8.2 colonial Latin america

The Spanish-American War, 1898

- By the second half of the nineteenth century, however, Cubans under such leaders as José Martí were resisting Spanish rule. Sympathy for Cuban independence was also shared by the U.S., along with a desire to exercise more influence in island affairs. The mysterious sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana's harbor in 1898 triggered the Spanish American War. Within a few weeks, Spain was defeated and Cuba (along with Puerto Rico and the Philippines ) came under U.S. control. While Puerto Rico remained as U.S. territory, Cuba was given its freedom, but the U.S. received the right to intervene in Cuba through the Platt Amendment until 1934. The U.S. also was granted the naval base at Guantánamo Bay in 1903 (which it still has today). Most recently, suspects in the war against terrorism are being confined at this base.

The Jesuits and their expulsion

- One religious order, the Jesuits, had accumulated extensive lands and dominance in the area of education by the 18th century. King Charles III banished them from the Americas in 1767, the Spanish crown fearing the rising power of this militant order, as well as others coveting the possessions of the Jesuits. Perhaps the indigenous populations lost the most, for the Jesuits in many areas of Spanish America defended the rights of native peoples. -Loosely based on the historical events of the expulsion of the Jesuits is the film The Mission. It portrays the final days of the religious order in the Americas as they attempt to delay the arrival of Spanish troops as well as serve the Guaraní people under their charge (who in the 18th century were concentrated in Brazil and Paraguay). Pp.7

The church

A third institution of the Spanish colonial period was the Catholic Church. As mentioned earlier, the Church's main goal was to insure the conversion of the indigenous peoples to Christianity and the persecution of "deviants" through the Inquisition. The Church, the armed forces, and the Viceroy usually worked together closely to insure the smooth operation of the empire.

The decadence of Spain in the 18th and 19th centuries

By 1800 the Spanish empire in the Americas was ripe for change. Spain had increasingly come under the influence of France; in 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain and installed his brother (José I) as king (causing much dissatisfaction in the Spanish colonies and war in Spain). Moreover, both the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789) gave new hope especially the criollos, who wanted to govern their lands without the interference of Spain. During the first two decades of the 19th century, most of Spanish America achieved independence through such leaders as Father Hidalgo (Mexico), Simón Bolívar (Venezuela), and José de San Martín (Argentina).

Colonial Latin America

Colonial Latin America: the age of the Viceroy - Spain's control over Spanish America lasted about 400 years, beginning in 1492 and the Encounter. The mainland territories of the empire in North and South America gained their independence during the first two decades of the nineteenth century, while in the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish control until 1898. -The Spanish possessions in the Americas were extensive, from Mexico (including the current southwest of the U.S.), through Central America, to South America. Its territories were much greater than the other major colonial powers in the area (England and its American colonies, or Portugal and Brazil). Communication with Spain could take up to several months. Nevertheless, Spanish control over its colonies was guaranteed by three important institutions: the Viceroy, the armed forces, and the Catholic Church.

Cuba

Cuba was still a colony of Spain for most of the nineteenth century. Its economy rested primarily on the production of sugar at numerous plantations, with African slavery providing the labor

Unjust War. The US Mexico war

In 1846-48 Mexico lost nearly half her national territory in what many consider an "unjust war" fueled by the U.S. desire to expand the nation to the west coast (the so-called Manifest Destiny). More details will be seen when we watch excerpts from the documentary "The U.S.- Mexico War"

Mexican nun sor Juana ines de la cruz

One of the most important figures of the entire Spanish colonial period was the Mexican nun Sor (Sister) Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651-1695). Looking back today at her literary achievements and her defense of the role of women in society, many critics agree that she was a person whose ideas were much in advance of her time. Born Juana Inés de la Cruz de Asbaje y Ramírez near Mexico City, Sor Juana initially had many social obstacles against her. First, she was illegitimate, a great stigma that would normally limit her role in colonial society. Her mother, Isabel Ramírez, had three children from two men that she never married (the father of Sor Juana was Pedro Manuel de Asbaje). Isabel Ramírez was an independent woman who managed various farmlands. An important figure in Sor Juana's young life was her grandfather, Pedro Ramírez de Santillana; he had an extensive library; by six, Sor Juana had read all the books of his collection. Soon Sor Juana's family realized that she was a precocious youngster. She wanted to attend the University in Mexico City (and desired to disguise herself as a man, since women were not permitted to attend), but her mother forbade it. Sor Juana's good fortune came when she was noticed by the court of Viceroy Mancera and his wife, Leonor. At the age of 16, Sor Juana served Leonor; and her intellectual achievements astounded the philosophers, scientists, and courtesans of the capital. In 1667, Sor Juana entered the convent of the Discalced Carmelites, but this order was too strict and she moved to the more permissive order of St. Jerome. Much has been speculated as to why Sor Juana did not marry, but it is a fact that the convent of St. Jerome allowed Sor Juana to continue her studies, meet with scholars and members of the court, and conduct scientific experiments. In the area of science, Sor Juana is said to have corresponded with the English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton. Following the fashion of the late Baroque, Sor Juana also wrote poetry, essay, and drama (including her most famous play, Trials of a Noble House, in Spanish Los empeños de una casa, 1683). In addition, Sor Juana wrote love notes on commission for members of the court (as Prof. Correa has stated, she was Mexico's Hallmark cards). As to her own love life, Sor Juana seems to have had an intense relationship with the first Viceroy's wife, Doña Leonor; and then a close relationship with the next consort of the following Viceroy (Doña María Luisa, the wife of Viceroy Laguna). Whether these attachments reflected merely friendship or intimacy, no one knows. However, what is certain is that both women protected Sor Juana. And to be sure, Sor Juana needed powerful sponsors and defenders. She was a nun, yet conducted her studies and wrote in a convent during an age in which women were not allowed a public forum (especially in religious orders). When Viceroy Laguna and Doña María Luisa leave Mexico in 1688, Sor Juana no longer has noble protectors. She was soon forbidden to write and forced to sell her library (said to be over 4,000 volumes) by church authorities Sor Juana wrote one fairly extensive autobiographical account in her life. This text today can be found in a document that Sor Juana wrote (The Answer, La respuesta) that is a strong defense of her academic activity. Octavio Paz, one of Mexico's greatest poets and essayists of the twentieth century, wrote an extensive analysis of the life and work of Sor Juana (the Spanish title is Sor Juana de la Cruz o las trampas de la fe). More recently, Alicia Gaspar de Alba has written a brilliant historical novel about the life of Sor Juana in 17th century Mexico (Sor Juana's Second Dream). Using all historical documents available, the author recreates the loves and conflicts of Sor Juana in a society which is basically hostile to her genius. Part of our reading for this class comes from this novel.

The viceroy

The Viceroy was the king of Spain's personal representative in the New World (the Spanish word is virrey,which means "in place of the king"). The Viceroy governed a Viceroyalty. At the beginning of the Spanish colonial period there were two viceroys—in Mexico and Perú. By the 18th century, two more viceroys were appointed for South America (in the regions of modern-day Colombia and Argentina -Assisting the viceroys were the armed forces of Spain, the army and the navy. While the Spanish navies began to lose their power in 17th and 18th centuries (challenged by the powerful navies of England, and by pirates), the soldiers of the viceroy were able to maintain control of Spanish territories until the outbreak of the wars of independence after 1800. Pp.4-5

System of encomienda

The system of the encomienda was initially established by the Spanish crown and enforced by the Viceroys. Under this system, favored Spanish settlers were given large tracks of land and numerous indigenous peoples to work the fields, mines, and waters nearby. Although the government attempted to abolish the encomienda system by the 18th century, because of the abuse of the native peoples, some landowners continued to control the lives of families living on their land.

People of era —- system of encomienda

The peoples of the era - The Spanish colonial period is also marked by a rigid social stratification. The most privileged class were the Spaniards, who held the important government and church posts. The children of the Spanish born in the New World were called criollos. While still a privileged class, the criollos increasingly complained about "newcomers" from Spain and more and more wanted to participate in the governing of the Spanish state in the Americas.