancho Villa
A popular leader during the Mexican Revolution of 1910. An outlaw in his youth, when the revolution started, he formed a cavalry army in the north of Mexico and fought for the rights of the landless in collaboration with Emiliano Zapata.
Appeal to Emperor Guangxu (1898)
A survey of states in the world will show that those states that undertook reforms became stronger while those states which clung to the past perished. . . If Your Majesty, with your discerning brilliance, observes the trends in other countries, you will see that if we can change, we can preserve ourselves; but if we cannot change, we shall perish. . . As to the republican governments of the United States and France and the constitutional governments of Britain and Germany, these countries are far away and their customs are different from ours. . . Consequently I beg Your Majesty to adopt the purpose of Peter the Great as our purpose and to take the Meiji Reform of Japan as the model of our own reform. The time and place of Japan's reforms are not remote and her religion and customs are somewhat similar to ours. Her success is manifest; her example can be followed.
Francisco Madero, Mexican revolutionary, in his Plan de San Luis Potosi, October 5, 1910
A tyranny that we Mexicans have not been accustomed to suffer since we won our independence oppresses us in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but it a peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because it is based not on law but on force; because its goal is not the enrichment and prosperity of the country, but the enrichment of a small group . . . But this violent, illegal system can no longer exist. I know very well that if the people have designated me as their candidate for the presidency it is not because they have had an opportunity to discover in me the talents of a statesman or a ruler, but the vigor of a patriot ready to sacrifice himself, if necessary, to obtain liberty and to help the people free themselves from the odious tyranny that oppresses them . . .
Mexico's New Constitution - 1917
After several more insurgencies, Mexico had a new constitution (1917) Gave universal male suffrage Redistribution of land Stripped the Catholic Church of any political role or role in public education Forbade the Catholic Church from owning land Minimum wage and eight-hour work day Restrictions on foreign ownership of property
Sun Yat-Sen, Fundamentals of National Reconstruction (1923)
All through my revolutionary career I have held the view that China must be made a republic. There are three reasons. First, from a theoretical point of view, there is no ground for preserving a monarchical form of government, since it is widely recognized that people constitute the foundation of a nation and they are all equal in their own country. In the second place, under Manchu occupation the Chinese people were forced into the position of the vanquished, and suffered oppression for more than two hundred and sixty years. . . . My second decision is that a constitution must be adopted to ensure good government. The true meaning of constitutionalism was discovered by Montesquieu. The threefold separation of the legislative, judicial, and executive powers as advocated by him was accepted in every constitutional country in Europe.
Peone
An unskilled laborer or farm worker of Latin America or the southwest United States.
Women Join War Effort
As men went to fight, women filled their jobs and kept the national economies going Many worked in factories manufacturing weapons & supplies War work gave women a new sense of pride and confidence. In many countries (Britain, Germany, and U.S.) women's support for the war helped them finally win the right to vote. Were respected to return to domestic work after the war to ensure men could return to jobs Mother's Day was created to emphasize parenthood and childbirth to restore the population lost during the war Eventually women receive the right to vote in Britain, US, Germany, and the Soviet Union
Land Redistribution in the USSR:
As part of the first five-year plan, collectivization was introduced in the Soviet Union by general secretary Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s as a way, according to the policies of socialist leaders, to boost agricultural production through the organization of land and labor into large-scale collective farms. At the same time, Joseph Stalin argued that collectivization would free poor peasants from economic servitude under the kulaks (farmland owners). Stalin resorted to mass murder and wholesale deportation of farmers to Siberia in order to implement the plan. Millions who remained did not die of starvation, but the centuries-old system of farming was destroyed in a region so fertile it was once called "the breadbasket of Europe". The immediate effects of forced collectivization were reduced grain output and almost halved livestock numbers, thus creating major famines throughout the USSR during 1932 and 1933. In 1932-1933, an estimated 11 million people, 3-7 million in Ukraine alone, died from famine after Stalin forced the peasants into collectives (Ukrainians call this famine Holodomor), It was not until 1940 that agricultural production finally surpassed its pre-collectivization levels.
Conflict in the Balkans
At time, Bosnia was under the reluctant rule of Austria-Hungary & was home to many Serbs and Slavs who were angered by Ferdinand's visit. Serbs viewed Austrians as foreign oppressors and wanted self-determination Members of Black Hand (Serbian terrorist group) vowed to take action. Members were in the subgroup "Young Bosnia" Franz Ferdinand's assassination was a terrorist act to promote the discontent of the Serbians who wanted independence from Austria-Hungary Was the beginning of what was referred to as the "July Crisis" which ultimately led to Austria-Hungary invading the Kingdom of Serbia, setting off the string of alliances
Bolsheviks Take Power
Bolsheviks seized power in October 1917 during an overnight coup in capital city St. Petersburg Members of Provisional Government fled or were arrested Three years of civil war as other groups attempted to take power from the Bolsheviks (such as tsarist officials, landlords, nationalist forces, etc) Integrated lower class men into the Red Army giving them social mobility that was impossible to attain in the past By 1921 they had emerged victorious For next 25 years, the Soviet Union was a communist island in a capitalist sea
China in the early 20th Century
Chinese were beginning to travel abroad in large numbers Studied Western political and philosophical ideals: Enlightenment thought, revolutions, democracy Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) was one of these students who studied English in Hawaii Began planning a revolutionary movement in 1894 He finally sparked rebellion which led to the collapse of China's thousands of years of imperial government In the 1911 revolution the child emperor Puyi abdicated the throne Established the Republic of China (RoC) Sun Yat-sen then founded the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) that would later fight with Communists for control over China
Mandate System- A
Class A mandates consisted of the former Turkish provinces of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. These territories were considered sufficiently advanced that their provisional independence was recognized, though they were still subject to Allied administrative control until they were fully able to stand alone. Iraq and Palestine (including modern Jordan and Israel) were assigned to Great Britain, while Turkish-ruled Syria and Lebanon went to France. All Class A mandates had reached full independence by 1949.
Mandate System- B
Class B mandates consisted of the former German-ruled African colonies of Tanganyika, parts of Togoland and the Cameroons, and Ruanda-Urundi. The Allied powers were directly responsible for the administration of these mandates but were subject to certain controls intended to protect the rights of the mandates' native peoples. Tanganyika (which is now part of Tanzania) was assigned to Britain, while most of the Cameroons and Togoland were assigned to France, and Ruanda-Urundi (now Rwanda and Burundi) went to Belgium.
Mandate System- C
Class C mandates consisted of various former German-held territories that mandatories subsequently administered as integral parts of their territory: South West Africa (now Namibia, assigned to South Africa), New Guinea (assigned to Australia), Western Samoa (now Samoa, assigned to New Zealand), the islands north of the Equator in the western Pacific (Japan), and Nauru (Australia, with Britain and New Zealand). Theoretically, exercise of the mandates was supervised by the League's Permanent Mandates Commission, but the commission had no real way to enforce its will on any of the mandatory powers. The mandate system was replaced by the UN trusteeship system in 1946.
Trouble Brewing in Mexico
Classical and industrialized capitalism arrived late to Mexico, and so did Marxist ideals Working conditions in textile mills were horrible Common work day was 12 hours Wages were low Workers were required to pay for the normal depreciation of the machinery they used 8 and 9 year old children performed physically demanding work Strikes were illegal All written pamphlets distributed among workers had to be approved Same story in mines: less pay, hard work, high paying managerial jobs were given to American foreman, not qualified Mexican laborers Complaints to President Diaz led to his support of the textile factory owners Workers began to mobilize for strikes and revolts
Political Outcomes of WWI
Collapse of German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires Creation of independent Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia Bolshevik (radical socialist) revolution in Russia after 1917 leading to global Communist movements Middle east was divided up using the Mandate System Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine Conflicting British promises to both Arabs and Jews regarding Palestine set the stage for an enduring struggle Colonial soldiers returned home with less respect for their mother countries
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Crisis began when Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary announced that he would visit Sarajevo, the capital Bosnia. Ferdinand = nephew and heir of Austria-Hungarian emperor At time, Bosnia was under the reluctant rule of Austria-Hungary & was home to many Serbs and Slavs who were angered by Ferdinand's visit. Serbs viewed Austrians as foreign oppressors and wanted self-determination Members of Black Hand (Serbian terrorist group) vowed to take action. June 28, 1914 Ferdinand and his wife Sophie rode through Sarajevo in an open car and were shot by conspirator Gavrilo Princip - both the duke & his wife died.
When WWI broke out in 1914, Russia was a conservative constitutional monarchy led by
Czar Nicholas II (a Romanov) Partially modernized and peasant-based They joined the war to defend the Serbians in the Balkans who were fighting for independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire Due to their late industrialization, they were ill-equipped to fight, especially against the industrialized states such as a Germany (who also happened to be known for their strong military) Led to food shortages, massive casualties, poor weapons, uniforms, equipment, etc CAUSE - Czar Nicholas II Military failures
Outcomes - What Didn't Happen:
Did not jumpstart a truly industrialized state There were some factories but not fully industrialized due to: Social structure that relegated 90% of its population to an impoverished lower class = small market for manufactured goods Economically powerful groups like landowners made lots exporting and had no incentive to invest in manufacturing for domestic consumption Domestically made goods could not compete with better made, cheaper foreign imports Needed tariffs to prevent competition from overrunning their production Embraced free trade and therefore were not able to place tariffs to protect domestic industries
Russian Revolution Summarized:
Drew on the mystique of the French Revolution wanted to oust ruling class dispose landed aristocracy wanted modernizing future, not looking to the past peasant uprisings Revolutions were started by highly organized parties Guided by Marxist ideologies wanted industrial future political and economic equality abolition of private property mobilized and celebrated the working class (claimed to work on their behalf)
The Armistice
During the summer of 1918, the German army suffered a series of decisive losses on the battlefield. By the fall of 1918, Germany's military situation seemed hopeless. The government hoped to launch one final offensive against the British Royal Navy. At the end of October, a group of sailors revolted against the plan, which the sailors believed was hopeless. Soon the revolt spread across the country as workers joined the sailors in protesting the government. As a result of the upheaval, Germany changed its system of government from a constitutional monarchy to a democratic republic on November 9, 1918.
Neocolonialism
Economic domination of a territory by a foreign power. The foreign power often controls most of the territory's industries and uses force to defend their economic interests. Example: The US in Latin America whenever it felt its economic interests threatened. Americans secured control of the Panama Canal in 1904 for these reasons.
Armistice Conditions
End of hostilities Surrender of German weapons, including machine guns, airplanes, and ships Return of Allied prisoners of war Future reparations by Germany Withdrawal of German forces No end to naval blockade of Germany No return of German prisoners
Europe
Europe dominated the global political order at the beginning of the twentieth century, but both land-based and transoceanic empires gave way to new states by the century's end.
Boxer Rebellion & Subsequent Reforms
Foreign imperialism and peasant rebellion caused the Boxer Rebellion Anti-foreign and anti-Christian Outcome was foreign occupation of Beijing and large reparation payments from China's government Indicated that China continued to weaken compared to Europe and Japan People knew that reforms were necessary to modernize and change China Reformist policies were implemented Ended the traditional civil service exam Created elected provincial assemblies
Goals of Mexican Revolutionaries
Freedom of speech, freedom of the press Suppression of the jefes politicos Secularization of education Nationalization of all church property Abolition of the death penalty Educational reform in favor of the poor Prison reform emphasizing rehabilitation rather than punishment Nationwide eight-hour work day and six-day work week Prohibition of child labor All uncultivated lands would be taken over by the state and redistributed to those who would work them Agricultural credit bank would provide loans to impoverished farmers
Treaty of Versailles
Germany lost its colonial empire and 15% of its European territory Was required to pay heavy reparations to the winners of the war Turkey, Autria, and Hungary were not in a financial position to make reparations Germany had to pay $33 billion US dollars (in today's dollars) France occupied part of Germany due to missing payments Other European countries created loans to help Germany make payments Military forces severely restricted Creation of resentment
Beginnings of Communism
Ideas began with Karl Marx social equality no private property collective living proletariat (working class) must overthrow the bourgeoisie history = constant class struggles Communists wanted uncompromising revolution to reach their goals Russia was first to experience this revolution By 1970's ⅓ of world population lived in societies governed by communist regimes
Dulce et Decorum Est" by Wilfred Owen
If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurables sores on innocent tongues, -- My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.
March Revolution 1917
In March 1917, women textile workers in Petrograd led a citywide strike. Soon afterward, riots flared up over shortages of bread and fuel. Nearly 200,000 workers swarmed the streets. At first the soldiers obeyed orders to shoot the rioters but later sided with them. The soldiers fired at their commanding officers and joined the rebellion. Large crowds gathered, shouting "Down with the autocracy!" and "Down with the war!" The local protest exploded into a general uprising- the March Revolution. It forced Czar Nicholas II to abdicate (give up) his throne. The czarist rule of the Romanovs, which spanned over three centuries, had finally collapsed. The March Revolution succeeded in bringing down the czar, yet it failed to set up a strong government to replace his regime. Leaders of the Duma established a provisional government, or temporary government. The provisional government kept the country in World War I and was too weak to make the changes that peasants and workers demanded. Instead, power in the cities grew in local councils of workers called Soviets. In many cities, including Petrograd, the soviets had more influence than the provisional government. The March Revolution of 1917 dethroned Nicholas II but failed to put a strong government in his place.
Events/Processes from 1750-1900 that contributed to WWI:
Industrialization Germany's industrialization and seeking "a place in the sun" Competition for resources European rivalries Increasing militarism Unification of Germany (1871) Led by Otto von Bismarck Unification of Italy (1815-1871) Nationalism Slavic nationalism led to the assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand Competition over colonies and "spheres of influence" in Africa and East Asia Meiji Restoration in Japan Allowed Japan to industrialize/Westernize and begin imperial program in China and Southeast Asia (1868)
Collapse of the Ottoman Empire - 1918-1920
Internal Factors Declining agricultural and economic productivity Slowly borrowing money from European nations Failure to industrialize effectively Internal dissent on how best to adapt the country Rising nationalist movements led to loss of territory External Factors Competition with industrialized West Defeated by the British and Americans in WWI Mandate System broke up Ottoman lands
Collapse of the Russian Empire - 1917-1920
Internal Factors Technological stagnation Growing discontent among the peasants and working class Fuel and food shortages due to mismanagement of resources during WWI External Factors Losing Crimean War Losing Russo-Japanese War Starvation and loss of life from their involvement in WWI Spread and popularity of Communism Industrialized Western nations beating them in war
Collapse of the Qing Dynasty - 1911
Internal Factors Technological stagnation Growing discontent among the peasants and working class Growing support for Communism Resentment of the ruling foreign rulers (Manchus Revolution of 1911 led by Sun Yat-Sen External Factors Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1895) Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) against foreigners Opium Wars and establishment of "spheres of influence"
Emperor Puyi
Last emperor of China at end of Qing Dynasty; deposed as emperor while still a small boy in 1912
What caused WWI?
M = Militarism A = Alliances N = Nationalism I = Imperialism A = Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand C = Conflict in the Balkans
Outcomes of the Mexican Revolution
Madero was a good revolutionary but was not equipped to lead a democratic era in Mexico He was besieged by demands from all sides It wasn't until he took office that he realized that the revolution meant different things to different people Everyone was displeased with the modest steps he was taking More revolts occurred and he was overthrown, and killed when supporters tried to free him from imprisonment in February 1913 He was replaced by a dictator named Victoriano Huerta who was then overthrown with the help of US President Woodrow Wilson in July 1914
Outcomes of WWI: The Mandate System
Mandate, an authorization granted by the League of Nations to a member nation to govern a former German or Turkish colony. The territory was called a mandated territory, or mandate. Following the defeat of Germany and Ottoman Turkey in World War I, their Asian and African possessions, which were judged not yet ready to govern themselves, were distributed among the victorious Allied powers under the authority of Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations (itself an Allied creation). The mandate system was a compromise between the Allies' wish to retain the former German and Turkish colonies and their pre-Armistice declaration (November 5, 1918) that annexation of territory was not their aim in the war. The mandates were divided into three groups on the basis of their location and their level of political and economic development and were then assigned to individual Allied victors (mandatory powers, or mandatories).
Mexican Revolution
Middle class reformers, workers, and peasants overthrew the long dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz (r. 1876-1911). A decade of bloody conflict followed (1910-1920) 1 million lives (10% of the population) were lost Huge peasant armies under charismatic leaders Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata ousted Diaz Wanted to seize and redistribute land from wealthy landowners to the peasants Attacked large haciendas
Militarism
Militarism = glorification of the military Painted war in romantic light war was a festive occasion to prove your strength Young men dreamed of marching into battle; soldier = masculine, heroic Arose from constant European competition for dominance Germany and Great Britain especially spent a lot of money building up armies and navies Men rushed to recruit, worried the war would end before they could fight
Alliances
Militarism led to secret alliances to ensure protection in case of attack Britain and France were allies with Russia and viewed Germany as a rival France was bitter about losing the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) to Germany (and losing territory to them) Britain competed with Germany for colonies in Africa Triple Entente = US, China, Japan, Britain, France, Russia Triple Alliance were also called the Central Power Italy was neutral until 1915 then switched to the Allies
China in the late 19th Century
Moderate industrializing efforts took place under the self-strengthening movement Many objected to these changes, especially conservatives who loathed the idea of copying the West who were often viewed as barbaric outsiders Japan had modernized so much it was now a threat to China and led to the Sino-Japanese War where China was defeated Japan took Taiwan and was able to open factories in China The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) was another setback for Chinese development Blamed china's setbacks on foreigners and missionaries
Nationalism
Nationalism = feeling of pride in one's own nation/identity Multinational empires like the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire had to content with nationalist movements among subject peoples Nationalism strong in France & Germany French were bitter about defeat during the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 & wanted border province of Alsace and Lorraine back (which was lost in the war) Slavic nationalism (with the Serbs in Serbia) and Austro-Hungarian opposition lay at the heart of the war's beginning Arabs in the Ottoman Empire also wanted self-determination
Spanish Flu The "Spanish Flu" 1918 Flu Pandemic
Pandemic that spread around the world in 1918, killing more than 50 million people
What were attitudes toward the armistice ending World War I?
Pershing's account suggests that the German representatives found the terms of the armistice to be harsh and unfair to the German people. According to Pershing, Weygand told the German representative that in France there was widespread hatred toward Germany.
Emiliano Zapata
Revolutionary and leader of peasants in the Mexican Revolution. He mobilized landless peasants in south-central Mexico in an attempt to seize and divide the lands of the wealthy landowners. Though successful for a time, he was ultimately defeated and assassinated.
Remember, any of these events could be incorporated into contextual statements for essays on:
Rise of fascism Global Communism Decolonization movements of the 20th century The Cold War 20th century feminist movements Creation of the League of Nations and United Nations Increased government involvement in post-war economies
Imperialism
Rivalries over overseas expansion and displays of power Europeans fought over colonizing Africa after the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) Funneled colonial troops and laborers into the war effort Men from Africa, India, China, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and South Africa took part in the conflict British and French sought to seize German colonies Japan (allied w/ Britain) wanted German colonies in China and Pacific Ottoman Empire experienced an Arab Revolt as Arabs wanted self-determination U.S. joined in 1917 when German submarines threatened American shipping
Russia in the 19th Century
Russia was a huge multinational state in 1850; very diverse Poor, agrarian, and lagging in industrial development Serfdom had only been abolished in 1861 Lost the Crimean War (1853-1856) which indicated how much they had fallen behind the industrial development of the West Rapid railroad construction occurred in 1880 and industrialization followed Class of modern factory workers arose All the problems with early industrial societies arose (low wages, long hours, dangerous conditions) Cause - Working conditions By 1900 they were catching up with the West Established a sphere of influence in China in 1903 and was also interested in Korea Fought with Japan over East Asian territories and lost in 1905 Military loses in East Asia brought the revolution of 1905 Peasant uprisings Troop mutinies The government gave in to protests and issued the October Manifesto which granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected Duma or parliament (which actually had very limited power) The tsar's continued absolute power upset middle class Russians who wanted to limit the power of the monarchy In 1907 the tsar and advisors gave wealthy classes more power than workers, peasants, minorities, and the middle-class - this increased resentment
Armenian Genocide
The Armenians were Christians in the predominantly Muslim Ottoman Empire Had lived in relative peace (apart from paying a tax and some tensions) until the beginning of the 20th century Ottoman leaders were concerned the Armenians would side with Russia in the war so they began a systematic genocide 1.5 million Armenians were killed beginning in April 1915 Today Turkey will not acknowledge this was a genocide saying that it a variety of factors led to their deaths, not systematic racial or religious killings
The Eastern Front
The Eastern front was one of two fronts Germany was fighting as it was sandwiched between two enemies: France to the West and Russia to the East. Germany tried to avoid this with the Schlieffen Plan, but ultimately failed. The Eastern Front was devastating for the Russians.
Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan meant that Germany could try to avoid a two front war (with Russia and France) by striking France first and quickly before Russia had a chance to mobilize. This also involved them invading neutral Belgium and provoking Great Britain.
Historical Developments
The West dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century, but both land-based and maritime empires gave way to new states by the century's end.
Wilfred Owen's Dulce et Decorum Est - a poem about his experiences in WWI.
The title comes from the first words of a Latin saying (taken from an ode by Horace). The words were widely understood and often quoted at the start of the First World War. They mean "It is sweet and right." The full saying ends the poem: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori - it is sweet and right to die for your country. In other words, it is a wonderful and great honour to fight and die for your country. (Although he is using this with irony).
Revolution in Russia
Took place in 1917 - catalyst was WWI Russians were upset at food shortages and ineptitude of those in charge February 1917 Tsar Nicholas II lost all support and forced to abdicate the throne → end of the Romanov dynasty (who ruled for the last three centuries) Massive chaos ensued - many different groups promoting their agendas and seeking power Post-tsarist government was ineffective and would not take Russia out of WWI Provided opening for more radical groups like the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulynov (AKA: Lenin)
Propaganda War
Total war meant controlling public opinion. Even democratic countries censored the press to keep casualty figures and other bad news from reaching the public. Both sides used propaganda - the spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage an opposing cause. In France & Germany, propaganda urged citizens to donate money to the government Heavy investment in recruitment campaigns American and British propaganda demonized the Germany army Use of highly emotional and misleading information
United States as a Global Power
US manpower contributed to the defeat of Germany US industry and infrastructure did not suffer the damage of war as lands in Germany and France Financial resources turned the US from a debtor nation into Europe's creditor Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points seemed to herald a new international life Wilson suggested the creation of a League of Nations International peacekeeping organization US Senate refused to join the League of Nations
Land Redistribution in China:
Under the leadership of Mao Zedong (1949-1976), the People's Republic of China experienced an era of collectivization. Similar to Stalin's ideals, Mao tried to rapidly convert the Chinese economy to a socialist society through industrialization and collectivization, in a period known as, "The Great Leap Forward." The era was a disaster for the Chinese people, due to the inability of the farmers to meet quota expectations, which caused "The Great Chinese Famine," where nearly 30 million people died of hunger. After the death of Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping reformed the collective farming method. From this time, nearly all Chinese crops began to blossom, not just grain. The reform included the removal of land from rich land owners for use of agricultural land for peasants, but not ownership. This policy increased production and helped reverse the effects of The Great Leap Forward. The two main reasons why China succeeded was because 1) the government chose to make gradual changes, which kept the monopoly of the Communist Party and 2) because the reform process began from the bottom and later expanded to the top.
Stalemate
With both Central Powers and the Allies using such brutal weapons and tactics, neither side could easily defeat the other, resulting in a bloody four-year stalemate in which neither side made significant progress.
Mexican Revolution and Women
Women were active participants in the Mexican Revolution They prepared food, nursed the wounded, washed clothes, and served soldiers on the battlefield Some women took up arms and saw it as a way out of oppressive traditions Some soldaderas, as women in the Mexican Revolution became known, played traditional roles as nurses or wives, others took up arms. Perhaps the least visible soldaderas were the women who assumed male identities to fight—not because societal restrictions explicitly forced them to but because of personal choice The soldaderas who donned male clothing and took male names often did so to protect themselves from sexual violence and high-ranking officials who resented women warriors or saw them as freaks
Historical Development of WWI
World War I was the first total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies) for the purpose of waging war.
Armistice
an agreement made by opposing sides in a war to stop fighting for a certain time; a truce.
Part of Mao Zedong's land reform during the late phase of the Chinese Civil War and the early People's Republic of China was a
campaign of mass killings of landlords in order to redistribute land to the peasant class and landless workers which resulted in millions of deaths.Those killed were targeted on the basis of class rather than ethnicity, therefore terming the campaign "genocide" is incorrect and the neologism "classicide" is more accurate.
These changes in Russia eventually led to
communist revolution.
Russia was already experiencing instability due to
economic issues and industrialization Suffered defeats in WWI with devastating casualties Food and fuel shortage during the winter of 1916-1917 caused uprisings March 1917, revolutionaries overthrew Tsar Nicholas II End of 300 years of Romanov rule Provisional government was established but soon Bolsheviks (party of radical socialists) led by Vladimir Lenin took charge Russia continued to suffer defeats at the Eastern Front Lenin appealed for peace with Germany Signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ending Russian involvement in WWI
Emerging ideologies of anti-imperialism contributed to the dissolution of
empires and the restructuring of states.
Lasting Effects of WWI
expansion of government authority (to support the total war and mobilization of an entire country) unprecedented casualties war mocked Enlightenment values, led to cynicism social & cultural changes in Great Britain and US women returned to the home so they wouldn't compete with men for jobs men had PTSD, but were expected to return to work and life at home suffrage movements for women young middle class women called flappers emerged Massive casualties allowed more social mobility for those who did return from war
The causes of World War I included
imperialist expansion and competition for resources. In addition, territorial and regional conflicts combined with a flawed alliance system and intense nationalism to escalate the tensions into global conflict.
New military technology led to
increased levels of wartime casualties.
The older land-based Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires collapsed due to a combination of
internal and external factors.
The Mexican Revolution arose in opposition to
neocolonialism and economic imperialism, and movements to redistribute land and resources developed within states in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, sometimes advocating communism or socialism.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, a European-dominated global political order existed, which also included the United States, Russia, and Japan. Over the course of the century,
peoples and states around the world challenged this order in ways that sought to redistribute power within the existing order and to restructure empires, while those peoples and states in power attempted to maintain the status quo. Other peoples and states sought to overturn the political order itself. These challenges to, and the attempts to maintain, the political order manifested themselves in an unprecedented level of conflict with high human casualties. In the context of these conflicts, many regimes in both older and newer states struggled with maintaining political stability and were challenged by internal and external factors, including ethnic and religious conflicts, secessionist movements, territorial partitions, economic dependency, and the legacies of colonialism.
Examples of internal and external factors:
political and social discontent technological and economic stagnation military defeat
On November 8, 1918,
representatives of the German government met with Supreme Allied Commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch in a forest outside of Compiégne in northern France. Foch presented the German delegation with a set of terms and told them that they had 72 hours to sign. There were 34 clauses in the armistice - which is an agreement to stop fighting before terms of peace are formally agreed upon.
There were virtually no negotiations. The German delegation received instructions from the German government that they should
sign the armistice even if they could not negotiate better terms. The German representatives signed the armistice on November 11, 1918. It went into effect later the same day.