AAAD 130 Final

1. How did the British government attempt to intervene in response to the threat of slave unrest in this period? What kinds of reforms were attempted? How did the planters and plantation owners respond to the British government's initiatives?

The legislature of British Guiana decided that "if the principle of manumission invito domino is to be adopted, it is more for their consistency and for the interests of their constituents that it should be done for them than by them. The reforms included: abolition of the whip; abolition of the Negro Sunday market, by giving the slaves another day off, to permit them time for religious instruction; prohibition of the flog- ging of female slaves; compulsory manumission of field and domestic slaves; freedom of female children born after 1823; admissibility of evi- dence of slaves in courts of law; establishment of savings banks for slaves; a nine-hour day; and the appointment of a Protector of Slaves whose duty it was, among other things, to keep an official record of the punish- ments inflicted on the slaves. Planters ignored and didn't approve of this.

1. How did the level of resistance of enslaved in Saint Domingue compare with that of English and Dutch colonies? To what factors does the author attribute the difference?

The planters themselves tended to attribute the absence of slave revolts to Saint Domingue's military- style government, which precluded the democratic dissensions of the self-governing British colonies and which placed far more stress on militia training. The colony's size and low population density meant that slave discontent was most easily channeled into fleeing to the mountains and forests.

Colonel Cudjoe

a Maroon leader in Jamaica during the time of Nanny of the Maroons. He has been described as "the greatest of the Maroon leaders.

How did the free colored in the British colonies respond to the tension these events created between the British government and the white colonists? What evidence indicates the kind of reputation that had with British authorities?

1. How did the free colored in the British colonies respond to the tension these events created between the British government and the white colonists? What evidence indicates the kind of reputation that had with British authorities?

1. How was science bolstering theories of racism at the end of the nineteenth century? What theory was justifying racial inequality at that time?

1. Social Darwinism increasingly influenced the-way most Protestant white Americans perceived their society, leading them to believe people could be ranked from superior to inferior based on their race, nationality, and ethnicity. Black people were invariably ranked at the bottom of this hierarchy

1. What combination of motives confluence of northern interests led various factions among Republicans to advocate black suffrage (voting rights)? How did the Republicans differ among themselves in their motivations regarding granting political rights to freed blacks?

A confluence of northern interests began to promote black suffrage as being crucial to a policy that would ensure the gains made during the war. Black and white abolitionists supported the enfranchisement of black men on the basis of black soldiers' defense of the Union. Pragmatic Republicans, fearful of the political consequences of a South dominated by Democrats, maintained that black suffrage in the South would aid in the continued growth of the Republican party. Industrialists with an eye on markets and cheap labor in the South supported the suffrage for blacks in order to deter the reemergence of the powerful agrarian interests that reigned in the prewar era.

Leger-Felicite Sonthonax

A french abolitionist. During the French Revolution, he controlled 7,000 French troops in Saint-Domingue during part of the Haitian Revolution.[1] His official title was Civil Commissioner. From September 1792 to December 1795, he was the de facto ruler of Saint-Domingue's non-slave populace. On August 1793, he proclaimed freedom for all slaves in the north province. His critics allege that he was forced into ending slavery in order to maintain his own power.[

1. What interests delayed abolition in certain South American country? In how many Spanish American countries did abolition occur later than it did in the U.S.?

Abolition was opposed by Colombia and Venezuela's mining interests, for whom 55 percent of the 38,940 enslaved still toiled as late as 1830. As a result, slavery was officially abolished in Chile, the countries of Central America, and Mexico in Ecuador followed suit that year, then Argentina and Uruguay (1853), Peru and Venezuela (1854), Bolivia (1861) and Paraguay (1869).

1. Where did the name "Haiti" come from? Why was it chosen as the name for the former San Domingue colony when it became independent? Which rebellions and independence struggles were directly influenced by the Haitian Revolution?

Aboriginal Amerindian origins. As an homage to the Arawaks who were exterminated in the sixteenth century. Venezuela, Havana, Dominican Republic, Charleston, Jamaica, errwhere.

Blanche Bruce

African American who served in the Senate

1. What factors led the enslaved to believe they had already been emancipated? How were these beliefs encouraged? What events in this period led to eventual Emancipation in the British Caribbean?

After any new policy was announced, slaves predicted that Emancipation had been passed in England but was withheld by their masters.

1. Member of which African group instigated and carried out most of the slave rebellions in Jamaica, according to our text? What factors are identified to explain that tendency?

Almost every one of the slave rebellions during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were instigated and carried out mainly by Coromantee or Akan slaves who came from the Gold Coast where the Ashanti Federation had a highly developed military regime which was skilled in jungle warfare.

1. To what degree did African Americans find ways to take advantage of conditions created by segregation? How did some African Americans benefit economically from Jim Crow segregation?

Although white supremacy and the proliferation of Jim Crow severely restricted opportunities for educated black people, those same limitations enabled enterprising black men and women to open and operate businesses that served black clientele. By the early twentieth century, black Americans not only had their own churches and schools, but they had also established banks, newspapers, insurance companies, retail businesses, barbershops, beauty salons, and funeral parlors. Virtually every black community had its own small businesses, markets, street vendors, and other entrepreneurs .

1. What different ways did enslaved blacks employ to win freedom in the American revolution? Why did some blacks fight on the side of the British?

As Loyalists, the slaves and their free Black counterparts (approximately one-third of them) took up arms and served as spies, couriers, guides, cooks, orderlies, waiters, personal servants, and field hands on captured plantations. The British government was providing them freedom.

1. What direct action connects the successful independence struggle of Haiti to subsequent independence struggles in Latin America?

Black soldiers made their own contributions to the independence efforts, fighting as well for an end to slavery

1. What factors affected and enhanced the abilities of blacks to mobilize politically and organizationally after the Civil War? What roles did black troops black in support of freedpeople? What issues were raised in statewide conventions? What evidence indicates the level of influence of black women in political organizing?

Black union soldiers arrested lawless whites, helped to build schools and other community institutions for the freed-people, gave advice in regard to labor contracts, demanded equal access to public accommodations, and voiced their opinions. The conventions offered convincing evidence of black political mobilization against presidential reconstruction; approximately 150 delegates from communities and organization throughout NC assembleld at the Loyal African Episcopal Church in Raleigh in 1865.

1. What issues does the author say caused the interests of the North American colonial elite to diverge from the British?

Britain had, too, ceded the territory east of the Appalachia mountains to the Native Americans (the Proclamation of 1763) and protected its merchants' interests in the African slave trade (despite a late eighteenth-century slave surplus in the colonies that was depreciating the property of the colonial elites). Also, the British Parliament levied new taxes on the colonies in a desperate , attempt to pay the debts incurred by imperial war (the French-Indian War). Britain was an external and distant predator, and the colonial elite and urban middle classes insisted upon it.

Which states were still under Republican control at the time of the election of 1876? How was that disputed election settled?

By 1876 the only states that Republicans could c1alin were South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana.

Why did planters put out "feelers" to the U.S. government? What issues does that raise regarding the connections among struggles involving independence, freedom, and slavery?

By persisting in the question of right we lost America. Talk of secession was rife. The home government was warned that there was constant communication in Jamaica with individuals in the United States.

1. When the enslaved blacks revolted, which side of the French Revolution did most of them believe they were fighting for? What actions did free coloreds in San Domingue take in relation to the slave rebellion after being granted full citizenship in 1792?

By refuting the ideology of white supremacy and destroying the governmental structure that imposed it, the French Revolution brought the free coloreds to power in Saint Domingue. There was a high point of mulatto control in Haiti.

1. Why did the formation of multi-ethnic rebellions represent an important development in slave resistance? Which broader events framed and influenced patterns of slave resistance from the 1770s to the final Emancipation in 1833?

Creoles had joined the Coromantees and the Eboes. They had never before engaged in Rebellions, and in whose fidelity we had always most firmly relied, that the~ were invited to this attempt, by the particular circumstances of the times; well knowing, there were fewer Troops in the Island, then [sic] had been at any time with.in their Memory. Jamaican plots and rebellions in the period from 1770 to 1832 were caused partly by the impact upon the slaves of certain social, religious, and political forces and events that were current at that time, writes Orlando Patterson. These included the American and French revolutions, Haitian slave revolt, British abolitionist movement, closing of the Atlantic slave trade in 1807, and the coming to the island of nonconformist missionaries.

1. When did support for black emigration and sovereignty reach its highest point? What was Martin Delany's role in the "black sovereignty" movement? What other leaders supported emigration?

Delany's plan, as faithfully reported in the otherwise hostile Pittsburgh Daily Morning Post, was to construct empires ruled by the "nearly twentyone millions [of] colored people of African and Indian origin" in the West Indies, Central America, Latin America, and Brazil. These empires would form the seat of "negro civilization" and to the slaves of the United States would serve as "the facility of escape. Paradoxically, at this point, it was the intervention of non-Blacks that propelled the movement to its next stage. In January 1858, member of Congress Frank Blair, Jr., of Missouri, proposed that the House of Representatives initiate and subsidize a colony of free Blacks in Central America.

1. What were the three occasions where the Constitution refers to slavery?

Deleted paragraph: The British King imposing an "execrable commerce" on the colonies: the slave trade and slavery. Article I: The number of representatives and direct taxes apportioned to each state was to be determined by its population: including to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other j Persons. Article II: Fugitive Slave Act: fugitives will be delivered back to original state to provide their due service and condemns any who provided aid to the fugitive slaves.

1. Which black leaders were supporters of John Brown's efforts to start an anti-slave revolution? What happened to the participants of Brown's raid who escaped and survived?

Douglass was one of Brown's closest confidantes in the free Black and former slave communities of the North; Delany and Tubman served as his principal resources for recruitment among the 40-50,000 Black emigrants in Canada. Osborn Anderson escaped, surviving to fight in the Civil War and provide what DuBois considered the best account of what happened at Harper's Ferry. Of the rest of the raiders, four escaped: Owen Brown (the third of John's sons involved in the raid), Francis Meriam (to serve as the captain of a Black company during the Civil War), Charles lldd (killed in the Civil War), and Barclay Coppoc (killed in the Civil War).

Societe des Amis des Noirs

During the French Revolution, a group of French men and women, mostly white, who were abolitionists. They opposed slavery, which was institutionalized in the French colonies of the Caribbean and North America, and the African slave trade.

1. What were Lincoln's initial plans for freed blacks after the Civil War? To what degree did he become willing to extend citizenship rights to blacks? How did President Andrew Johnson intend to deal with black enfranchisement?

During the war, he hoped that a substantial number of blacks would choose to emigrate from the United States. He wanted the intelligent and wealthy blacks to be let in to the elective franchise.

1. How did free colored in France and in Saint Domingue try to utilize to the Declaration of the Rights of Man? What evidence indicates the free coloreds' attitudes toward slavery at this point? What were the results of their efforts?

Encouraged by freed men in Paris, to emphasize the fact that they were men too. Free- colored property owners in Saint Domingue also gathered to demand equal rights with white men. Whites began intimidating supporters of this movement by killing them and other harmful actions in order to maintain status quo.

1. What methods and capabilities allowed European countries to increase and consolidate their control of African territories at this time? Which areas did were dominated by the French? The British? The Germans? The Belgians?

Europeans gained control by lying treaties, rivers of rum, murders, rape, robbery, and acts of torture. By the early 1870s they still recognized African authority and operated through alliances with local African rulers. In West Africa the French pushed up the Senegal valley and Algeria. The British and Boers South Africa. The British had Sierra Leone, the colony of Lagos, and the Fante states of Ghana. The Germans occupied Agadir and South Africa. The Belgians colonized Congo and Ruanda-Urundi.

1. To what degree did European countries occupy and control African soil in the 1870s. What kinds of locations did they occupy? What motivated them to increase their interest in controlling interior African trade?

Ever since the emergence of legitimate commerce in place of the Atlantic slave trade, European merchants had been increasingly interested in gaining control over the trading systems of the African interior. Apart from British and Boers in south Africa, the French in Algeria and nominal Ottoman rule in north Africa, foreign incursion into tropical Africa was generally confined to small coastal enclaves.

1. What were the conditions required for states to re-enter the Union during Reconstruction? What policies adopted in state conventions in 1867 and 1868 made many of the constitutions "the most progressive the South had ever known"?

Ex- confederate states were divided into five military districts under martial law. Each of the states was ordered to hold a new constitutional convention based on universal male suffrage, and no state was to be admitted until it ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed the citizenship of all persons born or naturalized in the United States and thus overturned the Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision. Most of them abolished property qualifications for voting and holding office; some of them abolished imprisonment for debt. Several sought to eliminate race distinctions in the possession or entrance of property, and they introduced public education into the South. With the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, black men in the southern states and in the nation as a whole (most northern states denied the vote to blacks), finally gained the right to vote on an equal basis with white men.

Jean-Francois and Georges Biassou

Georges Biassou was an early leader of the 1791 slave rising in Saint-Domingue that began the Haitian Revolution. With Jean François another leader, they led the initial uprising of enslaved workers and later allied with Spain against the French.

1. What factors determined the level of white Republican support for black Reconstruction goals? In what area(s) were they most supportive? In which were they least supportive? What were the most important objectives of Republicans?

Georgia black legislators Jefferson Long and Henry McNeil Turner fought for better wages for black workers but found little support from their white Republican colleagues, who in many instances supported the industrialists over black landless farmers. Since black men constituted the most numerous enfranchised group in many areas, the Union League depended on them for the bulk of Republican strength.

1. How did Toussaint manage to remove certain French officials, who were potential rivals, while also loyally serving the French Republic?

He made friends with Laveaux and persuaded him to do his work in France kicking him out. He conspired stories that Commissioner Sonthonax was plotting to make Saint Domingue independent, deporting him back. He did this with a lot of his rivals.

1. How, according to the author did the presence of maroon communities affect the slave revolts that occurred?

In 1760, at a time when the Maroons were less active, the slaves on several plantations in the parish of St. Mary rebelled, broke into a fort and acquired arms and gunpowder. They then marched from plantation to plantation killing the whites and gaining black recruits. Long claimed that the conspiracy was conducted with such great secrecy under the able leadership of Tackey that while almost all of the Coromantee slaves throughout the island were privy to it, the whites found no grounds for suspicion.

1. According to Johnson, which groups benefited from the outcome of the American Revolution, and which groups were left out?

In 1776, when the Congress met in Philadelphia, it was composed of wealth, and the wealthiest among them was the Virginian slaveholder, George Washington. They disdained popular government (which one put as asking a blind man to choose one's colors) and insured that the advantage in pursuing happiness would remain with the plantocrats and their New England business partners. As Adams, the future president (1796-1800), put it, majority rule would result in "the eight or nine millions who have no property ... usurping over the rights of the one or two millions who have.

1. According to Dr. Hall, what actions did freed blacks take to "build community" in the immediate aftermath of slavery? What evidence indicates the importance of family to the freedpeople? Why, in addition to being worship centers, were churches important?

In addition, southern black churches offered both spiritual and material relief during Reconstruction. Church buildings played as important a public role as a spiritual one. They were much more than places of worship. They served as the setting for political meetings and rallies.

1. What signs indications of growing militancy emerged among black and white anti-slavery efforts in the 1850s? Which Harriet Beecher Stowe novel draws from on Nat Turner's rebellion?

In his Appeal, David Walker urged a general slave revolution in 1829. In 1831, Nat Turner attempted to organize such an uprising. In Florida, in the mid-1830s, the Black Seminoles prosecuted a series of slave insurrections. In 1843, Henry Highland Garnet came within one vote of winning a Black convention's endorsement of violence to end slavery. She took up the necessity of a slave uprising in her second novel, Dred, A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (published in 1856). In her nonfiction work between the two novels, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (published in 1853), Stowe first defended the factual basis of her first novel and then proceeded to examine the laws of slavery, which progressively increased the oppression of the slaves and inspired fear among free Blacks.

1. What was David Walker's attitude regarding how slavery might be ended, as expressed in is Appeal? Which slave rebellion was thought to be directly inspired by his appeal?

In his Appeal, David Walker urged a general slave revolution in 1829.34 In 1831, Nat Turner attempted to organize such an uprising.

Hampton Model

Institutes that trained legions of African Americans to teach skills and to embrace the importance of hard work, diligence, and Christian morality.

1. Did Toussaint's fierce commitment to black liberty contradict his belief that revival of plantation prosperity was essential? What measures did he take to revive the plantation economy? Which groups took over ownership and management of the plantation. What explains his position regarding restoration of slave trade?

It contradicted his belief in black liberty because he was using the army force as a means for planters to work, even killing them when they revolted. He implemented white advisers to oversee the planters, gave wages to the planters, used punishments. He felt that whites still needed to be in the picture because of their skills in management of a plantation economy.

1. What understandings came out of the Berlin Conference? Which countries were able to take immediate advantage of those understandings?

It recognized Leopold's so-called 'International Association' as the legitimate authority in the Congo Basin. A European claim to any part of Africa would only be recognized by other European governments it if was effectively occupied by that particular European power.

Court (Tackey)

King Court Tackey (Prince Klaas) can undoubtedly be considered Antigua's most notable and indeed bravest hero. In 1736 Klaas and three other slaves who were fed up of their deplorable conditions decided to plan an elaborate revolt against the slave owners. Unfortunately their plot was discovered and they were executed.

1. What were the three maroon groups in Jamaica. How did their presence effect the size of the white population in Jamaica?

Leeward band of Maroons (Northwest): 300 English Negroes Windward band of Maroons (Northeast): "The rebels relied not only on their guerilla skills in compensating for the vastly superior weaponry of the whites, but also on a sophisticated intelligence system in which many of the slaves still on the plantations functioned, providing them with information about the plans of the whites. After long years of losses from ambushes, skirmishes, disease, and incompetent leadership, the whites sued for peace.

1. Whose interests did Leger-Felicite Sonthonax represent when he was sent to San Domingue? What actions did he take to enforce the rulings of the National Assembly in France? Who were his allies and opponents in this phase?

Leger- Felicite Sonthaux and Etienne Polverel were dynamic and zealous radicals who scorned colonial opinion and who immediately adopted the cause of the Republic on learning that the French monarchy had been overthrown.

1. What evidence suggests that blacks in the North saw the Civil war as a war against slavery before most whites did? What were Lincoln's views regarding abolition and racial equality at the outset of the war? What factors pushed him to accept the necessity of immediate emancipation?

Lincoln hoped to reconstruct the South with sufficient leniency and magnanimity that the nation might bind its wounds and be quickly restored to its former unity. In the very same month and year, Frederick Douglass, at the thirtieth anniversary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, gave eloquent voice to a far mare novel and radical vision of national reunification. ""We are fighting for something incomparably better than the old Union," Douglass intoned, "we are fighting for unity ... in which there shall be no North, no South, no East, no "West) no black, no white, but a solidarity of the nation, making every slave free, and every free man a voter." n each southern state to swear loyalty to the Union. Lincoln refused to sign this bill. Lincoln and the Congress disagreed, as well, over the status of the freedpeople. All during the war Lincoln had entertained the hope that a substantial number of blacks would choose to emigrate from the United States

Ten percent plan

Lincoln's attempt to reestablish civilian government in the South quickly It offered southerners amnesty, or official pardon, for all illegal acts supporting the rebellion

1. What new territories did the U.S. gain control over during the last decades of the 19th century? What means were used to gain them? What business and military interest led to U.S. expansion across the Pacific Ocean?

Military forces- President ·william McKinley and American diplomats insisted the United States acquire Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines

1. How do historical sources disagree re: Napoleon Bonaparte's initial intentions toward Toussaint? What were Napoleon's orders to his General, LeClerc, whom he sent to San Domingue? Why did Toussaint respond to LeClerc's pending arrival by annexing Spanish Santo Domingo?

Napoleon initial intentions were to work with Toussaint to keep Saint Domingue as a springboard for expanding French power in the Americas. Bonaparte believed an invasion was necessary when Toussaint annexed Santo Domingo becoming ruler of Hispaniola as a whole. Leclerc's orders were to seize the colony, gain the allegiance of the black militants, then disarm them and deport them.

1. What terms did the Maroons agree to as settlement of the Maroon Wars in 1739 and 1740? How did those terms effect subsequent rebellions?

No insurrection of any consequence occurred for many years after the Maroon treaties. According to Long, rebellions were frustrated by the Maroons "who scoured the woods, and apprehended all straggling.and vagabond slaves, that from time to time deserted their owners."

1. Which states had the largest number of black elected officials during Reconstruction? During what years did the largest number of blacks serve in Congress? Which served the longest time?

Of the twenty black members of the House of Representatives, South Carolina sent the largest number, eight, and North Carolina followed with four, three of whom served after Reconstruction ended. Alabama sent three, and Georgia, Mississippi, Florida, Louisiana, and Virginia, one each. The peak was reached in the Forty-Third (1873-1875) and Forty-Fourth Congresses (1875-1877) with seven blacks serving in Congress. Joseph Rainey and Robert Smalls, both of South Carolina, led with five terms.

Captain Quao

On June 23, 1739 Maroon military leader and hero, Captain Quao (The Invisible Hunter) signed the Windward Peace Treaty to end an eight-year war with the British in eastern Jamaica. Quao was Nanny's successor.

May 15 declaration

On May 15, 1791, free coloreds born of free parents were declared equal to whites in their political rights.

1. What important factors does Orlando Patterson (quoted in the article) identify as important pre-conditions for slave rebellion? which were most important in the unrest leading to the 1776 insurrection scare? In which ways was the American revolution connected to the Jamaican insurrection conspiracy?

Patterson attributes the numerous slave revolts to the following general factors: (1) the ratio of masters to slaves, (2) the ratio between creole and African slaves, (3) the quality of slaves bought by the planters, (4) the character of the Jamaican whites, (5) the treatment and maintenance of the slaves, and (6) the impact of certain social, religious and political forces in the period from 1770 to 1832.

1. What are the three types of rebellion identified by Jamaican scholar Orlando Patterson in relation to Jamaican slave sociey?

Patterson distinguishes between three types of rebellions in the slave society of Jamaica: (1) purely spontaneous revolts usually restricted to either one estate or to a few neighbouring properties, (2) planned revolts involving or meant to involve either all slaves or restricted to one group of slaves, and (3) revolts involving slaves who had already absconded or who lived in rebel hideouts.

1. How did planters react to the invasion by British and Spanish? How did the invasion affect the free colored? What did British, Spanish, and French military expeditions all share, in terms of the makeup of their fighting forces.

Planters were to preserve slavery in most of the west and part of the south, but in some of the districts they occupied, their arrival itself provoked uprisings and the burning of plantations. The Spanish and British relied on armies predominately made of blacks.

1. In what ways were the free colored in Saint Domingue different from those in other Caribbean colonies? In what ways was their treatment similar? What roles did they occupy in the socioeconomic structure of Saint Domingue?

Saint Domingue's population conformed to three- tier social structures: slaves, whites, and free people of color. Except in the Iberian colonies, free people of color were genrally a small minority. In Saint Domingue, the gens de couleur libres outnumbered the whites in two of the colony's three provinces, and they included in their number rich and cultivated planters who had been educated in France. Similar to other Caribbean colonies, no matter how white you were if you had black ancestry you suffered legal discrimination.

1. How did San Domingue compare with other Caribbean colonies in terms of size and concentration of enslaved population?

Saint Domingue's slave population was easily the largest in the Caribbean. It was nearly twice the size of that of Jamaica, its closest rival

1. What major slave rebellions occurring between the Haitian Revolution and British Emancipation are discussed in Eric Williams' article "The Slaves and Slavery"?

Slave Revolt in Saint Domingue Slave Revolt in British Guiana (1808): slaves who were more comfortably off and better treated revolted. Then again in 1863, slaves planned them secretly and carefully. Slave Revolt in Barbados: Slaves revolted not because of ill treatment but of the growing belief that the island was for them not the whites.

1. What kinds of cooperation and resistance did they encounter? What evidence indicates the level of resistance exhibited against European domination?

Some African rulers accepted a European alliance or treaty of protection in the belief that it would protect them from traditional African enemies. Africans built up their own arsenals of muzzle- loading guns and made skillful use of more traditional weapons and guerilla tactics, they were rapidly overtaken by advances in European weaponry.

Black Codes

Southern laws designed to restrict the rights of the newly freed black slaves

What connections link the Haitian Revolution to the 1795 Pointe Coupee Conspiracy in Louisiana, and to the 1800 Gabriel uprising in Richmond Virginia

The 1795 conspiracy appropriated the revolutionary momentum exploding in both France and the French West Indies. The possibility of successful conspiracy was created by the import of Haitian slaves into colonial Louisiana in the aftermath of the slave rebellion in Haiti, and then the appearance of Jacobin radicals.

1. Which groups in San Domingue were most affected by the American Revolution? What factors led white planters in Saint Domingue to see the revolution in France as a threat?

The American revolution affected the free community of African descent the most. A special regiment of free coloreds were sent to Georgia to fight alongside the rebel colonists and when these men returned to Saint Domingue with military experience. Also, Yankees trade gave Saint Domingue a tempting taste of free trade.

1. What major military campaigns involved black soldiers in this period? What role did the "buffalo soldiers" play in the West? How did the term "buffalo soldiers" come about? What positive experiences did blacks have in the military?

The Army Reorganization Act of 1869 maintained four all-black regiments: the 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments and the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments. These four regiments spent most of the next three decades on the western frontier to subdue Indians. The Plains Indians who fiercely resisted U.S. forces were so impressed with the performance of their black adversaries that they called them "buffalo soldiers. " Indians associated the hair of black men with the shaggy coat of the buffalo, a sacred animal. Black troops considered it a term of respect and began to use it themselves.

1. What orders did General Hedouville receive from French authorities regarding Toussaint and Andre Rigaud? What events led to alliance and cooperation between the armies of Rigaud and Toussaint?

The French government was becoming alarmed by the many officials being deported back to France. Toussaint's expulsion of Rigaud formed an alliance between Rigaud and Toussaint.

1. What events turned the war against slavery into a war of independence from France? How did France's restoration of slavery in its colonies affect relations between blacks and free colored (ancién libres)? What effect did the attempted restoration have on racial constructions in San Domingue

The French government was trying to restore slavery in all the colonies and even the ancient libres turned against the French for independence.

1. What were the means through which wealthy individuals and corporations exercised influence and control over black education? What factors explain the seemingly close relationship some of them developed to Booker T. Washington?

The Morrill Act, which Congress passed in 1862, entitled each state to the proceeds from the sale of federal land (most of it in the West) for establishing land-grant colleges to provide agricultural and mechanical training. However, southern states did not admit black students to their A&M (Agricultural and Mechanical) schools. A second Morrill Act, however, passed in 1890 that permitted states to establish and fund separate black land-grant colleges. By 1915 there were sixteen black land-grant colleges.

1. What factors explain why the leaders of those rebellions tended to be slaves who were "better off"? Why did improved treatment appear to be ineffective in terms of preventing unrest among the enslaved in this period?

The balance of refinement, education, morals, and energy was on the side of the mulattoes. Which would help them plan with strategies alongside the trust that whites had in them.

What was the end result of the civil rights legislation enacted in this period? What were the provisions of the 13th, 14th, and 15th, amendments?

The civil rights act made illegal the discriminatory practices that existed in every region of the nation, denying African Americans equal access to public transportation, places of amusement, and public houses. 13- Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 14- "due process" and "equal protection clauses" 15- prevents the States or the United States ... from giving preference ... to one citizen of the United States over another on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude

1. What was the initial attitude of Rigaud and Toussaint toward Hedouville? What events led to deterioration of relations between Toussaint and Rigaud? Although the power struggle between them was based on regional power, what other divisions were exposed? Where did each leader end up as a result of this struggle?

The deterioration occurred as a regional power struggle of lightskinned ancient libres and a new class of black military officers. Rigaud controlled the southern peninsula but after the battle of the Knifes fled and ran to France.

1. What events in Saint Domingue caused the National Assembly in France to give equal political rights to a small number of free coloreds in Saint Domingue? What was the motivation of French National Assembly when they granted new rights to the free colored after the slave rebellion erupted?

The news of the execution of Ogé and Chavannes, shocked the National Assembly into making a compromise gesture. On May 15, 1791, free coloreds born of free parents were declared equal to whites in their political rights.

1. Why did most blacks oppose efforts of the American Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color (ACS)?

The presence of free Blacks provided moral legitimacy to the paternalistic pretensions of the slave order, and their social and economic roles subsidized the slave economy and the ruling of slaves. Moreover, colonization offended the leadership among the free Blacks

1. What roles did black soldiers play in the Spanish-American War? What evidence indicates their contributions acknowledged and appreciated? What evidence indicates they were not? What explains the way Teddy Roosevelt's attitude toward black soldiers appeared to change over time?

The same year, the United States went to war to liberate Cuba from Spanish control. As in the Civil War, black men enlisted, fought, and died. The War Department designated four of the black volunteer units "immune regiments" because it believed black men would tolerate the heat and humidity of Cuba better than white troops and black people were immune or at least less susceptible to yellow fever, which was endemic to Cuba. In his campaign for vice president in 1900, Theodore Roosevelt stated that black men saved his life during the battle. Later, however, Roosevelt reversed himself and accused several black men of cowardice. Eventually black soldiers commanded black regiments, however most black units did not ever see combat as white military authorities saw them as untrained and unreliable. However, the buffalo soldiers went to Cuba and performed so well that they gained the new name, "smoked yankees." Black men fought alongside Cuban rebels, and 4 black troops earned the Congressional Medal of Honor for their efforts. During the fiercest and most important parts of the war, blacks and whites fought together and the blacks performed so well that the white men praised them, and Roosevelt stated that the black men saved his life (he saw that they were of more military value than he had previously perceived).

Anciens libres

The term was used to distinguish those who were already free, compared to those liberated by the general emancipation of 1793. About 16,000 of these anciens libres were gens de couleur libres. Another 12,000 were black slaves who had either purchased their freedom or had received it from their masters for various reasons.

1. What does the author say was the attitude of founding fathers in 1776 regarding popular government and majority rule?

They disdained popular government (which one put as asking a blind man to choose one's colors) and insured that the advantage in pursuing happiness would remain with the plantocrats and their New England business partners.

1. How did Toussaint and his generals respond after LeClerc invaded and occupied the main port cities in San Domingue? What did Toussaint do after surrendering to the French authorities? What events led to his imprisonment and death.

They took to the mountains, fighting heroic actions and destroying all they left behind. When Toussaint surrenedered he just retired on one of his plantations. All three leaders were biding their time, they accused Toussaint of plotting rebellion.

1. How could whites be opposed to slavery and also anti-Negro? Which groups of whites were most likely to have these views?

They were morally against slavery usually due to religion. They could be anti- Negro because they didn't want free blacks to be granted full equality. Northern whites who were in support of African colonization were most likely to have these views.

1. How was the issue of slavery affected in the struggles that led to independence in Argentina and Chile? To what degree were blacks involved in wars of independence in Spanish America?

Those who would become freedmen could only do so after serving in all black units. These soldiers paid dearly; they fought with San Martin in Chile, Peru, and Ecuador between 1816 and 1823, returning to Argentina with only 150 of the original 2,000.

1. According to Johnson, what were the attitudes of abolitionist of the "elite phase" regarding slavery?

This formal, organized opposition to slavery was led by an educated and largely wealthy elite drawn from the ranks of both the merchant and manufacturing capitalists. For half a century, these moderate leaders created and sought to maintain a sedate antislavery, projecting the end of slavery as the result of a gradual process of moral (that is, Christian) "suasion" rather than by force or insurrection. In its rural redoubts and small towns of the North and South (Louis Filler recounts that in 1827, 106 of 130 antislavery societies were in slave states), a largely religious opposition to slavery achieved some modest impact on opinion and cultivated some rather remarkable white adherents.

1. How was the makeup of the leadership of the 1776 insurrection conspiracy different from that of previous rebellions? What is suggested by the variety of roles and positions in the slave work structure occupied by participants in the conspiracy?

Though some of the Coromantees were implicated in the conspiracy, the leaders were chiefly creoles whose level of acculturation was relatively high and who possessed skills and were entrusted with subordinate supervisory responsibilities. Finally, the leaders of the conspiracy were apparently informed of the progress of the American Revolution and may have been influenced to revolt by its idealogical content as well as the opportunity afforded by the removal of a military unit.

1. What industries led the expansion of industrialism through the South and West after the end of Reconstruction? How did they affect economic conditions and race relations in the South and in the West?

Thousands of black Southerners worked in factories, mills, and mines. Although most textile mills refused to hire black people except for janitorial duties, many black laborers toiled in tobacco and cigarmaking facilities, flour mills, coal mines, sawmills, turpentine camps, and on railroads. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW'), a revolutionary labor organization founded in 1905, brought black and white laborers together in, among other places, the Brotherhood of Timber Workers.

1. Why did Republicans vigorously oppose the results of the first Congressional election after the Civil War? How did they respond? What actions by (President) Andrew Johnson caused Republicans to break from him and take control of Reconstruction?

To the consternation of the Republican Congress, he rejected outright the idea of black suffrage and began to dictate Reconstruction policy. The newly elected southerners to the Congress were all confederate members. Congress refused to recognize the validity of the southern elections and vigorously argued for a sterner policy toward the South. Congress created the Joint Committee on Reconstruction to inquire into the condition of the southern states and to make recommendations.

1. What do most historians think Toussaint Louverture's initial reactions were, in relation to the slave rebellion? Which faction/alliance did he eventually join? What was the "double game" Toussaint employed in changing sides between the Spanish and the French Republic?

Toussaint had nothing to do with the uprising and at first protected the Breda plantation for several months until he threw in his lot with the rebels. Others suggest that Toussaint himself secretly organized the rebellion. He started with the Spanish faction in their army but didn't gain a leadership position, so went to the French Republic where he might have had the additional desire to win freedom.

Andre Rigaud

Toussaint's adversary a mixed-race free person of color who controlled the south. Louverture and him fought over de facto control of the French colony of Saint-Domingue during the war of knives.

How does Dr. Hall describe the "balance of labor" that was left between North and South after the end of Reconstruction?

While large wave of immigration helped support the massive industrial expansion that happened in the North, the South benefited from continued control of black labor through sharecroppers, renters, and tenant farmers.

Jean-Baptiste Chavannes

a Haitian abolitionist and soldier who sided with Vincent Ogé when he landed near Cap-Français, 23 October 1790, intending to create an agitation amongst the people of African descent in favor of their political rights

Jose Maria Morelos

a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary rebel leader who led the Mexican War of Independence movement, assuming its leadership after the execution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1811.

Simon Bolivar

a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a leading role in the establishment of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama as sovereign states, independent of Spanish rule.

Henry Highland Garnet

a prominent member of the movement that led beyond moral suasion toward more political action. Renowned for his skills as a public speaker, he urged black Americans to take action and claim their own destinies

War of Knives

also known as the War of the South, was a civil war from June 1799 to July 1800 between the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, a black ex-slave who controlled the north of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), and his adversary André Rigaud, a mixed-race free person of color who controlled the south. Louverture and Rigaud fought over de facto control of the French colony of Saint-Domingue during the war.

Martin Delany

dreamed of establishing a settlement in West Africa, and visited Liberia as well as lived in Canada for several years, but as the American Civil War began returned to the United States. Beginning in 1863, he recruited blacks for the United States Colored Troops. Commissioned as a major in February 1865, Delany became the first African-American field grade officer in the United States Army.

William Lloyd Garrison

one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and promoted "immediate emancipation" of slaves in the United States through his abolitionist newspaper The Liberator

Redemption

southern Democrats began to muster more political power as former Confederates began to vote again. It was a movement that gathered energy up until the Compromise of 1877

Bismark

the German leader who proclaimed German protectorates over Togo, Cameroon, and South West Africa and then invited European powers to the Berlin Conference.

1. According to the author (C. Eric Williams) what was the most dynamic force in the achievement of emancipation in the Caribbean.

the Negro slave

Union League

the black political organization that promoted self-help and defense of political rights

PBS Pinchback

the first African-American to serve as governor of any state—was Louisiana governor for one month

Osborn Anderson

the only surviving African-American member of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, and later a soldier in the Union army of the American Civil War.[

Black Sovereignty

the resolve to move beyond the orbit of slavery and oppression through emigration, advancement of black middle class, nationalism

Paul Cuffee

was a Quaker businessman and abolitionist. He helped colonize Sierra Leone. Cuffe built a lucrative shipping empire

American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States

was a group established in 1816 by Robert Finley of New Jersey which supported the migration of free African Americans to the continent of Africa.

Jean- Jacques Desalinnes

was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti under the 1805 constitution; one of the founding fathers of Haiti

Thaddeus Stevens

was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania and one of the leaders of the Radical Republican faction of the Republican Party during the 1860s. A fierce opponent of slavery and discrimination against African-Americans, Stevens sought to secure their rights during Reconstruction, in opposition to President Andrew Johnson. As chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee during the American Civil War, he played a leading role, focusing his attention on defeating the Confederacy, financing the war with new taxes and borrowing, crushing the power of slave owners, ending slavery, and securing equal rights for the Freedmen.

Contraband

was a term commonly used in the United States military during the American Civil War to describe a new status for certain escaped slaves or those who affiliated with Union forces. The Army (and the United States Congress) determined that the US would not return escaped slaves who went to Union lines and classified them as contraband.

Vincent Oge

was a wealthy free man of mixed race descent and the instigator of a revolt against white colonial authority in French Saint-Domingue that lasted from October to December 1790 in the area outside Cap-Français, the colony's main city. The Ogé revolt of 1790 foretold the massive slave uprising of August 1791 that began the Haitian Revolution.[1]

Vicente "El Negro" Guerrero

was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence. He fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century, and later served as President of Mexico, coming to power in a coup. He was of Afro-Mestizo descent championed the cause of Mexico's common people, and abolished slavery during his brief term as president

Coromantee

was the English name originally given to enslaved people from Akan ethnic groups from the Gold Coast, modern-day Ghana. The term was primarily used in the Caribbean

Alexandre Petión

was the first President of the Republic of Haiti from 1807 until his death in 1818. He is one of Haiti's founding fathers, together with Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his rival Henri Christophe.

General Jose de San Martin

who led much of South America in their struggle against Spain, was authorized by both Argentina and Chile to grant freedom to slaves enlisted in his armies, resulting in the mobilization and manumission of thousands

1. According to Johnson, what were the three overlapping upheavals that initially formed the American Revolution?

• The revolution of the poor colonists against the wealthy-that is, the actions of the Green Mountain rebels of Vermont, the Regulators movement of North Carolina, the Privates Committee in Pennsylvania-had been presaged by rural tenant riots in New Jersey and New York in the I 740s and 1750s. • It was a time to put their revolutionary ardor for democracy at the service of aristocratic republicans. With the vast colonial wealth of the British crown to disburse, the rebel victors would achieve some accommodation of property and popular government. The third and least memorialized uprising that forged the American Revolution was that of the Blacks, slave and free. This war of the Blacks, frequently allied with Native Americans and sometimes with abolitionist colonials, provided the occasion for the liberation of what some estimate to be one hundred thousand slaves, a fifth of the Black population (who numbered 575,000 in 1780).