A&P1 Week 1

What are tissues made of?

cells

What are organs made of?

tissues

List the major organs and functions of the digestive system:

(10) Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, S.I, L.I., liver, gallbladder, pancreas. (3) Processes / digests food; absorbs water and nutrients; stores energy reserves.

List the major organs and functions of the muscular system:

(2) Skeletal muscles and associated tendons. (3) Provides movement; provides support and protection for other tissues; generates heat and helps regulate body temp.

List the major organs and functions of the cardiovascular system:

(3) Heart, blood, blood vessels. (2) Distributes blood cells, water and minerals, including nutrients, waste, O2 and CO2; distributes heat and helps regulate body temp.

List the major organs and functions of the skeletal system:

(4) Bones, cartilage, associated ligaments, bone marrow. (3) Provides support and protection for other tissues; stores minerals, incl. Ca; forms blood cells.

List the major organs and functions of the nervous system:

(4) Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs. (3) Directs response to stimuli; directs/coordinates other systems; provides and interprets sensory information about environment.

List the major organs and functions of the urinary system:

(4) Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra. (4) Excretes waste from blood; controls water balance by regulating urine volume; stores urine prior to elimination; regulates blood ion concentrations and pH.

List the major organs and functions of the integumentary system:

(4) Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails. (3) Protects from the environment; helps regulate body temp; provides sensory info.

List the major organs and functions of the lymphatic system:

(5) Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils. (2) Defends against infection / disease; returns tissue fluids to bloodstream.

List the major organs and functions of the endocrine system:

(6) Adrenal, pituitary and thyroid glands, pancreas, gonads, and endocrine tissues in other systems. (3) Directs long-term changes in organ systems; adjusts metabolic activity / energy use; controls most structural and functional changes during development.

List the major organs and functions of the respiratory system:

(6) Nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli. (4) Delivers air to alveoli, site of gas exchange; provides O2 to blood; removes CO2 from blood; produces language and other communication sounds.

List the major organs and functions of the female reproductive system:

(7) Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands. (4) Produces oocytes and hormones; supports developing embryo until birth; provides milk for infant; sexual intercourse.

List the major organs and functions of the male reproductive system:

(7) Testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostrate gland, penis, scrotum. (4) Produces sperm, seminal fluids, and hormones; sexual intercourse.

Name the five types of tissue.

1. Epithelial tissue; lines, covers surfaces 2. Connective tissue; protect, support, and bind together 3. Muscular tissue; produces movement 4. Nervous tissue; receive stimuli and conduct impulses 5. Skeletal Tissue; supports other tissues.

What is the healthy body temperature range?

36.7C to 37.2C (av 37C).

Describe clinical anatomy:

A catch-all term for sub-specialties of anatomical study important in clinical practice, such as pathological, surgical, or radiographic anatomy.

Define: acid

A compound that gives off H+ (hydrogen ions) when placed in water (HCl --> H+ and Cl-), has a pH less than 7 and neutralizes bases/alkalis. Lemon juice and vinegar are naturally occurring acids.

Define: base

A compound that gives off OH- (an hydroxyl group) OR accepts an H+ ion when placed in water (NaOH --> Na+ and OH-), has a pH greater than 7 and neutralizes acids. Baking soda, chlorine bleach, and ammonia are basic.

How is homeostasis maintained?

A neural or hormonal homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of three parts: a receptor, or a sensor reacting to environmental change or stimuli; a control center, which receives and processes information; an effector, the cell or organ instructed by c.c. to oppose or, more rarely, enhance stimulus. This adjusting of physiological systems within the body is called homeostatic regulation. The mechanisms themselves are positive or negative feedback loops, usually negative, maintaining dynamic equilibrium.

What is a set point?

Acceptable/desired target value around which an acceptable range is set. Response of effector is what "feeds back" to diminish effect of stimulus and return variable to homeostatic range, or set point.

What is the difference between afferent and efferent pathways?

Afferent pathways carry information from the receptor to the control center, whereas efferent pathways carry messages away from the control center to effectors (muscles, glands).

List structures in generalised plant cell

All of the above, (although most plant cells don't have lysosomes) and: Large central vacuole (and non-central nucleus) - contains water and waste; supports cell. Cell wall and plasmadesmata - protects cell Chloroplasts / thylakoids / plastids - convert light energy of the Sun into sugars that can be used by cells.

What is interstital fluid?

Also called tissue fluid, it is a liquid surrounding the tissue cells of multicellular organisms. It is the main component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and transcellular fluid.

What is the relationship between anatomy and physiology?

Anatomy looks at what it is. Physiology looks at what it does. The two are closely integrated - anatomy provides clues to functionality, and physiological processes can only be explained within the context of the given structure (or a place for the process). ie, all specific functions are performed by a specific structure.

List the twelve levels of biological organisation, simplest to most complex. Which six does A&P concern itself with?

Atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, multicellular organism, population, species, community, ecosystem, biosphere. A&P covers first six - humans are comprised of a chemical level (atoms and moleclues), a cellular level, a tissue level, an organ level, an organ system level, and finally an organism level.

What are cells made of?

Atoms combined to form molecules.

What are the four most common elements?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

List the systems (and their functions) involved in blood pressure regulation:

Cardiovascular system, heart generates pressure that moves blood in blood vessels; nervous and endocrine system, adjusting heart rate / blood vessel diameter.

List structures in generalised animal cell

Cell/Plasma membrane - forms outer layer of cell; is semi-permeable. Cytoplasm - a gel-like matrix in which all the other cell organelles are suspended. Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell. Surrounded by a double-layer nuclear membrane with nuclear pores allowing the movement of nucleic acids and proteins in/out of nucleus. Contains chromatin (DNA) and nucleolus, the structure within nucleus that contributes to protein synthesis. Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins, and are sites for protein synthesis. Smooth & Rough E.R. - are a network of membranes composed of endoplasmic reticulum; rough E.R. has embedded ribosomes. Golgi complex - refines & packages cellular products. Lysosomes - enzyme sacs that digest cellular wastes. Microtubules - are hollow rods, function primarily as support and shape to the cell. Mitochondria - is the site for cellular respiration and producers of energy. Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

What are the three principles of cell theory?

Every living organism is made of one or more cells. The smallest organisms are single cells; cells comprise the functional units of multicellular organisms. All cells arise from preexisting cells.

How can the study of gross anatomy be further specialized or classified?

Gross human anatomy study can include cadaver dissection and noninvasive imaging. The structures observed can be classified in a relevant way: regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, surface anatomy, clinical anatomy and/or developmental anatomy.

What are multicellular organisms composed of?

Humans are made up of many organ systems.

List the systems (and their functions) involved in body temperature regulation:

Integumentary system, heat loss; muscular system, heat production; cardiovascular system, heat distribution; nervous system, coordination of systems.

List the major organ systems:

Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, M&F reproductive.

What is homeostasis?

It is an attempt to maintain the internal conditions of an environment by limiting fluctuations, the state of dynamic equilibrium an organism must maintain for optimal functioning - and life itself. Physiological systems within an organism have evolved to be able to maintain homeostasis in unpredictable or inconsistent environments with regulatory mechanisms.

Why is anatomy and physiology important?

It is important to recognize normal anatomy and normally-functioning physiology so that pathology (pathologic state of a multicellular organism) can be determined. They are not often meaningfully separated - if the structure changes, so does function, and if functionality is lost, the structure changes (ie muscle wasting after a broken limb).

What is homeostatic imbalance?

It occurs when the human body's internal systems become disrupted, such as dehydration or diabetes. If not corrected, illness, disease or death can result. Aging is also considered an homeostatic imbalance as the mechanisms controlling feedback loops lose their efficiency over time.

Name the seven characteristics of life.

Made of cells; maintains homeostasis; can reproduce; has capacity to evolve; can grow and develop; can transfer energy (ie eating); responds to stimuli/signals from environment.

What has increased the sophistication of anatomical study?

Modern imaging techniques, including x-rays (bones / soft tissues with ingested barium solution), CT scans or more detailed MRIs/fMRIs (sectional view of soft tissue) PET scans, (brains), ultrasound (less clarity but safer), Spiral CT (heart) and digital subtraction angiography (blood flow)

Describe the role of negative feedback in maintaining homeoestasis:

Negative feedback is the primary means of homeostatic regulation. It opposes variations from normal, and is a way of countering change - ie thermoregulation, which balances heat loss and heat conservation to maintain a temperature range near the set point. Positive feedback mechanisms enhance the original stimulus and negative feedback mechanisms inhibit it.

What are systems made of?

Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely, ie the skeleton or the endocrine system.

What is a plasma membrane?

Otherwise known as a phospholipid bilayer, it encloses the cell and allows interactions between the cell and its environment. Composed of lipid, protein, and carbohydrate, it regulates the passage of ions and molecules in and out of cells.

What is gross anatomy?

Otherwise known as macroscopic anatomy, it includes all structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Gross anatomy is studied in either a regional or systemic fashion.

Describe the role of positive feedback in maintaining homeoestasis:

Positive feedback has a destabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis. Typically found only when a dangerous or stressful process must be quickly completed for homeostasis to be restored. Seldom encountered in everyday life due to extreme responses produced; an example is blood clotting, when cells (platelets) and protiens (coagulation factor) combine to transform blood from liquid to a gel. The reaction escalates until the cessation of blood loss from the damaged vessel.

Define: atom Describe parts of an atom.

Smallest unit of an element that still retains the properties of that element; the smallest stable unit of matter. Protons (+1) and Neutrons (0) form a static nucleus and have 1 atomic mass unit each. Electrons (-1) orbit in electron shells / cloud, have less than 1/1815 the mass of a proton or neutron but capture and release the energy used to combine and break apart molecules.

Describe regional anatomy:

Study of anatomy involving organization and classification of all structures in a given area, ie brain, face, abdomen or knee. Emphasizes spatial relationships between structures.

Describe surface anatomy:

Study of general form and superficial markings; surface anatomy explains how the invisible structures (ie cardiovascular system) relates to the practical healthcare of drawing blood and measuring a pulse.

Describe developmental anatomy:

Study of the changes in form that take place between conception and adulthood. Includes not only macro (gross) anatomy, but also microscopic anatomy (embryology).

Describe systemic anatomy:

Study of the structure of organ systems, which are groups of interdependent organs - ie skeletal, musculatu, or cardiovascular system - that co-ordinate their functioning. A systemic approach

List some common features of cells.

Surrounded by a plasma membrane Contain cytoplasm DNA as evolutionary blueprint Uses RNA to self-replicate and synthesize proteins, including those for its own parts.

Define histology:

The branch of biology that studies the structure, especially the microscopic structure, of organic tissues.

What does the control center do?

The control center is what determines an appropriate response to stimulus. In most homeostatic mechanisms, the control center is the brain. After receiving and processing information supplied by the receptor, it then sends signals to an effector to oppose or enhance stimulus - which can be muscles, organs or any structure that can receive signals. It also determines the set point.

List the systems (and their functions) involved in body fluid composition:

The lymphatic system responds to the presence of toxins or pathogens by ensuring their removal, destruction or deactivation. The respiratory (absorption / elimination) and cardiovascular (distribution) systems respond to O2 and CO2 levels. The digestive (absorption/storage/fecal release of nutrients), cardiovascular (distribution), urinary (urinary release of nutrients) and skeletal (mineral stroage/release) systems respond to nutrient concentration.

Define: atomic number

The number of protons in the nucleus; also the number of the element's position on the periodic table. Also the number of electrons before any reactions take place.

What is Systemic Physiology?

The study of all aspects of a particular set of organs, or organ system; respiratory, reproductive, and cardiovascular physiology are examples.

What is Pathological Physiology?

The study of the effect of diseases on organ and system functions. Modern medicine depends on a knowledge of both a pathological and physiological ("normal") state.

What is Cell Physiology?

The study of the functions of cells and the basis of human physiology, it deals with all events involving atoms and molecules as well as intra- and intercellular processes and interactions.

What is Organ Physiology?

The study of the functions of specific organs, such as cardiac (heart) or brain physiology.

Define: mass number

The total mass of the protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus; how isotopes are differentiated.

What is anatomy?

The word anatomy is derived from the Greek "to cut up". Anatomy is the study of the and structures associated with the human body. It describes the appearance and position of each of the body's parts; from which materials they are composed; their locations and any relationships within systems.

What is physiology?

The word physiology is from the Greek "the study of nature". Physiology is the study of the function of each of the structures described by anatomical studies. Physiology focuses on how multi cellular organisms and their component parts carry out the chemical and/or physical functions that occur in a living system.

How can the study of physiology be further classified?

There are more physiologiocal than anatomical specialties, as physiological functions are more complex than antomical functions, and are subsequently more difficult to examine. Some important ones are Cell Physiology, Organ Physiology, Systemic Physiology, Pathological Physiology.

List the systems (and their functions) involved in body fluid volume:

Urinary system eliminates or conserves water in blood, digestive system absorbs or eliminates water in feces, integumentary system loses water via perspiration, cardiovascular and lymphatic systems control water distribution throughout tissues.

List the systems (and their functions) involved in waste product concentration:

Urinary system expels waste from the blood; digestive system expels waste from the liver in feces; cardiovascular system transports waste to excretion site.

What is autoregulation?

When a cell, tissue, organ or system responds to stimuli.

How is energy transferred?

When energy excites an atom, it causes an electron to jump from a lower- to a higher-energy shell. Later, the electron falls back into its original shell, releasing the energy. Life depends on this process.

What is extrinsic regulation?

When the nervous or endocrine system responds to stimuli.