A and P test 2

how bones grow in length at the physis steps

1) chondrocyte hyperplasia (increase in amount of cells) 2) chondrocytes line up to form columns 3) chondrocytes hypertrophy (increase in size of cells) 4) new cartilage begins to mineralize. chondrocytes dont have enough blood flow and die, they release VEGF which sprouts new blood vessels throughout chondrocytes 5) allows access for osteoclast precursurs from blood which turn into osteoclasts mature. resorb bone tissue w/ dead chondrocytes and creates a tunnel within the physis 6)osteoblasts move into tunnel 7) osteoblasts synthesize and secrete collagen protein fibers. collagen forms osteoid 8) osteoblasts also make osteocalcin which directs or orients new Ca PO precipitation 9) osteoblasts become trapped in new bone osteiod and CA PO crystals 10) forms osteocytes, lacuna (where osteocyte lives, surrounds it), and canaliculi (small canals)

fracture repair steps

1) hematoma forms due to damage of vessels which leads to hypoxia (less oxygen) and sends signals to the surrounding fluid 2) inflammatory response which increases blood flow this increases nutrient delivery and immune cells 3) immune cells clean up area and stimulate stem cells (cytokines)ca from bone marrow to differentiate and form: 4) stem cells form fibroblasts and chondroblasts which make up fibrin and collagen that form a cartilage like layer called the soft callus 5) stem cells form angioblasts make new blood vessels that grow into soft callus 6) stem cells form osteoblasts make new osteoid 7) osteoclasts, which are found circulating in an undifferentiated form, remove dead chondrocytes from the cartilage layer 8) cartilage forms from the soft callus within the former site of damaged bone 9) cartilage is converted to bone via endochondral ossification

osteoblast bone growth steps

1) osteoblasts synthesize and secrete collagen protein fibers. 2) collagen forms osteoid or a lattice 3) Calcium and Phosphate move into the osteoblast via facilitated diffusion 4) a vesicle surrounds the calcium and phosphate fusing them together 5) calcium and phosphate move out of the cell into priming crystal formation; calcium and phosphate also come out from the blood 6) calcium and phosphate precipitate, meaning they form crystals within the collagen lattice 7) osteocalcin also comes out of the osteoblast, osteocalcin directs or orients new calcium phosphate precipitation and binds to calcium phosphate (inorganic- with calcium phosphate, organic without)

bone remodeling steps

1)RANKL allows osteoblasts bore tunnel and move into tunnel 2) osteoblasts synthesize and secrete collagen protein fibers. collagen forms osteoid 3) osteoblasts also make osteocalcin which directs or orients new Ca PO precipitation 4) osteoblasts become trapped in new bone osteiod and CA PO crystals and forms hydroxyapatite crystals 5) forms osteocytes, lacuna (where osteocyte lives, surrounds it), and canaliculi (small canals)

fear response *****remove gaba???

1. real sensory info moves through cranial nerves or spinal cord to the thalamus 2. the thalamus sends this info to the cerebrum and the amygdala 3. the amygdala decides this is a dangerous situations and sends the real sensory info to the prefrontal cortex. the amygdala and prefrontal cortex communicate through GABA neurotransmitter 4. the prefrontal cortex confirms its unfamiliar and sends the info back to the amygdala and says we should initiate fight or flight 5. the amygdala sends this to the brainstem and hypothalamus 6. the brainstem and hypothalamus talk to each other 7. the brainstem increases heart and respiratory rates and changes blood flow 8. the hypothalamus has subconscious behavioral changes like decreased reproduction, milk letdown, and partuition

hearing steps

1. sound waves directed to pinna into the external auditory canal. 2. sound waves strike the tympanic membrane causing it to vibrate 3. the vibration is transmitted through the attached auditory ossicles (small bones that contain synovial joints in middle ear). the ossicles amplify the vibration 4. cochlea contains fluid. the vibration causes waves of movement 5. these move the hair cells. different types of hair cells respond to different frequencies and sound different 6. movement of the hair cells causes an action potential (from increased Na moving in) and moves the auditory portion to the cerebral cortex.

Match each of the following events of bone remodeling with the number corresponding to their correct order in the sequence. Increase of osteocalcin in blood Release of RANKL by osteocytes Activation of osteoclasts by RANKL Increase of glucose uptake by osteoblasts Detection of microfractures by osteocytes Activation of osteoblasts by RANKL Decrease in RANKL secretion by osteoblasts Increase of insulin secretion by the pancreas

5 2 4 7 1 3 8 6

Which of the following should be common to both growth in length of the radius and fracture repair? Angiogenesis or vasculogenesis Hypoxic cells that secrete pro-inflammatory factors that cause increased blood flow into the tissue Influx of immune cells Increased production of cartilage Replacement of cartilage by new bone tissue Increased secretion of PTH caused by increased activation of Vitamin D due to the stress response caused by either growth or tissue damage and pain

Angiogenesis or vasculogenesis Hypoxic cells that secrete pro-inflammatory factors that cause increased blood flow into the tissue Increased production of cartilage Replacement of cartilage by new bone tissue

antagonist vs agonist

Antagonist: blocks sympathetic nervous system (blocks receptors) Agonist: mimics sympathetic nervous system (mimics receptors) ex) beta agonist stimulates fight or flight with no stress takes stored adipose tissue and increases energy, protein synthesis, meat in carcass which decreases fat

Production of osteoid by osteoblasts should be increased: By PTH By osteocalcin During chronic hypocalcemia During increased growth in width of the femur During growth of the temporal bones By growth hormone

By osteocalcin During increased growth in width of the femur During growth of the temporal bones By growth hormone

The diencephalon should be responsible for: Connecting information coming from the skeletal muscles to motor centers within the telencephalon Reducing reproductive activity during times of low nutrient availability Reducing milk letdown at a time when an animal is being chased by a predator Sensing the temperature that causes increased blood flow to the skin Determining that circulating glucose is low and triggering increased secretion of cortisol from the adrenal Initiating increased water reabsorption from the kidneys during times of reduced blood volume Increasing reproductive activity in short-day breeding sheep during the early fall

Connecting information coming from the skeletal muscles to motor centers within the telencephalon Reducing reproductive activity during times of low nutrient availability Reducing milk letdown at a time when an animal is being chased by a predator Sensing the temperature that causes increased blood flow to the skin Determining that circulating glucose is low and triggering increased secretion of cortisol from the adrenal Initiating increased water reabsorption from the kidneys during times of reduced blood volume Increasing reproductive activity in short-day breeding sheep during the early fall

Match each of the following brain regions with their correct description or function: Prefrontal cortex Temporal lobe Thalamus Limbic system Hypothalamus Cerebellum Brainstem Occipital lobe Frontal lobe OPTIONS: decision making and inhibition, responsiveness to others ability to learn and process correct and incorrect behavior, gets sensory info to the right place in the telencephalon, processing sounds such that they are recognizable as words, allows you to notice leaves changing colors in fall, timing of movements balance and attention span, controls behaviors in response to environmental cues, physiological responses to stress controls heart and respiratory rate, association between hearing a bell and being fed

Decision making, inhibitions processing sounds such that they are gets sensory info association between controls behaviors timing of movements physiological response allows you to notice responses to others

Which of the following would normally be seen during growth in width of the frontal bone? Osteoclasts degrading compact bone around the medullary cavity Differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells into osteoblasts Production of osteoid by osteoclasts Mineralization of osteoid by calcium and phosphate to form hydroxyapatite

Differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells into osteoblasts Mineralization of osteoid by calcium and phosphate to form hydroxyapatite

Which of the following should be common to both growth in width of the temporal bone and fracture repair? Formation of hydroxyapatite Endochondral ossification Formation of a soft callus Production of osteoid by osteoblasts Osteoblasts becoming trapped and turning into osteocytes Activation of fibroblasts and chondroblasts by cytokines from the immune cells drawn into the site Inflammation

Formation of hydroxyapatite Production of osteoid by osteoblasts Osteoblasts becoming trapped and turning into osteocytes

Extended or even excessive growth in width of bones could occur when: PTH secretion is higher than normal Growth hormone secretion is higher than normal Too much chondrocyte hypertrophy occurs under the periosteum More active vitamin D is present than normal Calcium concentrations in the blood deviate below the normal physiological range Estrogen or testosterone secretion is higher than normal Insulin is higher than normal Osteocalcin is higher than normal in the blood

Growth hormone secretion is higher than normal More active vitamin D is present than normal Estrogen or testosterone secretion is higher than normal Insulin is higher than normal Osteocalcin is higher than normal in the blood

Choose each of the following that would be true for growth in width of a long bone: Growth hormone should increase the process If the periosteum contained no cells, growth in width would not be able to occur The process can occur without hyperplasia or hypertrophy of chondrocytes Osteocalcin should increase in the blood New osteocytes wouldn't be formed -- these should only be formed during growth in length The process should only occur while long bones are growing in length Reduced amounts of PTH could increase the amount of bone growth in width It may be stimulated by local osteocytes during times of increased activity or force being placed on the bones

Growth hormone should increase the process If the periosteum contained no cells, growth in width would not be able to occur The process can occur without hyperplasia or hypertrophy of chondrocytes Osteocalcin should increase in the blood Reduced amounts of PTH could increase the amount of bone growth in width It may be stimulated by local osteocytes during times of increased activity or force being placed on the bones

do we regulate hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia more?

HYPO

Choose all of the following that would be caused by increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system: Increased buffering of the rumen in cows/sheep/goats, etc. Dilation of the pupils in response to light Decreased drying out of the cornea Increased movement of food through the digestive tract Increased insertion of Glut-4 into adipocyte cell membranes Increased ability to convert Vitamin D to its active form Increased ability of osteoblasts to produce collagen Replacement of stored glucose after exercise

Increased buffering of the rumen in cows/sheep/goats, etc. Decreased drying out of the cornea Increased movement of food through the digestive tract Increased insertion of Glut-4 into adipocyte cell membranes Increased ability to convert Vitamin D to its active form Increased ability of osteoblasts to produce collagen Replacement of stored glucose after exercise

After only a few minutes the border collie gets her sheep back to the barn and everybody begins to calm down a bit. The dog gets a couple of big noisy slurps of water, then digs into her dinner. The sheep settle down and begin to eat their own dinner, then browse a bit on the hay in their bunks. Which of the following should now be happening in the border collie and in the sheep? Increased insulin released from the pancreas Increased smooth muscle contractions within the intesines Increased translocation of Glut-2 from the basal to the apical side of enterocytes Increased storage of glucose as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscles Increased insertion of Glut-4 transporters in cell membranes of skeletal muscles and adipocytes Increased removal of carbon dioxide from the blood by the lungs Increased blood flow to the diencephalon Increased diversion of blood from the skin to the skeletal muscles, as stimulated by the brainstem Increased release of oxytocin for milk letdown

Increased insulin released from the pancreas Increased smooth muscle contractions within the intesines Increased translocation of Glut-2 from the basal to the apical side of enterocytes Increased storage of glucose as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscles Increased insertion of Glut-4 transporters in cell membranes of skeletal muscles and adipocytes Increased release of oxytocin for milk letdown

Match each of the following physiological responses with the correct branch of the autonomic nervous system. Increased blood flow to the kidneys Increased production of saliva Reduced heart rate Increased blood flow to the dermis Reduced blood flow to the intestines Reduced blood flow to the dermis Dilation of the pupil Reduced Vitamin D activation and activity Increased Vitamin D activity Increased contraction of smooth muscles in dermal hair follicles (options: increased sympathetic tone, decreased sympathetic tone, increased parasympathetic tone)

Increased parasympathetic tone Increased parasympathetic tone Increased parasympathetic tone Decreased sympathetic tone Increased sympathetic tone Increased sympathetic tone Increased sympathetic tone Increased sympathetic tone Increased parasympathetic tone Increased sympathetic tone

Deviation of blood calcium below normal should result in: Increased pumping of calcium by osteocytes into the surrounding bone fluid, and ultimately into the blood Increased secretion of osteocalcin by the parathyroid Increased secretion of calcitonin by the thyroid Increased secretion of PTH by the parathyroid gland Increased activity of enzymes within the kidney that convert vitamin D into its active form Increased facilitated diffusion of calcium across the apical membrane of enterocytes within the duodenum A reduction in the formation of new osteoclasts Increased secretion of RANKL by osteoblasts Increased use of ATP by enterocytes within the duodenum

Increased pumping of calcium by osteocytes into the surrounding bone fluid, and ultimately into the blood Increased secretion of PTH by the parathyroid gland Increased activity of enzymes within the kidney that convert vitamin D into its active form Increased facilitated diffusion of calcium across the apical membrane of enterocytes within the duodenum Increased secretion of RANKL by osteoblasts Increased use of ATP by enterocytes within the duodenum

A border collie is asked to run to the back of a large pasture to bring in a flock of sheep for the night. The dog, being a border collie, runs full speed for the entire distance, then barks at the sheep and causes them to flock together, a normal response to a threat. Which of the following should be happening during this brief time for the sheep and for the border collie? Increased secretion of insulin by the pancreas Increased secretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex Increased breakdown of liver glycogen Increased secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas Increased heat production by the skeletal muscles Initial vasoconstriction of blood vessels within the skin Constriction of the pupils Increased respiratory rate Increased blood returning to the heart (venous return) Diversion of blood to smooth muscles in the abdominal organs

Increased secretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex Increased breakdown of liver glycogen Increased heat production by the skeletal muscles Initial vasoconstriction of blood vessels within the skin Increased respiratory rate Increased blood returning to the heart (venous return)

You are hired by a drug company to work on new strategies to reduce thunderstorm anxiety in dogs. The drug company is very progressive and your boss tells you that they will consider any marketable strategy whether it involves a drug or not. Which of the following might you choose to present to your new boss as potentially effective strategies? Increase the effectiveness of GABA within the limbic system during thunderstorms Invent a dog biscuit feeder that is activated by the sound of thunder to drop a dog biscuit in front of the dog Develop a drug that activates brain regions that normally create inhibitory inputs into the amygdala-prefrontal cortex loop, that can be given during thunderstorms Develop a drug that acts as a mild parasympathomimetic Develop a drug that acts as a mild sympathomimetic Develop an audio CD that includes distant thunder sounds followed by soothing whimpers of a new dog momma that can be played on repeat at times when the weather is nice

Invent a dog biscuit feeder that is activated by the sound of thunder to drop a dog biscuit in front of the dog Develop a drug that activates brain regions that normally create inhibitory inputs into the amygdala-prefrontal cortex loop, that can be given during thunderstorms Develop a drug that acts as a mild parasympathomimetic Develop an audio CD that includes distant thunder sounds followed by soothing whimpers of a new dog momma that can be played on repeat at times when the weather is nice

The amygdala: Is located within the telencephalon Should be involved in initiating "conditioned behaviors" like "hey, that sound of the truck starting up usually happens right before I get fed." Should be involved in people learning that giving speeches won't kill them, and ultimately becoming more comfortable speaking in front of large groups Is involved in the process of a deer increasing blood flow to her skeletal muscles after hearing a gunshot Would be less likely to provide input to the brainstem to decrease blood flow to the skin if a loud sound has been heard several times previously and no other noxious or painful stimuli accompanied it

Is located within the telencephalon Should be involved in initiating "conditioned behaviors" like "hey, that sound of the truck starting up usually happens right before I get fed." Should be involved in people learning that giving speeches won't kill them, and ultimately becoming more comfortable speaking in front of large groups Is involved in the process of a deer increasing blood flow to her skeletal muscles after hearing a gunshot Would be less likely to provide input to the brainstem to decrease blood flow to the skin if a loud sound has been heard several times previously and no other noxious or painful stimuli accompanied it

How might increased PTH secretion impact bone fracture repair? It could improve the process of fracture repair by increasing available calcium in the blood to ultimately form hydroxyapatite within the site of the fracture PTH should increase activation of vitamin D to increase calcium uptake from the diet and thus improve later steps in fracture repair PTH should decrease fracture repair because it directly stimulates osteoclasts to break down compact bone, including that formed within the fracture site Since osteoclasts are used in the fracture repair process and PTH indirectly stimulates their activity under chronic conditions, the process of fracture repair may be improved somewhat by PTH It could slow or reduce fracture repair by decreasing new osteoid production to fill in tunnels created by osteoclasts

It could improve the process of fracture repair by increasing available calcium in the blood to ultimately form hydroxyapatite within the site of the fracture PTH should increase activation of vitamin D to increase calcium uptake from the diet and thus improve later steps in fracture repair Since osteoclasts are used in the fracture repair process and PTH indirectly stimulates their activity under chronic conditions, the process of fracture repair may be improved somewhat by PTH It could slow or reduce fracture repair by decreasing new osteoid production to fill in tunnels created by osteoclasts

calcium is regulated by what hormones

PTH from parathyroid calcitonin from thyroid vitamin D

Physiological responses that don't directly reverse the deviation in a regulated variable, but instead cause less energy to be required in order to regulate that variable, are called: Negative feedback Positive feedback Permissive feedback Submissive feedback

Permissive feedback

function of RANKL in bone remodeling

RANKL is released by osteocytes which binds to a precursor osteoblast causing it to mature into a osteoblast which continues to produce RANKL. This stimulates the activity of osteoclasts which releases calcium and phosphorus into the blood. It also releases osteocalcin into the blood which binds to its receptors in the beta islet cells in the pancreas which causes the secretion of insulin. Insulin binds to the osteoblasts which increases glut 4 and increases the conversion of glu to atp inhibiting RANKL and stopping the break down of the bone. Osteoblast secretes osteiod, osteocalcin, and hydroxyapatite to refill tunnels

Choose each of the following that would be caused by increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system: Reduction in liver glycogen stores Reduced milk letdown Increased activity of light receptors within the retina Increased heat production by skeletal muscles Potentially reduced adipocyte release of TNF-alpha Improved ability to convert Vitamin D to its active form Decreased need for PTH Increased ability to convectively and evaporatively cool from the respiratory system Increased ability to cool via radiation from the skin Increased ability to cool via evaporation from the skin Increased delivery of glucose to the brain

Reduction in liver glycogen stores Reduced milk letdown Increased activity of light receptors within the retina Increased heat production by skeletal muscles Potentially reduced adipocyte release of TNF-alpha Increased ability to convectively and evaporatively cool from the respiratory system Increased ability to cool via evaporation from the skin Increased delivery of glucose to the brain

Of the events listed, which should occur first during bone growth in width? Formation of hydroxyapatite Secretion of osteocalcin by osteoblasts Hypertrophy of chondrocytes Secretion of osteoid by osteocytes Formation of canaliculi Proliferation of chondrocytes Movement of osteoblasts and blood vessels into tunnels created by osteoclasts

Secretion of osteocalcin by osteoblasts

Increased secretion of calcitonin: Should be stimulated by activated Vitamin D Should cause decreased blood calcium Should increase osteoblast activity directly Can occur under either acute or chronic conditions of hypocalcemia Can be utilized in young adults to improve bone health in older adults Should directly lower blood calcium by reducing the activity of osteoclasts, providing negative feedback for calcium homeostasis

Should cause decreased blood calcium Can be utilized in young adults to improve bone health in older adults

Drugs like Xanax work by: Slowing or stopping the information loop between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex Inhibiting the activity of GABA Slowing or stopping the transmission of sensory information into the spinal cord Slowing or stopping the transmission of nervous impulses between the epithalamus and thalamus

Slowing or stopping the information loop between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex Inhibiting the activity of GABA

The brainstem should be responsible for: The blood flow response initiated by the sympathetic nervous system to conserve body heat during reduced environmental temperatures Decreased blood flow to the adrenals Sending action potentials that increase blood flow to the skin during times of reduced sympathetic tone Constricting the pupils in response to reduced light Increasing the respiratory rate during a fight or flight response Reducing milk letdown during a fight or flight response

The blood flow response initiated by the sympathetic nervous system to conserve body heat during reduced environmental temperatures Increasing the respiratory rate during a fight or flight response

cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye takes in light the cells in the cornea get oxygen from air striking the surface inside of eyelid is has a lot of oxygen and tear ducts so you actually get more O2 with eyelids closed right behind the cornea is aqueous humor which circulates and is derived from the blood

Which of the following is/are true of osteoclasts? They can dissolve hydroxyapatite with acid They arise from cells of the immune system When PTH binds to its receptor on their cell surface they can increase breakdown of compact bone during times of chronic hypocalcemia They are critically important during bone growth in length in order to prevent cavities from causing a weakening of the bone at the growth plate They produce enzymes which can degrade osteoid They produce osteocalcin which stimulates increased osteoblast formation and activity

They can dissolve hydroxyapatite with acid They arise from cells of the immune system They are critically important during bone growth in length in order to prevent cavities from causing a weakening of the bone at the growth plate They produce enzymes which can degrade osteoid

You've decided to build the world's first cave dairy, where your cows spend all day every day in a pitch dark cave in order to avoid any sunlight. In addition, as a little something for the tourists you decide to house your large predatory cat collection inside the cave along with the cows. Which of the following might result in your cows if they are lactating in the dark with large predatory cats growling around them? They would be breaking down stored glycogen and fat They would have decreased activation of Vitamin D within the skin There would be less blood flow to the skin and decreased milk production Oxytocin for milk letdown would decrease from the hypothalamus and pituitary Their pupils would be maximally dilated Salivation would increase PTH secretion would be higher than normal Blood flow to the kidneys would decrease PTH would have reduced ability to activate Vitamin D Secretion of calcium regulating hormones from the thyroid gland would increase PTH binding to receptors on osteoclasts would increase

They would be breaking down stored glycogen and fat They would have decreased activation of Vitamin D within the skin There would be less blood flow to the skin and decreased milk production Oxytocin for milk letdown would decrease from the hypothalamus and pituitary Their pupils would be maximally dilated PTH secretion would be higher than normal Blood flow to the kidneys would decrease PTH would have reduced ability to activate Vitamin D

Certain organs that help to regulate blood calcium are affected by stress, including: a) The kidneys which get reduced blood flow, resulting in reduced activation of Vitamin D precursors b) The adrenal glands which get reduced blood flow, resulting in reduced activation of Vitamin D by PTH c) The small intestines which get reduced blood flow and have reduced activity, resulting in decreased calcium uptake from the diet d) The bones which get blood flow with less insulin and thus there is less ability for osteoblasts to produce proteins such as RANKL or osteoid

a c d

More calcium binding to calbindin should occur: When more active vitamin D is circulating After the effects of PTH on the kidneys When more calcium is pumped from enterocytes by NCX When more calcium is pumped from enterocytes by primary active transport After more calcium transport proteins are inserted into the apical cell membrane of enterocytes After more calcium transport proteins are inserted into the basal cell membrane of enterocytes

When more active vitamin D is circulating After the effects of PTH on the kidneys After more calcium transport proteins are inserted into the apical cell membrane of enterocytes

Where would you expect to find living chondrocytes? Within the lacuna of compact bone Distal to the proximal physis in a growing animal Within the callus during fracture repair Within the internal tissues that form the structure of the pinnae Within the region between the diaphysis and metaphysis of the femur of a growing giraffe Within the physes of the temporal bone of a growing border collie

Within the callus during fracture repair Within the internal tissues that form the structure of the pinnae Within the region between the diaphysis and metaphysis of the femur of a growing giraffe

If the sheep have been rounded up by this particular border collie on several previous occasions: You would still expect all the same responses but they might be a little less severe The amygdala should transmit the information that the stimulus is familiar and would cause a reduced sympathetic response The hypothalamus would determine that the response is familiar and would override all the sympathetic responses The hypothalamus would likely still cause reduced milk letdown and/or delay parturition, but the behaviors would not be as severe due to input from the amygdala and prefrontal cortex

You would still expect all the same responses but they might be a little less severe The amygdala should transmit the information that the stimulus is familiar and would cause a reduced sympathetic response The hypothalamus would likely still cause reduced milk letdown and/or delay parturition, but the behaviors would not be as severe due to input from the amygdala and prefrontal cortex

A ewe fractures her tibia on a Tuesday and is put into a pen to recover for a few days. Unfortunately her pen is surrounded by hungry coyotes from Tuesday evening through Friday evening, at which point the coyotes clock out for the weekend. Assuming being in the midst of hungry coyotes is stressful for the ewe, which of the following might occur Tuesday through Friday while she's trying to repair this fracture? a) Reduced ability to create new cartilage to repair the fracture b) Increased numbers of osteocytes c) Reduced cytokines within the fracture site d) Increased formation of hydroxyapatite at a time when osteoid production is low During the times of her greatest stress, the ewe in the previous question should have: a) An increased heart rate b) Pupils that are noticeably constricted c) Reduced ability to process incoming sensory information (she would be obtunded) d) Reduced reproductive activity, due to both decreased reproductive hormone secretion by the hypothalamus and pituitary and to decreased blood flow and activity of the reproductive organs From Friday evening through Sunday evening when the hungry coyotes clock out and disappear, the ewe should exhibit: a) Increased insulin secretion b) Improved blood flow to her skeletal muscles c) Increased amounts of binding of norepinephrine and/or epinephrine to alpha receptors d) A reduction in activity within the vagus nerve 14) The changes in the ewe over the low stress weekends that should help her to "rest and restore" should include: a) Increased storage of glucose as triglycerides within adipose tissues b) Increased salivation and digestive activity c) Increased glucose uptake by resting skeletal muscles d) Decreased energy used for maintenance activities

a c a d a abcd

During bone remodeling, osteocytes first recruit osteoblasts and cause them to produce a factor called RANKL. The osteoblasts produce RANKL to stimulate osteoclasts to increase bone resorption. As old bone is removed, osteocalcin is released into the blood and acts as a hormone to increase insulin secretion. Insulin then stimulates the osteoblasts to stop producing RANKL and to produce an inhibitor of RANKL instead. At the same time, osteoblasts begin to move into the tunnels created by the osteoclasts and to produce osteoid and hydroxyapatite to fill them in. As written here, this pathway includes elements of: a) Negative feedback b) Positive feedback c) Homeostasis d) Positive feedforward Imagine that the pathway described in the previous question was being carried out during insulin resistance. Which of the following might happen? a) Osteoclast activity would not be reduced and too much bone could be resorbed b) Osteoid would not be produced and tunnels would not be filled in c) New osteocytes would not form d) The resulting bone would be weaker and more prone to breaking

a d a b c d

30) A website called Mercola.com included the following quote about beta-agonists, with the implication that humans eating meat from beta-agonist treated animals may have an increase in the incidence of asthma (difficult breathing due to constricted airways): "It may be worth noting that, in humans, beta-agonists are used to treat asthma, among other things. Interestingly enough, stubborn weight gain is a common complaint among asthma patients using Advair (a beta-agonist drug)—so much so that the manufacturer has added weight gain to the post-marketing side effects." Based on what you know about beta receptors for norepinephrine/epinephrine, which of the following would you tell the author of this website in order to argue against some of his claims? a) Beta-agonists should increase the rate and depth of breathing, which is the opposite of asthma b) Of course there can be weight gain; beta-agonists reduce stored fat and increase skeletal muscle mass, thus resulting in a more healthy but heavier body composition c) Beta-agonists act like parasympathomimetics, thus causing excessive salivation and increased gut sounds. These could actually improve body composition by increasing the rate of passage of digested foods to the point where less calories would be absorbed into the blood d) Beta-agonists should increase the diameter of blood vessels within skeletal muscles, causing them to get more blood and more efficiently make ATP and thus increase the overall health and fitness of the individual

ab

The parasympathetic nervous system has no direct impact on brain activity, yet under high parasympathetic tone the function of the brain decreases. Which of the following might explain this? a) The sympathetic activity has decreased during high parasympathetic activity, and thus the brain is no longer under the stimulatory influence of the sympathetic nervous system b) During high parasympathetic tone the heart rate and amount of blood pumped by the heart should decrease, which would cause less blood to flow to the brain c) During high parasympathetic tone there would be more blood flowing to the digestive organs, skin, reproductive organs and kidneys and less available to the brain d) During high parasympathetic tone there should be more insulin secretion which would make more glucose available to the brain

abc

Which of the following is true regarding the senses? a) Touch and hearing require action potentials generated from specialized sensory receptors that move or deform in response to the stimulus b) The retina contains receptors that respond to electromagnetic energy (light), and ultimately causes action potentials to start within the optic nerve c) Vision, smell, taste, hearing and touch perception only really happen within the brain, and not within the receptors that detect the sensations that initially cause action potentials d) Taste is a very basic sense with only a few different types of chemoreceptors, and distinguishing subtle flavors requires mechanical sensations such as the sense of smell

abc

Shortly after graduating from K-State you find yourself working as a hammer cleaner for a local building contractor. Fortunately for you there is an opportunity to get promoted to screwdriver sorter, if only you can impress the boss somehow with things you learned in A&P. By an amazing coincidence, the boss takes on a job for an amusement park where the owners want him to build a ride for customers to "tour the autonomic nervous system." You should first impress your boss by telling him that he's building the autonomic nervous system correctly, because: a) He is using spinal nerves to represent the sympathetic and mostly cranial nerves to represent the parasympathetic b) He has illustrated that the brainstem is in charge of parasympathetic functions like decreasing the heart rate and sympathetic functions like increasing the heart rate and rate of breathing c) He has represented the vagus nerve leaving the brainstem and innervating at least the heart and digestive organs d) He has nerves of the parasympathetic going to the adrenal medulla and stimulating chromaffin cells to produce and secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine Your boss is so impressed with your knowledge of the autonomic nervous system that he promotes you directly past screwdriver sorter and on to power tool plugger inner. Your next task is to help make sure that each portion of the new section of the amusement park - BrainRide2018!TM - is correctly described in each section of the ride. Which of the following should be a correct tour-guide description for each brain region? a) Cerebellum: The cerebellum has many useful functions, including initiating the release of oxytocin that helps mammals to expel their milk! The cerebellum is also actively involved in sensing the internal and external environment in order to decide whether or not to start the reproductive process! b) Brainstem: Welcome to the brainstem, tourist! Here in the brainstem we have nerve cells which are involved in helping us perform basic stereotyped movements such as swallowing, blinking, automatically contracting the respiratory muscles and changing the size of the pupils in response to light! The brainstem is a useful place! c) Thalamus: The thalamus is a fun little area that is located just caudal to the brainstem! It helps with the timing and sequencing of movements and may be involved in such things as "muscle memory" and attention span. It also has the capability of taking on many functions of other parts of the brain! Such as deciding whether or not to use another fun filled exclamation point! d) Cerebrum: This bumpy region of the brain that you are now touring is really useful! It helps us with all kinds of decision making, including things like understanding sounds that we hear and interpreting them as words, processing action potentials coming from the retinas via the optic nerves and turning them into visual information, and making decisions about whether or not something is a good or bad idea! Jump off the roof of the house into a glass of water? "No!" says the prefrontal cortex that is located within the cerebrum.

abc bd

Which of the following are correctly matched? a) Parietal lobe - Knowing that a piranha is munching on your patella while you're wading in the Amazon b) Hypothalamus - initiating negative feedback to restore water in the blood after it has detected a deviation below the normal physiological range c) Brainstem - Increasing blood flow to the skin after heat begins to build up during a fight or flight response d) Posterior cerebrum - a cow smelling her new calf, then locating her new calf visually in a pasture full of new calves

abd

There are a few common activities that occur during increases in sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system activities, such as: a) Short term increased circulating blood glucose b) Increased breakdown of stored glycogen c) Increased water in the feces (diarrhea) d) Increased circulating fatty acids

ac

sympatheic nervous system beta epi/ne receptor different locations have different functions

adipose- increases conversion of triglycerides tp fatty acids which increase circulating fat which skeletal muscles use for energy (store less fat) liver- breakdown stored glycogen, increases glucogenesis (increases circulating glucose) pancreas- decreases insulin, allows increase in glu in blood, increases glucose in brain through glut 1 and 3, increases glu in skeletal muscles because they are contracting (insulin independent)

bone growth in width

all the same as length except it starts with osteoblasts and not chondrocytes 1) in the periosteum, osteoprogenetor cells turn into osteoblasts and secrete osteoid 2) osteoblasts also make osteocalcin which directs or orients new Ca PO precipitation 3) osteoclasts enlarge in the medullary cavity 4) osteoblasts become trapped in new bone osteiod and CA PO crystals 5) forms osteocytes, lacuna (where osteocyte lives, surrounds it), and canaliculi (small canals)

touch

most of the sensory info comes from sensory nerve endings that are found within the dermis

Which of the following should be a result of decreasing the activity of the sympathetic nervous system rather than increasing activity of the parasympathetic nervous system? a) Dilation of arteries within the mesentery b) Dilation of arteries within the skin c) Increased saliva production d) Increased contraction of smooth muscles of the small intestines

b

Which of the following sympathetic nervous system activities should be initiated and/or controlled by the hypothalamus rather than the brainstem? a) Increasing the diameter of the pupil b) Reducing milk letdown by the mammary gland c) Increasing the heart rate d) Increasing reproductive hormone secretion during times of adequate or elevated circulating nutrients

b

Which of the following describes a correct negative feedback response to hypercalcemia? a) Increased activation of Vitamin D b) Increased excretion of calcium by the kidneys c) Increased excretion of calcium within the feces d) Increased secretion of RANKL by osteoblasts

b c

) A lab technician mistakenly substitutes a solution of glucose for PTH, and a dog ends up getting an accidental intravenous infusion of PTH for 3 days. During that time, which of the following might happen? a) An increase in secretion of PTH from the parathyroid gland b) Increased reabsorption of calcium from the kidneys (decreased excretion in the urine) c) An increase in active transport of calcium across the basal cell membrane of enterocytes within the duodenum d) Decreased calcium storage within bones

b c d

Brainstem

basic physiological functions like heart and respiratory rate, circulatory system, digestive stereotyped movements and reflexes like blinking, swallowing, vomiting, constriction/dilation of pupils eye movement and amount of light in eye responses in fight or flight (basic, heart rate and blood flow)

Which of the following best describes the physiological significance of the vagus nerve? a) Allows for increased digestive activity at the time that a boy named Ted is falling from the top of a large oak tree (where his mother told him NOT to play) b) Could stimulate activity and blood flow to the digestive tract before during and after having a nice relaxing meal c) Could help to promote an increase in activation of Vitamin D by increasing blood flow to the kidneys and also promote uptake of calcium from the diet in order to provide negative feedback for hypocalcemia d) Could increase blood flow to the skin during times of increased body temperature

bc

If calcium in the blood falls below its physiological limit, which of the following should be true? a) There will be increased calcium synthesis within osteoclasts b) There will be more breakdown of unmineralized osteoid by osteoblasts c) There will be increased secretion of RANKL by osteoblasts d) There will be increased circulating osteocalcin

bcd

Which of the following is a direct function of the sympathetic nervous system? a) Constricting the pupils b) Decreasing blood flow to the skin c) Increasing blood flow to the adrenals d) Decreasing blood flow to the kidneys

bcd

Which of the following is a direct function of the parasympathetic nervous system? a) Decreased blood flow to the brain b) Increased insulin secretion c) Decreased blood flow to the skin d) Decreased heart ratw

bd

no parasympathetic input to (only sympathetic):

blood vessels in skin, adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, blood vessels to skeletal muscles, adrenal artery, mammary blood vessels, mammary smooth muscles **reduced sympathetic tone (NOT INCREASED PARASYMPATHETIC)

PTH function on bones

bones: PTH binds to receptors on osteoblasts which tells them to produce RANKL which causes increased osteoclast activity to break down more bone to release calcium PTH also tells osteoblasts to stop making osteoid PTH also causes osteoblasts to secrete an enzyme that breaks down any new unmineralized collagen PTH also stimulates osteocytes to pump Ca out of the extra cellular matrix surrounding the cell (ultimately going to the blood)

A cow is peacefully chewing her cud while working on a Bob Ross painting of a mountain cabin scene. Which of the following is most likely occurring during this time? a) Decreased production of saliva b) Constriction of blood vessels within her skin c) Optimal amounts of blood being filtered by the kidneys d) The adrenal medulla is releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood

c

A group of lactating dairy cows are harassed by an unruly gang of large predatory cats (a lion, a tiger, a jaguar and a tabby with delusions of grandeur). Which of the following should be occurring in the cows under these stressful conditions? a) Decreased ability for PTH to activate Vitamin D within the adrenals b) Increased activity of osteoblast cells to produce new osteoid c) Increased PTH secretion d) Sensing of hypercalcemia by cells of the parathyroid gland

c

If calcium in the blood rises above its physiological limit, which of the following should be true? a) Calcitonin should cause a decrease in the activity of Vitamin D b) The sympathetic nervous system will initiate decreased blood flow to the intestines and kidneys c) PTH secretion will decrease d) The adrenals will excrete more calcium into the urine

c

Which of the following is not a correct example of negative feedback associated with the autonomic nervous system? a) Blood pressure within arteries of the brain becomes too high and the brain increases parasympathetic stimulation of the heart b) Increased contraction of skeletal muscles causes increased heat production during fight or flight; the sympathetic nervous system dilates blood vessels within skeletal muscles resulting in increased blood flow and convective cooling in the muscles c) A stressed out welder named Elmer (owner of Elmer's Welder World) becomes worried about his high blood pressure, which then causes an increase in his sympathetic tone d) A cow with mild hypocalcemia relaxes after being milked, allowing increased blood flow to her kidneys and ultimately increased activation of Vitamin D which helps to return calcium levels to normal

c

Which of the following is/are incorrectly matched? a) Frontal lobe - Evaluation of behaviors and ideas, association of stimuli with previously bad experiences b) Amygdala - routing information that a cougar is attacking you to the hypothalamus to reduce reproductive activity c) Prefrontal cortex - Deciding to increase heart rate in response to a cougar attacking you d) Brainstem - Initiating a nerve impulse that ultimately causes increased norepinephrine, epinephrine and cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland in response to a cougar attacking you

c

A tabby cat has gotten a disease (probably from hanging out with too many large predatory cats) in which Vitamin D can only stimulate increased numbers of calcium carrier proteins within the apical cell membrane of enterocytes. Which of the following might result from this disease (as compared to a normal cat)? a) Increased active transport across the basal enterocyte cell membranes b) A continued increase in the rate of facilitated diffusion of calcium across the apical enterocyte cell membranes c) A decrease in the concentration gradient between the intracellular fluid of enterocytes and the lumen of the intestine d) A decrease in the amount of calcium within the extracellular fluid surrounding mesenteric capillaries

c d

homeostasis hypercalcemia overview what feedback?

can cause heart cramps hypothalamus and the thyroid sense that blood calcium is too high the physiological response for this is to excrete Ca from kidneys, store excess Ca in bone, and absorb less Ca in the diet NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

what does hypocalcemia cause hypocalcemia overview

causes a loss of function of nervous system and lose circulation and decreased sensory perception (obtunded) sensed by the parathyroid gland the physiological repsonse is to release PTH (para thyroid hormone) which increases removal of Ca from the bone, increases absorption of Ca in diet, decreases excretion of Ca

Match each of the following brain functions with their correct brain region Balance and coordination for walking or riding a bike Increasing oxygenation of the corneas by causing blinking Dilation of the pupils in response to low light Making the decision not to reproduce when nutrient supplies are low A continuous state of heightened anxiety, as in PTSD Routing the information that a spider is on your arm to the part of the cerebrum that recognizes sensations on the arm Figuring out that the patterns of light bouncing off the screen during lecture are words Timing and sequence of muscle contractions involved in Serena Williams' perfect tennis serve Attention span Increasing heart rate in response to a stressful situation such as being attacked by a horror movie villain Decreasing milk letdown in response to a stressful situation such as being attacked by a horror movie villain

cerebellum brainstem brainstem diencephalon telencephalon di te cerebellum cerebellum brainstem di

chondrocytes osteoclast osteoblast osteocytes

chondrocytes: cartilage cells osteoclast: bone degrading cells osteoblast: bone building cells osteocytes: true bone cells, osteoblast mature into osteocytes

lens

clear cells that make proteins called crystallins which are arranged like layers of an onion so the lens can take different shapes

iris pupil

composed of ciliary muscles that surround the pupil and contract or relax in response to light this is controlled by feedback from the brain and autonomic nervous system pupil dilation is controlled by the brain stem

retina

contains light sensing receptors, the rods and cones rods detect light intensity and send info that is interpreted as shades of grey cones detect specific wavelengths of light and send info regarding colors behind the lens is the fovea centralis, reflective (for seeing at night) increases light hitting retina fovea centralis is mostly cones and is where most light comes in you also have a blind spot where your optic nerve connects to the retina which is called the optic disc

spacial summation

covering a larger amount of skin thus activating a larger number of receptors

If the cerebellum was damaged and could not perform its normal functions you might expect disruptions in the ability to: a) Understand visual or olfactory information b) Regulate reproductive activity c) Route information coming in from peripheral nerves to the proper location within the telencephalon d) Send a text message quickly and without consciously thinking about striking individual letters with your thumbs

d

Which of the following should help to increase blood calcium? a) A mutation in calbindin proteins in which calcium binds almost irreversibly b) A low sodium concentration in the extracellular fluid surrounding enterocytes c) Reduced oxygenated blood delivered to enterocytes causing a decrease in the efficiency of ATP production from glucose d) An increase in the concentration gradient of activated Vitamin D between the extracellular and intracellular fluid of enterocytes

d

sympathetic decreases function of gonads (repro organs)

decreases blood flow and decreases hormones

sympathetic nervous system effects on kidney

decreases blood flow in renal artery which is distal to the point where the adrenal artery leaves the renal artery increases blood to adrenal and decreases blood to kidney

sympathetic decreases function of kidneys

decreases blood flow, decreases removal of toxins, decreases PTH activity which decreases Vitamin D

sympathetic decreases function of pancreas

decreases insulin

sympathetic decreases function of digestive

decreases motility and decreases blood flow

sympathetic decreases function of pain

decreases perception of pain

is PTH increased or decreased in the sympathetic?

decreases pth which decreases vitamin d

t/f: Anxiety is different from fear because fear triggers more nervous impulses between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex while anxiety triggers fewer nervous impulses between the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

false

t/f: Cattle should have increased growth performance if stressful situations are all conducted at the same time wherever possible. For example, weaning, vaccinating, dehorning, branding and castration should be done on the same day.

false

autonomic nervous system sympathetic

fight or flight, fast and widespread response, mostly nerves dilates pupil, increases vision, inhibits salivation, decrease digestion, relaxes bronchi, increases oxygen in blood, accelerates heart, increase skeletal muscle activity, stimulates glucose release by liver, increases nutrients in blood (increase PTH), secretion of epi and norepi from adrenal gland, increases break down of stored fat which increases circulating fatty acids in blood, relaxes bladder, contracts rectum, apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, decreases normal blood flow diverts blood to skeletal muscle, heart, brain, lungs PRIMARY: changes in blood flow

Telencephalon 4 lobes that make up cerebral cortex functions limbic system function corpus collosum function prefrontal cortex function

frontal lobe- personality, conscience, processing parietal lobe- touch sensations occipital lobe- visual memory temporal lobe- auditory and language processing corpus callosum- connection between the left and right hemispheres limbic system- controls emotion, motivation, and emotional associated with memory , fears (includes amygdala) prefrontal cortex- examining the consequences of particular decisions before a decision is made, work with limbic system to process fear and anxiety response

circulating epi/ne and sympathetic nerves will increase/decrease: nerves only:

increase HR, increase RR, decrease digestive activity increase sweating

sympathetic increases function of skeletal muscles

increased blood flow and nutrients, speed and force of contraction, feedback from muscles, and protein synthesis and hypertrophy

sympathetic increases function of brain

increases blood flow, increases of facilitated diffusion of glucose (through glut 1, 3), increases sensory perception, increases interpretation and association of stimuli (at subconcious level)

sympathetic increases function of adipose tissue

increases breakdown of TG to fatty acids

why shouldn't you ween, vaccinate, castrate etc all on the same day

increases cortisol (cortisol toxicosis) which can cause shipping fever because immune system in decreased

sympathetic increases function of adrenal gland

increases cortisol from adrenal cortex which increases glycogen breakdown, decreases inflammation/immune function increases epinerphrine and norepinephrine

What does increased vitamin D activity do

increases facilitated diffusion of Ca into absorptive cells (intestines deodenum) increases sequestering of Ca to decrease concentration of Ca inside the cell by calbindin increases primary active transport of Ca out of the cell increases secondary active transport by NCX (Na Ca exchanger) (Na goes in Ca goes out)

sympathetic increases function of liver

increases glycogenolysis, increase glucogenesis (increases circulating glucose), decreases glycogen synthesis

What does growth hormone do? hormones that control growth in width and flat bones growth of flat bone vs width

increases osteiod made by osteoblast, increases deposition of new bone, increase width of bone and increase size of flat bones GH and gonadal steroids growth of flat bone is like growth in width of long bone except in all directions. flat bone in ribs, sternum, skull

sympathetic increases function of lungs and respiratory tract

increases rate and depth of breathing, increases blood flow to and from lungs, increases exchange of O2 and CO2

sympathetic increases function of heart

increases rate and force of contractions through beta receptors, increases cardiac output and increases venous return (more blood flowing back to the heart)

PTH function on kidneys

kidney: causes re absorption of calcium to save it within the blood and reduce the amount excreted in urine

sympatheic nervous system alpha epi/ne receptor location, function

located on blood vessels changing blood flow vasoconstriction- decreases blood flow in skin, kidneys, digestive organs, and skin vasodialate- increases blood flow in lungs, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, brain, sensory organs

hearing

mechanical info in the form of sound waves is converted to electrical impulses requires molecules like air or water to move

Cerebellum

normal motor function for complex movement like typing, walking, playing an instrument intensity of muscle contractions coordination and balance and attention timing and sequence of motor activities

pituitary effect on adrenal gland sympathetic nervous system steps what do the increased values of these do

pituitary releases ATCH which causes the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. cortisol moves through the adrenal portal vessel to the chromaffin cells which release more cortisol and nor and epinephrine. the cortisol and nor and epi go into the adrenal vein and circulate. increased cortisol: increases the breakdown of liver glycogen which increases circulating glucose, decreases inflammation. overall increases the amount of blood and energy for fight or flight increased epi and norepi: goes into adipose tissue which increases the free fatty acids in the blood

temporal summation

same sensory receptors sending more info at a faster rate to the brain

what is included in the telencephalon main functions

rational thought, takes info from sensory inputs and decides what they mean and where they need to be taken, conscious portion of brain frontal lobe, parietal lobe. occipital lobe temporal lobe, corpus callosum, limbic system (includes amygdala), prefrontal cortex, cerebrum (cerebral cortex)

autonomic nervous system parasympathetic

rest and restore, slow response, only the vegas nerve decreases vision, constricts pupil, increases digestion, stimulates salivation, decreases circulation, inhibits heart, decrease respiratory rate, decreases size of air passages, constricts bronchi, increases ability to store more nutrients, increased tear formation, stimulates gall bladder, increases insulin secretion, contracts bladder, relaxes rectum, increases filtration by kidneys, increases glycogen storage in liver, increases insulin, normal blood flow to digestive, kidneys,skin, reproductive organs OVERALL: increases uptake and storage of nutrients, decrease energy used

calciums important for:

secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters (nerve to nerve communication) circulatory system: heart muscles get calcium for contraction from ECF (too much or too little Ca means heart won't work right) skeletal muscles cells store Ca for contraction

The dog locates the sheep using her special senses. Match each of the following with the correct type of receptor: Rods and cones Chemoreceptors in the olfactory epithelium Hair cells in the cochlea Vibrations amplified by the ossicles Light focused through the cornea and lens (options are the dog hears the sheep, the dog smells the sheep, the dog hears the sheep)

sees smells hears hears sees

hypocalcemia more in depth effects on multiple parts of body feedback

sensed by parathyroid gland which increases secretion of PTH. PTH goes to the kidneys in the kidneys it decreases the excretion of Ca and increases the reabsorption of Ca from the urine to the blood. This causes the activation of vitamin D. Vitamin D increases the absorption of Ca in the diet which increases blood Ca. PTH also goes to the bones where it binds to osteoblasts which produce RANKL which increases osteoclast activity increasing the breakdown of bone which increases blood Ca. The combo of increased Ca and vitamin D decreases PTH secretion NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

hypercalcemia in more depth

sensed by thyroid gland which release calcitonin from C cells which goes into the blood. Calcitonin increases excretion of Ca from kidneys. in life threatening/acute situations calctonin decreases osteoclast activity which decreases the liberation of Ca from storage (PERMISSIVE FEEDBACK). For chronic/dietary calcitonin decreases the formation of new osteoclasts

autonomic nervous system communication

sensory input (conscious or subconscious) to the brain to the physiological output NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

how sensory input works

sensory input comes from receptors which are specialized nervous cells that detect specific sensations. this sends an action potential the brain processes it and then there is an output or response

pinna

the larger the pinna the more acute the hearing pinna focuses sound waves into tympanic membrane (ear drum) through the external auditory canal

increased vitamin D activity in enterocyte

simple diffusion of vitamin D into the cell which goes into the nucleus. through protein synthesis vitamin D increases the number of Ca carrier proteins on apical side. Ca moves into the cell via facilitated diffusion. Vitamin D also uses protein synthesis to create calbindin which sequesters Ca in the ICF. Calbindin translocates to the basal side. So the calbindin decreases the concentration of Ca on the apical and increases it on the basal side. Vitamin D also increases the primary active transport of Ca out of the cell on the basal side using ATP which is converted to ADP + Pi. Vitamin D also makes NCX which uses secondary active transport to move Ca out and Na in. There is now an increase in Ca in the ECF and it moves into the blood/

asthma treatment other drugs that mimic PNS

small constricted airways treatment: Beta agonist(mimics receptor): increases sympathetic acetylcholine antagonist: decreases parasympathetic atropine has more control of heart rate than sympathetic holds heart rate down. when clamp is released heart rate increases toxins or chemicals: insecticides

Which of the following should serve to increase blood calcium? Stimulation of increased activation of vitamin D Added (supplemental) Vitamin D in foods (like dairy) that include a lot of calcium Eating foods that contain a lot of glucose and/or fructose Increasing PTH secretion by the thyroid gland Increasing PTH secretion by the parathyroid gland Increasing calcitonin secretion by the thyroid gland The effect of PTH on calcium excretion by the kidneys

stimulation of increased activation of vitamin D Added (supplemental) Vitamin D in foods (like dairy) that include a lot of calcium Increasing PTH secretion by the parathyroid gland

what is included in the Diencephalon

thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

Diencephalon thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus function

thalamus: relay center to ensure info traveling to the cerebrum (in the telencephalon) hypothalamus: "primitive functions"(thirst, heat/cold, hunger, anger, fatigue, seasonality), monitoring internal and external well being and then making decisions about basic physiological processes, in charge of basic functions like water balance and body temp and milk letdown, reproduction, maternal behavior epithalamus: contains pineal gland which is a blend between endocrine and nervous system

anxiety response what happens when anxiety become unmanageable what does xanax do

the same as fear response but the sensory info is not real GABA is released at higher quantities and causes a cyclical positive feedback loop between amygdala and prefrontal cortex and speeds up xanax decreases GABA activity which stops the positive feedback loop

vision and light

vision is actually the brains interpretation of info in the form of action potentials coming from either rods or cones light is electromagetic energy, photons, needs sensory

when does lengthening of bone stop

when you run out of chondrocytes

why is the sympathetic nervous system widespread and fast

widespread: hormones can go anywhere fast: spinal nerves conduct info quickly sends these to brain stem then to spinal cord. splanchnic nerve is attached to spinal cord which attaches to the adrenal gland. chromafin cells in the medulla are activated by splanchnic nerve. chromafin cells produce epi and norepi. these hormones go into the blood and everywhere