AAS280
What is the distinction between Free Trade and Fair Trade?
Free Trade - Little to no intervention from the organizations such as the WTO or national governments Fair Trade - Regulations and restrictions placed on nations by organizations such as the WTO to assist financially weaker nations to have a foothold in the Global Economy
What do Pyle and Ward mean by a 'gendered division of labor'? In what ways does globalization affect this gendered division of labor?
Gendered Division of Labor: A central feature of modern global capitalism - Labor is organized along the lines of gender - Oftentimes, "women's Work" is assigned a lower value and is therefore assigned a lower value - Global trends exacerbate and take advantage of a gendered division of labor - Strategies of MNCs and requirements of SAPs push more and more women in the labor market into low statues, insecure jobs with low pay.
According to McMichael, what is 'development' and what is its relationship to colonialism?
"Development," according to McMichael is the practice of socially engineering a budding culture in a way that benefits the developer. In relation to colonialism, McMichael's vision of development is a tool used in the colonising of a culture. As colonialism is the subjugation of a culture by another, development is one means to an end. Should a culture be able to socially engineer a society as it develops, said culture could easily set itself as superior before the society had even finished cementing itself.
Explain the paradigm of naturalized skill discussed by Collins. In what ways does this paradigm reinforce gender inequality in the labor force?
- Discursive construction - A discourse about skill that provides manufacturers a coded way to justify searching for "inexperienced" workers who will accept low wages - The presumption is that the skill is not learned, it comes naturally to women or is taught at home
In the discussion of the history of the sewing machine and its impact on women Perkin argued, "Sexual divisions of labour long established in the domestic field of production, which preceded industrialization were taken into the factories where they survived technological change." Explain what she means by this. Also, discuss who benefits the most from this sexual division of labor, who benefits the least and how so.
- Gives an overview of the history of the sewing machine - Machine production of garments transformed the social meaning of clothing in the 19th century and spurred on the rapid expansion of the garment industry in the U.S. and Britain - Movement of clothes making from the home → factories and workshops and the meaning behind it changed - Domestic industries that were deemed "respectable" at the beginning of the 19th century later became "sweated industry"
According to Perkin was the sewing machine a source of liberation or drudgery for women? Explain.
- Good for upper class (easy production of clothes) - Bad for lower class (increased amount of production demanded while devaluing the work)
What are sweatshops?
- Historically, sweatshops originated during the industrial revolution as a system where middlemen profit from the difference what they receive for delivering a contract and the amount they pay to the workers who produced the contract - Contract - labor cost = profit
Scholars have identified five trends in the contemporary global economy. What are they?
- Promotion of economic neoliberalism by international agencies and nations - Many developing countries shift to more open export oriented production for external trade. - Multinational Corporations have moved into the 2nd and 3rd worlds and established networks of subcontractors - Implementation of structural adjustment policies (SAPs) by the IMF and WB on countries forcing them to open up their markets (trade liberalization), which undermines their local economies. - Power structures have shifted from nations to global institutions (IMF, WB, WTO, MNCs)
Moghadam identifies three factors that contribute to the feminization of poverty. Describe what they are and explain how each factor contributes to the feminization of poverty.
1.) Female headed households had trouble getting childcare as well as trouble getting jobs due to incomplete education - Growing Phenomenon - FHH are poorer due to a higher number of dependents, gender related economic gaps in labor force, limited mobility and time 2.) The delegation of jobs and resources is drastically swayed one way in impoverished households (an example being pistachio growing in Iran: growing, irrigating, harvesting → men; processing → women) - Unequal distribution of resources and opportunities within the household - Differential allotment of nutrition and healthcare - Differential access to education for boys than girls 3.) Lower value assigned to women's work - Changes to wages, food prices, and so on drastically affected the borderline poor, often pushing them over the poverty line.
What is a "Free market"?
A free-market economy is an economy in which the allocation for resources is determined only by the supply and the demand for them. Put another way, the profit motive combined with individuals' preferences combine to direct resources in a free-market economy. This stands in contrast to most other economic systems where the government plays the role of central planner to varying degrees and organizes the flow of resources to the production of various goods and services.
According to Abu-Lughod, do Muslim women need saving? Explain her argument.
Abu-Lughod seems to believe that instead of "saving" Muslim women, the "First World" should instead focus on the creation of a society in which they can be safe while also pursuing their cultural beliefs. The imposing of our own societal beliefs on these women is not an act of liberation but a return to colonialism. I agree wholeheartedly.
What does Maria Mies mean by "catching up development" ? Why is the concept of development problematic for her?
By the term "catching up development," Mies refers to the process of a society previously considered underdeveloped "catching up" to the development level of the society that caused it to be underdeveloped to begin with. She believes this is a myth as the success of the society responsible for the colonization of the other is dependent on the exploitation of the subordinate society. Therefore, not only will the dominant society not allow the lesser to gain the power in order to develop in such a way, but it will be incredibly difficult to surpass the dominant society in terms of development as the dominant society is the "peak" of development and will therefore require entirely new innovation to develop further.
In her description of slavery in the Caribbean Bush argues "the 'corporeal equality of the sexes' among black people became a firmly entrenched notion amongst European observers..." How did this notion of the 'corporeal equality of the sexes' among blacks serve to rationalize the exploitation of enslaved black women's labor?
By viewing the black female body as equivalent to the black male body, it rationalized using them for labor. They were not considered feminine. African women were viewed as far more physically strong and muscular than their European counterparts. It is this perceived trait that was used as an excuse for their exploitation in economic slavery.
In Charlton's essay what is the connection she makes between development and women?
Charlton expresses how women are forced to be dependent on men regarding the state of politics on the world stage down to local and even familial politics. Therefore, the development of a society is something that will have great sway over the abilities of the women within it. Specifically, she breaks it down into four categories: ethical choices, the international system, western influence, and the political dependency of women. Overall, the point Charlton tries to make is that the political events happening to the world surrounding women directly affect them, even if that was not the main intention. Colonialism and development have severe effects on the people in these societies, women included.
In what ways were the experiences of African (black) women similar to those of the indigenous populations encountered by Christopher Columbus and other Europeans (think about Hulme's discussion of linguistic morphology vs. discursive morphology in his essay on Columbus and the Cannibals)?
Discursive - Actual definition of a word or term in a culture Linguistic - The connotations behind a word or term in a culture European ethnocentrism was a leading cause in the perception of the enslaved people as different and inferior. Images were derived from dubious travels to Africa (C.Columbus' journals). Africans were viewed as slaves by nature-childlike, primitive, idle, of lower intelligence. Black women were viewed as promiscuous, cruel mothers, immoral, morally degenerate.
McMichael argues "Globally, development was realized through a racialized process of colonial 'underdevelopment'. Explain
McMichael means that, by under-developing a culture during the process of colonization (namely undermining its independent future through processes such as taking its natural resources or socially engineering/developing its society), the colonizing society ensured that it would have control over the subordinate society. The oppressed society, which usually entailed a singular race, would be entirely dependent on the oppressor in order to survive.
According to Moghadam, has poverty become feminized? What does that mean?
Moghadam most definitely believes that poverty is becoming feminized. She uses three main reason to explain how poverty has become feminized: - the expansion of female-headed households, - the persistence and consequences of intra-household inequalities and bias against women and girls - the implementation of neoliberal economic policies around the world.
What are Multi-national or Transnational corporations?
Multi-national or Transnational corporations are businesses that span the extent of multiple countries. This usually entails offshoring labor to third world nations
Columbus' voyages represented and facilitated the spatial expansion of Europe's economic and political control (how so?)
Once Columbus landed upon the New World, he claimed it for Spain, despite it already being inhabited. It did not matter what the circumstances were, this land was no longer theirs.
Define oppression and privilege. Were white women oppressed or privileged on the plantations?
Oppression: the exercise of power in a cruel, unfair, or burdensome way Privilege: a right, immunity, or benefit provided to a person beyond the advantages of most.
Explain in our own words Omi and Winants' Racial Formation Theory.
Racial formation refers to how society continually creates and transforms its definitions of racial categories. It is the socio-historical process by which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed. A key assumption is that race is a social construct; not biological fact.
Explain the concept the "global assembly line."
Resources cheap in Country A are bought by country B, country B then ships resources to Country C where labor is cheap, who sends them back for retail at the high prices of Country B.
(Shepherd) what factors contribute to the sexual imbalance among immigrant laborers in the post-slavery era? How does this relate to ways in which women were discursively constructed in this era of indenture in comparison to the slave era?
Some of the factors leading to the sexual imbalance in immigrant workers post-slavery are the high difficulty in getting females to immigrate the belief that female laborers and innately weaker than male workers, requiring large amounts of time off due to pregnancy. Victorian ideals also began to seep into the culture regarding female laborers in the Caribbean, specifically the idea that women belong at the home whereas men should be the sole income of a household.
What are structural adjustment policies and conditionality? Why does Pettman argue that they amount to a transfer of wealth from poor to rich states?
Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) are conditions placed on loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. Loans must be paid back with interest and the only states to be taking out these loans are ones in dire economic straits.
What is the IMF, World Bank, WTO. What are Structural Adjustment policies?
Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) are conditions placed on loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. Loans must be paid back with interest and the only states to be taking out these loans are ones in dire economic straits.
Explain McMichael's notion of the 'development project', why does he argue that the development project was a strategy for reproducing First World power and privilege (or, as he says, "re-imposing order in the world")?
The "development project," according to McMichael, is "a political and intellectual response to the condition of the world at the historic moment of decolonization." The methods used during this "development project" were designed to create a capitalist world market. As the First World is already ahead in terms of economics, this does little more than ensure its position at the head of the world economy.
What is meant by the "feminization of poverty"?
The "feminization of poverty" is the trend that rapidly increasing numbers of the world's female population are finding themselves impoverished.
Collins, Pyle and Ward's essays demonstrate that "labor is never inherently "cheap" it is "made cheap" through various strategies". Explain what this means and discuss some of the strategies.
The discursive construction of the labor as women's vs men's work: - Offshoring/Outsourcing - Assembly-line structure - "Free-trade zones" - Piece-rate system - Competition
According to Baker Miller, what distinguishes a 'dominant' group from a 'subordinate' group?
The dominant group usually define roles for the subordinate group that are beneficial to themselves and deem that the members of the subordinate group are unfit and unable to perform the more preferable roles (the ones being performed by the dominant group). The subordinate group is encouraged to develop traits and a mindset that is preferable to the dominant group. This can be seen in any form of bias (racism, sexism, homophobia, etc.)
In what ways do neo-liberal policies help and harm Third World women?
The idea of neoliberalism greatly supports a laissez-faire economy and a free trade system. This helps third world women in getting jobs in that first world countries will take advantage of third world countries
Do you think Memmi's definition and analysis of racism can be applied to other forms of oppression? First, explain his definition/analysis, try applying his analysis to sexism, heterosexism, homophobia and classism, then discuss the ways it is useful and/or the ways in which it is not applicable.
The process of creating social inequality involves the construction of difference. Therefore, Memmi's definition is applicable to any bias. Four step process: - Identify a real or imagined difference - Assign value to that difference - Generalize that difference to an entire race - Use it to justify mistreatment/exploitation of that race
According to Lipsitz-Bem, the problem for women and what limits their chances for equality is that they are different from men in an androcentric or male-centered world. What does she mean by this?
The so-called societal norms and functions that govern our cultures are more often than not focused solely around the male experience, not that of humanity as a whole and therefore puts women at a distinct disadvantage. In other words, policies and practices within our world claim to be neutral in all forms but often are very much tailored specifically to men and the male experience.
In her discussion of the burqua, Abu-Lughod insists that veiling itself must not be confused with, or made to stand for, a woman's lack of agency. Explain what she means by this.
The wearing of a burqa is not a symbol of patriarchal oppression like many members of the west like to believe it is. The burqa was a garment far before groups such as the Taliban seized power in the area. It has become a symbol not of subjugation, but of the woman's own respectability and like traits. It is a cultural icon, not a shackle.
Can you think of another motive planters would have in adopting such views about women laborers in this post slavery era? (Why would planters adopt this view now when during slavery this was not an issue?)
There are various reasons why female laborers could be less than desired during this era. One such example could be simply related to the style of work needed. Women, being what was expected during this time, were most often seen in household roles. Women were viewed to be more skilled in household tasks such as cooking, cleaning, laundering, nursing, etc. and therefore would be more likely to bet placed in these positions over manual labor.
According to Abu-Lughod, why should we be suspicious when claims are made by those in the West of saving or liberating Muslim women? How does this relate to the history of colonialism?
This embodies the same idea of colonialism or eurocentrism in that we, the people of the west, are applying the values of our own culture onto societies not of our own; therefore, our cultural values hold no merit. We should be understanding that different societies have different values.
In global factories, labor is organized along an assembly line. Explain this process.
This entails each individual being assigned a very specific job (i.e. sewing the buttons on a shirt) this increases productivity as each person becomes highly specialized in that job, but also rationalizes underpayment of the workers as you don't have to pay each worker for the creation of the product, but just for their minute part in its production.
Shepherd shows that under the indenture system planters created a gendered division of labor on the plantations. What does this mean and why would planters organize labor in this way (what are the benefits)?
This ties into what I was discussing last question: male laborers were more desired for physical labor over women due to numerous reasons. The belief that women had were physically less suited to physical labor caused planters to divide their labor along gender lines. Instead they chose to hire women for less physically demanding jobs.
Describe the concept of the 'feminization of labor" how does it relate to the "feminization of poverty"?
Two components of "feminization of labor: - More women entering the workforce - Discursive construction of women's labor
In our discussion of "Third World" women Chandra Mohanty want us to make a distinction between 'women' as a discursively constructed group vs. 'women' as material subjects. Why is this distinction important? Explain.
We must women on their own terms. Do not view women as a singular, homogenous body, instead view women as a collection of individual subjects.
According to Mohanty, how are 'Third World' women constructed in western feminist discourse and why is this problematic for her?
Women of the first world attempt to set their view of feminism as the staple for all women, despite differing cultures, races, classes, and so on. The western women feel that, because they have more wealth and the like, they view themselves as superior to third world women. First world women make sweeping generalizations that all third world women have the same interests at heart which is not necessarily true and it is this unified false notion that leads to "Third World" women being grouped together under the same umbrella of oppression, whether that oppression is real or not.
