AAST Midterm

Benjamin Banneker

(1731-1806) Slavery Letter in 1791 anneker is an African American who wrote to Thomas Jefferson to tell him that slavery is wrong. He argued that Jefferson needed to wean himself of his prejudices. Jefferson knew he was wrong, but continued on with it.

Was Reconstruction a failure? Why or why not?

reconstruction was a failure, as it provided a foundation to work within the capitalist and democratic system of the United States. Reconstruction was a success--- Integration was never going to be an option, as slavery had just been outlawed, but only to not re-enslaved. They made sure that they as a community were part of the political process and achieved enough control to ensure they would not be exploited in the same was as they had been their owners, which is success. The African American community put in a culture of resistance even uring some of the most violent attacks such as their right to vote. Bennetville SC, Af-ams organized self-defense leagues, patrolled their own streets, and opened and publicly send to the Klan to try and get us- the Klan never showed up. Another group in Alabama said they we were willing to go to an open field to fight out their right to vote. In Hamburg, SC, July 4, 1876, Black military were such a big force that they backed traffic and the sheriff had to disperse them. A hi=uge crowd of black people led by an Ex-Confederate demanded that blacks give up their arms, but they resisted. An establishment of the culture of resistance. This kind of resistance lived in the rural farmers alliance, gathering, and a negro improvement association. Culture of resistance had been put into place that lived deep long after. Af-Am succeeded in changing the form of their labor as before Reconstruction they had to work in controlled gangs but shifted into family-based labor form where women did not have to work. Also changed the laws of the land, had the rights to marry, to enter into legal contacts fro payed labor, had the right to buy their own land, to sue/tesitfy in court, and most importantly, there were three new constitutional amendments to US constitution- 13th Amendment- ended slavery - Dec 6, 1865. 14th-1868- equal citizenship to all. 1870- gave the enfranchisement to men, black men could vote. Widespread participation of African Americans in office. Under congregational reconstruction, every state who left the south had to have a constitutional convention to come back into the union, over 50 of the 265 were black. Between 1868-1878, almost 1500 (1465) Af Am men served in political positions in the South. Positions of 6 Lieu Governor, 1 state Supreme Court Justice, 863 House Reps, 112 Black Senators, and black police chief in Little Rock, Ark and Tallahasse. They could change their financial status in a court of law. Jonathan J Wright won 1200 dollars after he bought a 1st class ticket and was given second class. They set up public school education, mental health facilities, institutions for the blind and death, and reformed the way our criminal justice would be carried out. Refutation - Land was not distributed. Special Order 15 by General Sherman on Jan 16, 1865 was to set up a 30 mile wide stretch from Charleston to 245 miles long to Jacksonville, an empty land, Black people will be given 40 acres and a mule to plow land. Former enslaved people had been raising crops on vacant land and had done so seriously In July 1865, General Oliver O'Howard issued special order 13 with specialized plots for African plots. When President Johnson overturned Special Order 15 and Circular Order 13, it stopped even though it was successful. The Homestead Act (1866) to give 3 million acres of land to Black people were swampy, untellable, but 4,000 black families got the land but did not have the money to till it or grow food, which was then bought by southern lumberers. The labor that was laboring was not truly free. The Freedmen's Bureau set up contracts with the previous enslaved owners and slaves, not paid in cash but in crops. Led to highly-exploitable schemes and debt inducing systems, where Black people could not get out of debt by 1870s. Black codes made sure there would be a black labor force which set up unpaid apprenticeships of African Americans from the time they were two years old to twenty years old. Also put in place was huge licensing fees from ten dollars to hundred dollars making it impossible for them to get their own businesses. No black man was elected to any gubernatorial offices like governor. Only 2 black US senators. Rural education was inadequate or not even built, some teachers were not paid. Were not able to make laws for compulsory education. Only one city in the South could made an integrated school in elementary which was New Orleans. After northern voters rejected Johnson's policies in the congressional elections in late 1866, Radical Republicans in Congress took firm hold of Reconstruction in the South. The following March, again over Johnson's veto, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which temporarily divided the South into five military districts and outlined how governments based on universal (male) suffrage were to be organized. The law also required southern states to ratify the 14th Amendment, which broadened the definition of citizenship, granting "equal protection" of the Constitution to formerly enslaved people, before they could rejoin the Union. In February 1869, Congress approved the 15th Amendment (adopted in 1870), which guaranteed that a citizen's right to vote would not be denied "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." restoration of the Union, transformation of southern society, and enactment of progressive legislation favoring the rights of freed slaves. They began to become more literate and educated, as children began to go to school, a partiarchal structure was placed on the black family, gender employment discrimination, as the family became the center of black women's lives, kinship networks replaced the female network as a source of strength and identity. Black women pursued the right of the people. Black men could vote. Black women could take care of their children and did not need to worry about caring for a white person's. Fictive relationships serve to broaden mutual support networks, create a sense of community, and enhance social control. Generated female cooperation and interdependence. The responsible of motherhood had to be shared given the circumstances, so women were close. THIS FICTIVE KINSHIP WAS VITAL TO TNE ENSLAVED PERSON'S SURVIVAL, AS THEY HAD TO SIMULTANEOUSLY BE MOTHER AND LABORER, NEEDING THE HELPING OF OTHER WOMEN. Made sure no child was motherless. This supportive atmosphere of women acted as a buffer to the dehumanizing regime of planation work and slavery.They were free workers. Black women could cherish their femininity. Many people married or divorced one another.Kinship replaced the female network.Freedom made black men and women more dependent on each other. More common than not, African American women died poor.Some did not engage in motherhood and remained single to earn government pension. to enfranchise black and white workers, unseating reactionary southern Democrats,, supporting the right of workers to organize, and urging reactionary southern Democrats, supporting the rights of workers to organize, and urging governmental intervention to improve standards of living and modernize the cotton-dominate southern economy. Pg 45.Oppressed condition of unorganized southern workers. 46That " way of life" included a low wage, unorganized work force, a largely disfranchised working class and black community, and a rigid caste system that kept blacks from rising out of their menial economic status as laborers, sharecroppers, and domestic servants. It also included the perpetuation of white supremacist doctrines which helped prevent the region's impoverished white workers from making alliances with similarly impov erished blacks. In the name of maintaining white superiority, the upper classes cultivated an atmosphere which not only squelched unionization and black civil rights efforts, but also stifled freedom of speech and association. pg. 46 Nowhere did the forces of the old order respond more forcefully than in Memphis. There, blacks had retained the right to vote (unlike the rest of the South), while city leaders encouraged the existence of a few AFL craft unions, and gave wholehearted support to New Deal recovery programs. Yet city authorities did everything in their power to stop the organization of liberal, black, or CIO-led industrial labor movements, and turned the city into a battle ground over the right to organize during the late 1930s. As in the rest of the South, popular front politics proved especially relevant in Memphis, where the struggle for democratic rights remained fundamental to any labor or antiracist movement. Pg 46-47. Edward Crump, the Mississippi-bred son of a slaveholder who became an insurance executive, real estate speculator, and briefly a mayor and congressman, controlled virtually the entire Memphis vote by the 1930s. Crump used "donations" from vice establishments, businesses, and city em ployees to pay annual cumulative poll taxes for black voters, who were some times hauled into Memphis by the truckload from Mississippi. The Crump machine then deposited their votes for whichever candidate Crump supported in a given election. Crump controlled the white vote as well, through his pa tronage system in city employment, a powerful ward organization, and the poll tax. Crump also controlled local New Deal economic reconstruction pro grams and a brutal police force, and ran not only the city but much of the state, mostly without bothering to hold elective office himself. As a result of Boss Crump's unchallenged political power, even President Roosevelt dared not interfere with him.7 Not very.Under the dominance of Boss Crump and the city's business elite, workers in most sectors of the economy remained unorganized, subject to low wages, long hours, high accident rates, and terrible working conditions. The estab lished craft unions of the AFL and the white railroad brotherhoods had be come a part of the Crump machine long before the 1930s and provided no aid to the unorganized. The Crump machine placed building trades unionists on city licensing boards where they could control the supply of labor to local con tractors, appointed AFL leaders to judgeships and elective (formally speaking) offices, and provided craft unionists with city jobs. In return, AFL unions steered clear of organizing black and poor white workers in cotton compress ing and seed oil companies, lumber mills, warehouses, furniture factories, and other extractive industries owned by local capitalists. They also failed to or ganize municipal workers or mass production industries migrating from the North, such as Ford, Firestone, and Fisher Body Company. Furthermore, the AFL's systematic exclusion of blacks from union membership guaranteed that unions would continue to pose no challenge to industry. Similarly, the remnants of the Socialist party in Memphis in the early 1930s consisted of a few elderly reformers who posed no threat to the established order. pg. 47-48In Memphis, as in most southern cities, the more or less direct control of the business classes over political life, the absence of civil liberties, and the long-standing division of the working class along racial lines placed brakes on the industrial labor movement, which caused it to develop much later than in the North. The union of sharecroppers and farm tenants they created, spurred by mass evictions from the land resulting from the Roosevelt administration's Agricultural Adjustment Act, decided in its earliest meetings in 1934 not to follow the standard union practice of organizing separate locals for whites and blacks. For the first time since the Populist movements of the 1890s, former black slaves and former white Ku Klux Klans- men joined forces to oppose the landlords and agribusinessmen of the delta. From 1934 to 1939 the union engaged in a series of battles with the police, vigi lantes, and landlords, demanding an end to evictions from the land, higher wages for day laborers, and reform of the capitalist economy through the crea tion of agricultural cooperatives. Throughout these battles the union held to the proposition of its Socialist president H. L. Mitchell, that "there are no '******s' and no 'poor white trash' in the union . . . we have only union men in our organization, and whether they are white or black makes no difference." According to one black union leader, "segregation run out so far as the union was concerned." 17 The consolidation of agriculture in the hands of a few large landlords and the resultant proletarianization of thousands of rural workers encouraged by the New Deal, along with massive planter violence against the sharecroppers during a 1936 strike, doomed the movement to an early death. " When Cotton is King of any nation," wrote sharecropper poet John Handcox, "it means wealth to the planter—to the laborer, starvation." 18 While agricultural con solidation and planter violence destroyed the tenants' union, the Socialist par ty, the most active force backing the STFU, also collapsed after opposing reelection of Franklin Roosevelt in the 1936 election. Whereas the Com munists legitimized their activity and augmented their ranks by becoming a part of the Roosevelt coalition, Socialist membership went into a rapid decline when the party opted out of this version of the popular front. Although the tenants' union declined to near insignificance in the late 1930s, however, its struggle for interracial solidarity and black civil rights con tinued. Following a split between Socialists and Communists in the STFU and its secession from the CIO in 1939,19a number of STFU leaders joined with the communist leadership of the United Cannery, Agricultural and Packinghouse Workers of America (UCAPAWA) in organizing the cotton processing. 50 Moreover, for members of a class whose long workdays were spent in backbreaking, low-paid wage work in set tings pervaded by racism, the places where they played were more than relatively free spaces in which to articulate grievances and dreams. They were places that en abled African Americans to take back their bodies, to recuperate, to be together.Two of the most popular sites were dance halls and blues clubs. 84the form and content of such leisure activities were unmistakably collective.22The black body is here celebrated as an instrument of pleasure rather than an instrument of labor. despite appearances of consent, oppressed groups challenge those in power by constructing a "hidden transcript," a dissident political culture that manifests itself in daily conversations, folklore, jokes, songs, and other cultural prac tices. One also finds the hidden transcript emerging "on stage" in spaces controlled by the powerful, though almost always in disguised forms. The submerged social and cultural worlds of oppressed people frequently surface in everyday forms of resistance—theft, footdragging, the destruction of property—or, more rarely, in open attacks on individuals, institutions, or symbols of domination. Together, the "hidden transcripts" that are created in aggrieved communities and expressed through culture and the daily acts of resistance and survival constitute what Scott calls "infrapolitics." What are "infrapolitics"? Together, the "hidden transcripts" that are created in aggrieved communities and expressed through culture and the daily acts of resistance and survival constitute what Scott calls "infrapolitics." As he puts it, "the circumspect struggle waged daily by subor dinate groups is, like infrared rays, beyond the visible end of the spectrum. That it should be invisible . . . is in large part by design —a tactical choice born of a pru dent awareness of the balance of power."7Like Scott, I use the concept of infrapolitics to describe the daily confrontations, evasive actions, and stifled thoughts that often inform organized political movements. I am not suggesting that the realm of infrapolitics is any more or less impor tant or effective than what we traditionally consider politics. Instead, I want to sug gest that the political history of oppressed people cannot be understood without reference to infrapolitics, for these daily acts have a cumulative effect on power rela tions. While the meaning and effectiveness of acts differ according to circumstances, they make a difference, whether they were intended to or not. Thus, one measure of the power and historical importance of the informal infrapolitics of the oppressed is the response of those who dominate traditional politics. Daily acts of resistance and survival have had consequences for existing power relations, and the powerful have deployed immense resources in response. Knowing how the powerful interpret, redefine, and respond to the thoughts and actions of the oppressed is just as impor tant as identifying and analyzing opposition. The policies, strategies, or symbolic representations of those in power—what Scott calls the "official" or "public" tran script—cannot be understood without examining the infrapolitics of oppressed groups. pg 77-78 he design and function of buses and streetcars rendered them unique sites of contest. An especially useful metaphor for understanding the character of domina tion and resistance on public transportation might be to view the interior spaces as "moving theaters." Here I am using the word theater in two ways: as a site of per formance and a site of military conflict. First, plays of conflict, repression, and resis tance are performed in which passengers witness, or participate in, "skirmishes" that shape the collective memory of the passengers, illustrate the limits as well as the possibilities of resistance to domination, and draw more passengers into the "perfor mance." The design of streetcars and buses —enclosed spaces with seats facing for ward or toward the center aisle—gave everyday discursive and physical confronta tions a dramaturgical quality. Second, theater as a military metaphor is particularly appropriate because all bus drivers and streetcar conductors in Birmingham carried guns and blackjacks and used them pretty regularly to maintain (the social) order.In August 1943, for example, when a black woman riding the South East Lake- Ensley line complained to the conductor that he had passed her stop, he followed her out of the streetcar and, in the words of the official report, "knocked her down with handle of gun. No further trouble." Violence was not a completely effectivePublic transportation, unlike any other form of public space (for example, a waiting room or a water fountain), was an extension of the marketplace. Because transportation companies depend on profit, any action that might limit potential fares was economically detrimental. This explains why divisions between black and white space had to be relatively fluid and flexible. With no fixed dividing line, black and white riders continually contested readjustments that affected them. The fluidity of the color line meant that their protestations often fell within the pro scribed boundaries of segregationist law, thus rendering public transportation espe cially vulnerable to everyday acts of resistance. Furthermore, for African Americans, public transportation —as an extension of the marketplace—was also a source of eco nomic conflict. One source of frustration was the all too common cheating or short changing of black passengers. Unlike the workplace, where workers entered as dis- empowered producers dependent on wages for survival and beholden, ostensibly at least, to their superiors, public transportation gave passengers a sense of consumer entitlement. The notion that blacks and whites should pay the same for "separate but equal" facilities fell within the legal constraints ofJim Crow, although for black passengers to argue publicly with whites, especially those in positions of authority, fell outside the limits of acceptable behavior. 104"She came up later and began cursing and could not be stopped and a white passenger came and knocked her down. Officer was called and made her show him the money which was .25 short, then asked her where the rest of the money was. She looked in her purse and produced the other quarter. She was taken to jail." The incident served as compelling theater, a performance that revealed the hidden transcript, the power ofJim Crow to crush public declarations swiftly and decisively, the role of white passengers as defenders of segregation, the degree to which white men —not even law enforcement officers —could assault blackNo matter how effective drivers, conductors, and signs were at keeping bodies separated, black voices flowed easily into the section designated for whites, constantly reminding riders that racially divided public space was contested terrain. Black passengers were routinely ejected and occasionally arrested for making too much noise, often by directing harsh words at a conductor or passenger or launching a monologue about racism in general. Such monologues or verbal attacks on racism make for excellent theater. Unlike passersby who can hurry by a lecturing street corner preacher, pas sengers were trapped until they reached their destination, the space silenced by the anonymity of the riders. The reports reveal a hypersensitivity to black voices rising from the back of the bus. Indeed, verbal protests or complaints registered by black passengers were frequently described as "loud"—an adjective almost never used to describe the way white passengers articulated their grievances. One morning in Au gust 1943, during the peak hours, a black man boarded an Acipco line bus and im mediately began "complaining about discrimination against negroes in a very loud voice."60 Black voices, especially the loud and profane, literally penetrated and oc cupied white spaces. 107nce they were individualized, isolated events that almost always ended in de feat. Such an argument misses the unique, dramaturgical quality of these actions within the interior spaces of public conveyances; whenever passengers were present no act of defiance was isolated. Nor were acts of defiance isolating experiences. Be cause African-American passengers shared a collective memory of how they were treated on a daily basis, both within and without the "moving theaters," an act of resistance or repression sometimes drew other passengers into the fray. An in teresting report from an Avenue F line bus driver in October 1943 illustrates such a moment of collective resistance: "Operator went to adjust the color boards, and negro woman sat down quickly just in front of board that operator was putting in place. She objected to moving and was not exactly disorderly but all the negroes took it up and none of [the] whites would sit in seat because they were afraid to, and negroes would not sit in vacant seats in rear of bus."In the public spaces of the city, how ever, the anonymity and sheer numbers of the crowd, whose movement was not directed by the discipline of work (and was therefore unpredictable), meant a more vigilant and violent system of maintaining social order. Arrests and beatings were always a possibility, but so was escape. Thus, for black workers public spaces both embodied the most repressive, violent aspects of race and gender oppression and, paradoxically, afforded more opportunities to engage in acts of resistance than the workplace itself. 110In the end, whether or not African Americans chose to join working-class organi zations, their daily experiences, articulated mainly in unmonitored social spaces, constituted the ideological and cultural foundations for constructing a collective identity. 112

Anansi the Spider

3150 BCE - 1440 CE The "Trickster" character from the folk tales of Ghana. A Pan African Theme Stories are the way of interpreting the world. The idea of trade. Monotheistic. The small spider is overcoming hornets, python, and leopard. Unexpected strength and survival. Commonalities throughout west Africa. This is not the idea of savage.

Maafa

1441-1808 (Slavery) key Swahili term. The way out is to go back in. Means great tragedy or disaster. Middle Passage or the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. Conditions Conditions Limited the number of enslaved people that could be put on the boat. Henrietta boat should have had only 240 people, they carried 350. To increase their profits, people were put on top of each other. Chafing, jostling, jarring. The food wPrior to 750, the voyage could take two to three months, with really good winds, 40 days, or bad, 6 months. The food was beans, cheese, rice, flour, and grog (water with rum), people would get drunk. When they get to the Gold Coast, they bring traditional African food, but it was never enough. It was insufficient, even though sailors would catch a ton of fish and instead of giving them to the enslaved, they would just through the fish overboard. Food would be served in a single bucket for every 10 people. Everyone was given a wooden spoon, but would eat with their unclean hands if the spoon broke. A calculated rationale of how little food possible they could give for the most people. If someone refused to et, they would force feed them with a metal pole. The biggest issue was disease, especially in 1750, malaria, and things like that ran rampant. The trips were difficult, but the outcomes were worth it, so they kept at it. Tight Packing Voyage Length 1750 - The amount of voyageurs are caught in half, helping with disease, but there were only 3 sanitation tubs. Many people layed in their own waste. Improved ship technology that made the voyage quicker and easier. Slave Response Some turned to suicide. Many ships would put netting around the nets, that way if they jumped they would land in their nets. Some achieved suicide even though chained together. Others called on their religious beliefs with totems by putting it into water supply to hope to poison the crew. Some revolted, so the slaveholders separated those who spoke the same language. When land was insight, there was an increased chance of revolt. The whites weren't concerned with the Africans religion because they thought it was superstition. Slave ship called Robert put down an attempted rebellion on the ship, who to punish and how. Made them eat the heart and liver of another. Economics ruled the day. Suicide. Reasons for Cruelty - why the c ruelty? It is the idea of alterity. Alerity is the concept of others, where we make human beings as something other than ourselves, to dehumanize them. They dehumanized the enslaved. Made them something other than human. 1807- the year England made it illegal for the Atlantic Slave Trade to persist. 1808- the year the U.S. made it illegal for the Atlantic Slave Trade to persist.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 (Slavery) Significant because it wasn't just Europeans who rebelled, but all Africans Americans who rebelled. "A gimme multitude". It was terrifying for the European land owners as they were using race as a unifier. There was a change where the rich white people treated the poor white people better as this is the first time where race is used giving poor white people a white identity. The poor whites began to think they were superior due to the white race, despite their lower economic class, as they would not any longer ally with the Africans Americans. The poor white people went along with Black people in the rebellion which made the rich whites nervous. Bacon's Rebellion in 1676 was the last major uprising of enslaved blacks and white indentured servants in Colonial Virginia. One consequence of the failed rebellion was the intensification of African slavery and the social separation of blacks and whites in Virginia Side note - Women, taxation, property, contrast. Prior to the idea of race, women were taxed the same rate, whether black or white. Yet, white women were taxed less and black women began to be taxed as black men. Essentially this said race will count more rather your gender for taxes. Trying to put wedge between women.

Carl Linneaus

1730 (Race) (Slavery) ~Americanus -. reddish, choleric, and erect. ~Asiaticus- sallow, melancholy, and stiff ~After- black, phlegmatic and relaxed. ~Europaeus- white, sanguine, and muscular. He was among the first scientists to sort and categorize human beings. He regarded humanity as a species within the animal kingdom and divided the species into four varieties: European, American, Asiatic, and African.Nov 15, 2017

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

1775 (Race) -- (Slavery) The Four Oids - Racial Hierarchy Caucasoid (Caucasus Mountains, Eastern Europe) Mongoloid (Mongolia), Negroid, Australoid (Australia) For Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Australoid is people and land, whereas Negroid only refers to skin color. Come up with a mean shade of all the people in Kelvin's tribe. They encountered a problem with this method. There was much more diversity within the tribe than between separate tribes. Thus, they decide to do a measurement of Kelvin's cranial size. People with elongated skulls were seen as inherently smarter than those with round skulls. Far more variety within a group than between groups. So, they measure cheeks, but the same problem.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Nella Larsen - Harlem Renaissance - 1915-1929 She was born Nellie Walker in 1891 in the red light district. Her mom was a Danish immigrant who moved to the U.S. and her father was from the West Indies. Mother was white, father was black. He worked as a cook. Her mother and father applied for a marriage license, nine months prior to Nellie's birth. No record of them actually getting married, probably denied the license since they were interracial. A year later, her father either dies or disappears. Shortly after, Nellie's mother married a white man, a teamster, his name was also Peter. They then have a daughter as well, Nellie's half sister. Nellie was given a lot of prejudice as she biracial. She was raised in a city where racial tensions were on the rise rather than on the decline. People thought Nellie had been a prostitute. In 1985, when Nellie would be four years old, her mother took her and her sister back to Denmark. This was to probably flee the racial animosity. They only stayed three years and moved back to Chicago. They moved to a white immigrant community but that only lasted a couple months and moved to this in between community of white and black. In 7th grade, she moves to another neighborhood, but it is not the same school as her sister. In 1997, she goes to Fisk University and leaves home to be a teacher. Her family moves to a white community and her sister begins to think she is an only child. She only lasted a year at Fisk. She felt foreign, didn't have religious training, was always under supervision, restricted dress code. Took part in student protest for dress code and they asked her not to return. Her parents have essentially disowned her. She goes back to her mother's family in Denmark, about four years. She comes back in 1912 and enters nursing school at the Lincoln Hospital in the Bronx. College didn't work out so she goes to nursing school. She passed the state board with honors. She is the only writer of H.R. of any significance to not earn a college degree. She was the head nurse at the Tuskagee Institute and resigns after their dress code. She goes back to NYC and takes nursing school. By 1919, she gets hired by the Bureau of Preventable Disease as a public health nurse responsible for the white people. The Influenza pandemic. She had the power to declare quarantine, took responsibility for sex-education, help them speak in a professional matter. A very important position she filled in an all white community. Through that work she meets Dr. Elmer S. Imes and they get married in 1919. Imes was the 2nd doctor to earn a degree in Psychics in the U.S. Through him she becomes familiar with the black elite. She has her first publication in 1920 about children's games and riddle of the Danish. She decides for a career shift and entered the NYC Public Library School. She gets a job leading the children's diviosn leading the children's library. Huge amount of professional success. She became involved with Carl Van Vechten and his wife, Fania Marinoff in 1927 about a racist book. She would dance with other white men without her husband around, and was dealing with racial hatred. She writes her first novel in 1929, that explores the idea as passing as white. Then there was an accusation of plagiarism in her career which destroyed her career. Later in life, she divorced her husband from his affair. Grew frustrated in finding publishers, went to drugs and alcohol. But then weren't back to nursing as a supervisor. was forced to retire in 1962. She continued to work nights as a nurse and dies of a heart attack while reading in a bed, being undiscovered for days. She had 50 colleagues come to her funeral. Authorites track down her half-sister to inform her that she was heir to her estate, but Anna claimed she did not have a sister. The color "grey"

Pan-Africanism (Slavery)

3150 BCE-1440 CE the study of the African experience that emphasizes shared linguistic, cultural, and sociological roots among people of African descent worldwide; a political and intellectual worldview built on the idea of a shared national identity based on those common roots. Looks back to the context of Africa to see commonalities. Means or methodology of study, but also a political orientation.

Diaspora Studies

3150 BCE-1440 CE the study of the experience of people of African descent in dispersed locales around the world that emphasize the legacy of forced removal processes. Diversity of where the Africans ended up.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

A'Leila Walker - Harlem Renaissance - 1915-1929 - she would create spaces for Af Am's to exchange their ideas, perform their work, it was called the Dark Tower. A salon for people to come together and talk. These were Negrotarians. She was a Black businesswoman. She was associated with the Harlem Renaissance as a patron of the arts who provided an intellectual forum for the Black literati of New York City during the 1920 She was the only surviving child of Madam C. J. Walker, popularly credited as being the first self-made female millionaire in the United States and one of the first African American millionaires.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

African=Americans brought about the demise of Reconsutrction- The Af-Ams in South Carolina, were divided between those who had been free or enslaved from prior to the slave. Someone who was free had a 10x the chance of being elected. In South Carolina, those who were free got most of the civil service job. SC Land Commission could do it for free people and very little got into the hands of people in color. Throughout the South, Af-Ams got office grabs for money rather than genuine political interest. In 1866, in which Black republicans held mass meetings, where black men and women participated, that had been overturned as time went forward. There was a short period where AF-Am organized their own militias and acted as enforcers for the community in this way. As violence towards black men increased, black women were further marginalized as women and were disempowered in self-defense. Af-Ams could not bridge gender or status lines. Black women had a lot of voice, but as they become more official on party lines, black women are pushed out. They allowed gender, class, and status prior to the Civil War to divide them.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Afrika Bambaataa - was engaged in pedaophelia. Mystic figure founded the Zulu nation and become enraptured with the Zulus after watching a move of upending African colonizers. Did through universal infinity lessons, a mixture of wisdom, snippets from Malcom X, from Islam, the ideology of black pride. But does it to bring peace to his community. He not only brought in new sounds but alternatives to violence. Over in Brooklyn, his cousin was shot to death. Another 14 year old boy was shot by the police and gangs were ready to fight back, but Bambaataa tells them to draw back. In 1975, he begins to promote Bambaataa. He describes it as a philosophy of seeking knowledge, wisdom, and understanding through non-aggression and self defense. Would not attack anyone, but would do so if they were attacked. Strong sense of African pride, bringing together groups through Zulu pride, non-aggression. He didn't go through the politics of Malcom X, but offers a stabilizing presence during these times.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Angela Brown - begins organizing youth through the youth task force on environmental justice and the hip hop movement.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Black August Tour Black August - 2001, after attending the road conference against racism. Looked like a privileged group of black First celebrated in 1979, Black August was created to commemorate Jackson's fight for Black liberation. Fifty-one years since his death, Black August is now a monthlong awareness campaign and celebration dedicated to Black freedom fighters, revolutionaries, radicals and political prisoners, both living and deceased

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Black Power Black Power began as revolutionary movement in the 1960s and 1970s. It emphasized racial pride, economic empowerment, and the creation of political and cultural institutions

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Bob Marley - By 1966, the Rastafarian movement was 100,000 strong. Marley grows up in this environment. In a context in which he saw the oppression by the government towards poor black communities. He had grown up in neighborhoods where he saw the government cracking down and instituting severe poverty measures to deal with the country's debt. Marley has national and international success with his 1972 album, which got famous with his poor upbringing and musical value. After this severe inflation and austerity measures hit Jamaica. Huge ramifications for the poor. This leads to rebellion. Marley tries to enter this conflict to bring music to quell the situation. Marley is co-opted by the Jamaican government. Government is unsettled with Marley and in December 1976, the government attempt to assassinate him, leaving he and his wife wounded. Two days later, Marley appears in concert after the attack. Chooses to go forward as the people who are trying to make the world worse never take a day off, how can I light up the darkness. He tries to quell violence again in 1978, but for people like Marley, music and politics were a whole. Stir it up has political connotations.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Bob Moses - one of the most important leaders in SNCC. From New York, great at math, taught black students math. Brilliant, quirky, committed to grass roots leadership. Highly respected. An organizer.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Bob and Dottie Zellner - white people pushed out by SNCC during their black power movement of the SNCC. Two white people.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

C. Dolores Tucker - gets the backing of prominent politicians who gets support of politicians who refrains from black rap. They held hearings on gangster rap.

Civil Rights and Black Power Movements (1944-1978)

New narrative of the CRM story

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

COINTELPRO June 22, 1966 - ousting of all white volunteers. Ricks was warming up the crowd and yelled black power, and warned of white blood flowing, MLK JR was present in the crowd. King strides through the crowd and people tried to shake his hand. King ascends the platform and said Ricks is not going to turn him around. The crowd begins to calm down. He said he would not let any man pull him down to hatred. Finally, a frustrated SNCC administrator shouts at MLK Jr, mocks him. To the SNCC staffer's embarassemtn no one in the crowd laughed and recognized MLK's saintliness aloud. Some historians have suggested that the undoing of the civil rights movement was not because of MLK assassination, but black power leading the party astray. What that narrative fails to take into account, is the deliberate FBI group known as Counter Intelligence Program run from the basement of the FBI of Edgar Hoover, full support mandate and funding where he tried to discredit and undermine the SNCC and black power organizations. Under Hoover's authority, he found ways to pit Ron Karenga, the founder of the US Organization against members of the Black Panthers. One strategy was to hire paid informants to say what was going on in the US Organization and Black Panther Party, BPP - more racial integrative, where US Orgnization was not. They also paid them to make problems. They would pit the BP against Ron Karen's Us. Hoover staff would forge letters to say BP wanted war with Korenga. They then realize months later they were set up by the FBI. the FBI cooperated with and was in cooperation with the black power leaders assassination.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Cabins as resistance it was a common pattern for people to go into the hush arbors for religious services, short runaways, or revolt, a temporary haven. The installation of doors post-construction gave them access to come and go 24/7 away from sightline. The pits dug contained money. These buildings were forms of strengthening family relations which gave them some stability. Roads were made possible by trading information, exchanging knowledge and forms of resistance. Owning livestock, growing your own crops, etc. These cabins were a source of resistance in the very form of the architecture. The debate between total revolt or resistance is a false one. Jourdon Anderson - In August 1865, Colonel Anderson of Tennessee wrote to his slave Jordan Anderson. Jourdon was emancipated at that time.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Charlotte Osgood - Godmother Mason- Harlem Renaissance 1915-1929 She was a white window of a wealthy doctor and she would pay money particularly to Langston Hughes, a well-known poet of H.R. and Zoran Herston, a writer, money and a car to pursue their creativity, but they had to share it with her. Mason had this idea that Black people were more religiously robust than the white people, so she sometimes wouldn't release their work. In 1929, the H.R. drops. We don't see this creativity emerge again until much later.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Claude McKay - Harlem Renaissance - 1915-1929 1919 known as the Red Summer due to the black massacres. "If we must die" In addition to giving a voice to black immigrants, McKay was one of the first African-American poets of the Harlem Renaissance. As such, he influenced later poets, including Langston Hughes. He paved the way for black poets to discuss the conditions and racism that they faced in their poems

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Commercialization Commercial Intervention - one of the reasons why the early hip hop was not just political in a political sense, is because of the power of the commercialism. Money becomes a huge influence in what hip hop would offer. Graffiti begins to lead the path to that lucrative future. The art world begins to take notice of graffiti and bring it into an art gallery and sell it for thousands. Or to commission graffiti artists. They also would pay for pictures of graffiti. By 1979, graffiti artists begin to have international recognition such as the artist of Futura. DJ's follow in which artistic circles are running together and get to meet producers together. Break-dancing, Village Voice, a cutting-edge newspaper sponsors a break dancing competition but deteriorates into violence, where the idea to expand break-dancing into a wider audience fails. Hip-hop movement came out as a unit. Despite the money, they bring that partnership of music and politics together. A focus on flash, international lifestyle. The movement as a whole was a rejection set forth by the white standards, going to come to their own terms. Does make that commercial break but still brings the authenticity.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

DJ Kool Herc - had his formative years in Jamaica where he was heavily influenced by the most well-known artist to come out of their place, which was Bob Marley. Comes from Jamaica and goes into the Bronx. Herc introduced music and politics learned from Bob Marley. He had a particular technological innovation that allowed hiphop music to be played in large crowds without it getting distorted. Percolators were blocks of amplifiers which made sound remain clear. Hip hop offered an alternative to the gang violence which was all throughout the community of the Bronx. Quelling violence through the music.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Norris v Alabama (1935) Supreme Court says all American have a right to trial of jury by your peers.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was the principal channel of student commitment in the United States to the civil rights movement during the 1960s. SNCC sought to coordinate youth-led nonviolent, direct-action campaigns against segregation and other forms of racism. SNCC members played an integral role in sit-ins, Freedom Rides, the 1963 March on Washington, and such voter education projects as the Mississippi Freedom Summer.

Popular Front (1930-1939)

Scottsboro 9 (1931) known as the Scottsoboro Boys Trial but "boys" is derogatory during this time, so we use Scottsboro 9. The Scottsboro ranged from 13-20 years old, so they were not boys. A group of 9 young men who came together by chance and circumstance hoping to find work by hopping on one freight train to another to find work. They are passing through Tennessee, one night march 25, 1931, a fight breaks out between the white and black riders. 9 young men beat up the white guys and had the station chief phone ahead, "to capture every Negro on the train.'' While the train is coming to the next stop, a mob of 200 white people gather at the train stop waiting for the men to get dropped off. Seeing the mob, some riders hopped off early and escape. The 9 for whatever reason stay on the train. March 25, 1931 Ozie Powell, Clarence Norris, Charles Weems, Olen Montgomery, Willie Robertson, Haywood Patterson, Eugene Williams, Andy Right, and Roy Wright, - the mob grabs these men and two other individuals who were women named Ruby Bates, 19, and Victoria Pace, 17, these were not reputable women. They were dressed as men to find safety, Pace was arrested for prostitution , and Bates was drunk. The two women know this is a serious situation, the two white women could go to jail or accuse the men of having sexually assaulted them. They say they were raped and that is why the two women were on the train. A doctor examines the women and finds they had sex, but not recently. Also no physical problems with the two women. The rail car was filled with gravel. The doctor doubts there was any rape. Separated into 4 trials, lasting 4 days in total.. Took place in Scottsboro, Alabama. Their court appointed lawyer shows up drunk for everyone of the trial sessions. Two weeks after the arrest, eight of them were sentenced to death, and one was given a mistrial, as the jury wanted death, but the court, only wanted a life sentence, for the 13 y/o. Initially, the NAACP flounders and do not act quickly enough. Walter White was not sure of their innocence, but he did meet with all the defendants. The Communist party acts quickly. By the time White meets with them, the Communist do a massive march in their support, the ILD hire a lawyer to help the defendants to support them in appeals. By Feb, 1932, less than a year after th event, Ruby Bates admits that her story is false, as well as with Victoria Pace. Nonetheless, Alabama continues to try to give them death sentences. Alabama holds new trials. They are dismissed by the Supreme Court. BY 1937, a deal was set to drop charges of one of the nine, kept 4 in prison with minimal sentences, and the other 4 with extended sentences. Several of them had to wait until the end of WW2, and the last one until 1950.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Denmark Vesey (1822) Reconstruction Charleston, South Carolina. Vesey had worked for twenty years for a merchant vessel owner, named Vesey. He was well traveled, having been enslaved for twenty years. He spoke several languages. By his early 30's, he achieved his freedom by winning a lottery and set himself free. He was well-read and would quote from the Bible. He knew about the 1820's debates such as the Missouri Compromise, American political theory, etc. As a carpenter, he was fairly well off. His idea was to free all the slave community within the radius of Charleston. He hoped the rural slave populations would help, as the ration of black to white there were 9:1. He hoped Haiti would come and support them. He envisioned 5,000 enslaved Africans together. He gathered 250 lances, bayonets, and was wanting to do it in June. This spoke to a Black Nationalism, as their were several lieutenants, many different Africans coming together. They gave out charms that were to make them invisible during the revolt. But Monday Gell gave them up, 139 were arrested and there were severe repercussions. African Methodist-Espicopal church had been outlawed, but then it was burnt down. Of the 139 arrested, 35 were hung, 53 were let go. There was a legal structure that would occasionally benefit the African Americans. 31 were sentenced to death, but an exchange to leave the country was don. 11 were found not guilty and sent out of the country. 4 white men were in prison with wanting to lead the revolt. From that point forward, anytime a Black sailor was in Charleston, they had to be imprisoned, because Vesey had bee a sailor himself.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Do the right thing Director Spike Lee chose to create a film that is able to both entertain and emotionally resonate with an audience by pointing out that when racial and social disparities are not properly addressed by those in power, they can ultimately lead to acts of extreme violence by those who feel powerless.

African Continent (3150BCE - 1440 CE) Different Slaveries in African Nations

Egypt in antiquity - 3150 BCE- 331 BCE. (Slavery) Egypt was home of one of the three first emerging civilizations in the world- 3150 BCE, originating date of civilization in Egypt. Mesopotamia and China were the next two. All of them emerged out of the development of farming agriculture. People no longer had to be nomadic in the river valley. Very different racial profiles throughout the African continent. Egypt had a big mix within that context. The idea of race did not exist at that time. Nubia. Kush. 750 BCE. 540 BCE. In Nubia though, Egypt was the dominant partner. For Egypt to control Kush would take the sons and daughters of the Kush leaders and raise them in Egypt, then bring them back to Kush. The children were assimilated on Egypt culture and then brought it back to Kush. When Egypt decline in 2nd BCE, Kush then takes control in 750 BCE, becoming the dominant partner. One man ruled until 663 BCE, the Koshi ruled for another millennium. In 540 BCE, the Kush had a major technological advance in warfare- iron smelting, which gives them a far harder metal to work with. By 2nd century BCE, they had developed their own phonetic script, stabilizing their civilization. Mali - 1230 - 1468 (Slavery) This lasts from 1230 and lasted until 1468. Prevailed from Sundiata, ruled from 1235 to 1255 CE. Mali means "where the empire resides." Mali emerges even more conducive to agriculture as it has large land mass. Mali produced gold, mined it, traded, delivered gold. Mansa Musa was incredibly wealthy in this civilization. Timbuktu was the most culturally important city in Mali. Members in Mali had a grater abhorrence of injustice than any other people. Under Must rule from 1312 to 1327, the wealth was stunning. Must took a trip to the Mecca in 1324, it said 60,000 people traveled with him, perhaps, but he took 100 elephants and handed out gold to people. After he dies, there is internal structure problems, and are conquered in 1468. Ghana - 770 BCE - 1076 (Prior to slavery) Ghana would be found today in Western Sudan, Ghana comes from the word "king." Very wealthy, engaged in camel trade across the Sahara, making it possible for them to sell silk, cotton, etc, and most importantly, salt, as it had highly preservative qualities for meat, this was the heart of the Ghan trade. They could tax any traders that could come into their territory. Capital was Kumbia Saleh. There from 1300 CE, with 20,000 people in the capital and many other building. Were conquered in 1076 by Islamic Berbers in the North. Ghana began in 770 BCE.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Ella Baker - Following the student, sit in movement, she is done with the sexism and partriacrchy especially with MLK and the limited strategy of SNCC and their inability to connect with young people in the black movement. She gives a speech envisioning her idea. Central to her philosophy was a commitment to radical democracy, everyone had a voice. Pushed the young people not to write off anyone. She refused to have any official leadership in SNCC. She was the organizing genious. King originally want SNCC to be under his umbrella, but Baker said no way.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Failure and success of reconstruction Land was not distributed. Special Order 15 by General Sherman on Jan 16, 1865 was to set up a 30 mile wide stretch from Charleston to 245 miles long to Jacksonville, an empty land, Black people will be given 40 acres and a mule to plow land. Former enslaved people had been raising crops on vacant land and had done so seriously In July 1865, General Oliver O'Howard issued special order 13 with specialized plots for African plots. When President Johnson overturned Special Order 15 and Circular Order 13, it stopped even though it was successful. The Homestead Act (1866) to give 3 million acres of land to Black people were swampy, untellable, but 4,000 black families got the land but did not have the money to till it or grow food, which was then bought by southern lumberers. The labor that was laboring was not truly free. The Freedmen's Bureau set up contracts with the previous enslaved owners and slaves, not paid in cash but in crops. Led to highly-exploitable schemes and debt inducing systems, where Black people could not get out of debt by 1870s. Black codes made sure there would be a black labor force which set up unpaid apprenticeships of African Americans from the time they were two years old to twenty years old. Also put in place was huge licensing fees from ten dollars to hundred dollars making it impossible for them to get their own businesses. No black man was elected to any gubernatorial offices like governor. Only 2 black US senators. Rural education was inadequate or not even built, some teachers were not paid. Were not able to make laws for compulsory education. Only one city in the South could made an integrated school in elementary which was New Orleans. Reconstruction was a success--- Integration was never going to be an option, as slavery had just been outlawed, but only to not re-enslaved. They made sure that they as a community were part of the political process and achieved enough control to ensure they would not be exploited in the same was as they had been their owners, which is success. The African American community put in a culture of resistance even uring some of the most violent attacks such as their right to vote. Bennetville SC, Af-ams organized self-defense leagues, patrolled their own streets, and opened and publicly send to the Klan to try and get us- the Klan never showed up. Another group in Alabama said they we were willing to go to an open field to fight out their right to vote. In Hamburg, SC, July 4, 1876, Black military were such a big force that they backed traffic and the sheriff had to disperse them. A hi=uge crowd of black people led by an Ex-Confederate demanded that blacks give up their arms, but they resisted. An establishment of the culture of resistance. This kind of resistance lived in the rural farmers alliance, gathering, and a negro improvement association. Culture of resistance had been put into place that lived deep long after. Af-Am succeeded in changing the form of their labor as before Reconstruction they had to work in controlled gangs but shifted into family-based labor form where women did not have to work. Also changed the laws of the land, had the rights to marry, to enter into legal contacts fro payed labor, had the right to buy their own land, to sue/tesitfy in court, and most importantly, there were three new constitutional amendments to US constitution- 13th Amendment- ended slavery - Dec 6, 1865. 14th-1868- equal citizenship to all. 1870- gave the enfranchisement to men, black men could vote. Widespread participation of African Americans in office. Under congregational reconstruction, every state who left the south had to have a constitutional convention to come back into the union, over 50 of the 265 were black. Between 1868-1878, almost 1500 (1465) Af Am men served in political positions in the South. Positions of 6 Lieu Governor, 1 state Supreme Court Justice, 863 House Reps, 112 Black Senators, and black police chief in Little Rock, Ark and Tallahasse. They could change their financial status in a court of law. Jonathan J Wright won 1200 dollars after he bought a 1st class ticket and was given second class. They set up public school education, mental health facilities, institutions for the blind and death, and reformed the way our criminal justice would be carried out.

Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Fannie Lou Hamer Born in 1917, rural Mississippi, youngest of 20 children. She ends schooling at the age of 12, so she can earn money for her family. She stays on that plantation, where she meets her husband, Pap, a tractor driver. They adopt 4 kids, 2 boys, 2 girls, they tried to have kids, but she had had a hysterectomy. When a black woman would enter a white doctor's office, the doctor decides to give her a hysterectomy. She was an example of this horrific racist practice. She would often sing spiritual songs to encourage other workers. She didn't she had the right to vote, unless the SNCC came to her plantation or church and said she had the right to vote. She tried to sign up the next day, but she couldn't, someone shot through her house 16 times, and then got fired. She begins to work with SNCC full time. In Winona, MI, she is back from a trip trying to get people to register, where she is arrested and put in jail, where the black inmates beat her, giving her permenatn injury, sever kidney damage, and a limp. She goes to the DNC in 1964 as a Rep elected by the MI Freedom Democratic Party in which black people could indeed register. She gives testimony to a credential committee, where her testimony is so arresting, that LBJ holds a fake press conference where the news switch to LBJ, instead of her, but her testimony is broadcasted on prime time. She founds the Freedom Farm Cooperative, a farm in MI, helping 5,000 people on 600 acres of land. 176,000 black and white high schoolers made a march against hunger to get donations for Fannie Lou Hamer. Dies in 1977, aged 60.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Forms of Resistance dress - within the enslaved African tradition, women head wraps sent messages, such as the style, knots, which could indicate marital status or knowledge of revolt. Others would deliberately rip or steal the clothes from their enslave owners. Cross-dressing was a common practice for slave escape. Light-skinned enslaved Africans could pass for whites. whip refusal - An enslaved African woman had been chained to the stump, the woman then attacked the man with the stump, and she was never whipped again. running away - some would run away for a short period of time. Some would run away to the North. It was common that the enslaved Africans who ran away, forced the question on enslavement. stealing - Enslaved Africans saw no ethical problem with stealing from their owners. If they were property, and they take a chicken, all they are doing is taking your property, whilst they are property. Domestic slaves would funnel food to those in the fields. work slowdowns - Breakage of tools, the injury of animals, so you wouldn't have to work as hard. That was a deliberate choice to slow the work down since they were enslaved. psychological resistance - Simple refusal to play by the enslavers rule. By holding onto names, recognizing there masters had masters, reminding them they did not have to bind to the system. religion - Once Christianity becomes a part of the enslaved experience, Christianity gave the enslaved a sense of self-worth and efficacy, and that God was on their side, that they would eventually be free, giving them a pushback of the hopelessness that slavery brings about. music - the singing of blues gave them comradery. They would make fun of the masters, would send coded messages about the Underground Railroad etc. Other resistance drivers - Drivers were enslaved Africans who were put into position over other enslaved Africans. When these drivers were just, it helped the subordinate enslaved Africans carry on, compared to a white leader. institutions - Black folk had their own institutions. In the early part of the 19thc century, there was the Espicopal church ran by Black people, there were mutual aid societies. Between 1827-1855, there was a tripling of these organizations, where people put money in these mutual aid insurance to help those who were unable to work. Literary societies ran by Black people. free people in the Deep South - There were some free people in the Deep South, who lived out their lives. Just the fact that they are there gave everyone else a sense of hope. It was a precarious life. poisoning - Poisoning was one of the biggest fears of the owners, as they relied on their domestic staff to make their meals. 1725 South Carolina- poisoning attempt. 1780. 1803- Pennsylvania. literacy - In 1755 in Georgia, the colony makes it illegal for enslaved Africans to write. By 1850 or 60, about 5% of the slave population had been able to write. suicide - very few people took the route of suicide, as there was this will to survive amongst the enslaved.

Enslaved Africans' resistance took many forms. Identify three of those forms of resistance and explain which you find most effective.

Forms of resistance dress - within the enslaved African tradition, women head wraps sent messages, such as the style, knots, which could indicate marital status or knowledge of revolt. Others would deliberately rip or steal the clothes from their enslave owners. Cross-dressing was a common practice for slave escape. Light-skinned enslaved Africans could pass for whites. whip refusal - An enslaved African woman had been chained to the stump, the woman then attacked the man with the stump, and she was never whipped again. running away - some would run away for a short period of time. Some would run away to the North. It was common that the enslaved Africans who ran away, forced the question on enslavement. stealing - Enslaved Africans saw no ethical problem with stealing from their owners. If they were property, and they take a chicken, all they are doing is taking your property, whilst they are property. Domestic slaves would funnel food to those in the fields. work slowdowns - Breakage of tools, the injury of animals, so you wouldn't have to work as hard. That was a deliberate choice to slow the work down since they were enslaved. psychological resistance - Simple refusal to play by the enslavers rule. By holding onto names, recognizing there masters had masters, reminding them they did not have to bind to the system. religion - Once Christianity becomes a part of the enslaved experience, Christianity gave the enslaved a sense of self-worth and efficacy, and that God was on their side, that they would eventually be free, giving them a pushback of the hopelessness that slavery brings about. music - the singing of blues gave them comradery. They would make fun of the masters, would send coded messages about the Underground Railroad etc. Other resistance drivers - Drivers were enslaved Africans who were put into position over other enslaved Africans. When these drivers were just, it helped the subordinate enslaved Africans carry on, compared to a white leader. institutions - Black folk had their own institutions. In the early part of the 19thc century, there was the Espicopal church ran by Black people, there were mutual aid societies. Between 1827-1855, there was a tripling of these organizations, where people put money in these mutual aid insurance to help those who were unable to work. Literary societies ran by Black people. free people in the Deep South - There were some free people in the Deep South, who lived out their lives. Just the fact that they are there gave everyone else a sense of hope. It was a precarious life. poisoning - Poisoning was one of the biggest fears of the owners, as they relied on their domestic staff to make their meals. 1725 South Carolina- poisoning attempt. 1780. 1803- Pennsylvania. literacy - In 1755 in Georgia, the colony makes it illegal for enslaved Africans to write. By 1850 or 60, about 5% of the slave population had been able to write. suicide - very few people took the route of suicide, as there was this will to survive amongst the enslaved. Cabins as site of resistance - it was a common pattern for people to go into the hush arbors for religious services, short runaways, or revolt, a temporary haven. The installation of doors post-construction gave them access to come and go 24/7 away from sightline. The pits dug contained money. These buildings were forms of strengthening family relations which gave them some stability. Roads were made possible by trading information, exchanging knowledge and forms of resistance. Owning livestock, growing your own crops, etc. These cabins were a source of resistance in the very form of the architecture. The debate between total revolt or resistance is a false one. Jourdon Anderson - In August 1865, Colonel Anderson of Tennessee wrote to his slave Jordan Anderson. Jourdon was emancipated at that time. Top 3 forms of resistance - Cabins as a form of resistance --- "The supportive atmosphere of the female community was offer enough against the dehumanizing regime of plantation work and the general dehumanizing nature of slavery.'' pg. 131. The female network and its emotional sustenance was always there.'' This should not, however, obscure the fact that in friendships and dependency sanguineous tie existed. 133. During times of sickness, women would help each other in these cabins and even perform abortions, witchcraft, and religious assembly. Support of pregnant women. Shared domestic duties. 140. Magic -> pan-africanism. A hierarchy of women, the old could warn the young about specific abusive masters, etc. The old women were spiritual mothers. pg 130. No child was truly motherless in these cabins. These areas of privacy helped played an important role in couriers, "carrying messages from one plantation to the next.'' 129. "Historians have shown that the community of the quarters, the slave family, and slave religion shielded the slave from absolute dependence on the master.'' Religion-- explain how this idea of earthly suffering of Helga Crane strengthened her to continue on. "Helga Crane was amused, angry, disdainful, as she sat there listening to the preacher praying for her soul. But though she was contemptuous, she was being too well entertained to leave.'' Fascinated, Helga Crane etched until there crept upon her an indistinct horror of an unknown world.'' "Gradually a curious influence penetrated her; she felt an echo of the weird orgy resound in her own heart; she felt herself possessed by the same madness; she too felt a brutal desire to shout and to sling herself about.'' 105. Her searching mind had become in a moment quite clear. A mind that was certain that it was secure because it was concerned only with things of the soul, spiritual things, which to him meant religious things. Escaped in the aching of her own senses and the sudden distributing fear that she herself had perhaps missed the supreme secret of life.'' 105 Because, she thought, all I've ever had in life has been things- except just this one time.'' It was a chance of stability, at permanent happiness, that she meant to take.'' She meant, however, for once in her life to be practical. So she would make sure of both things, God and man.'' 108. And she had her religion, which in her new status as a preacher's wife had of necessity become real to her. She believed in it. Because in its coming it had brought this other thing, this anæsthetic satisfaction for her senses.'' 109 As Helga bore many children, cooked all the meals, and was in a constant state of fatigue and despair, her neighbors and husband try to validate her sufferings in that "The Lord will look out for you" We must accept what God sends,''' 114. "HER RELIGION WAS TO HERE A KIND OF PROTECTIVE COLORING, SHIELDING HER FROM THE CRUEL LIGHT OF AN UNBEARABLE REALITY.'' 117. SO, THOUGH WITH GROWING YEARNING SHE LONGED FOR THE GREAT ORDINARY THINGS OF LIFE, HUNGER, SLEEP, FREEDOM FROM PAIN, SHE RESIGNED HERSELF TO THE DOING WITHOUT THEM. THE POSSIBILITY OF ALLEVIATING HER BURDENS BY A GREATER FAITH BECAME LODGED IN HER MIND.'' AND THE BEAUTY OF LEANING ON THE WISDOM OF GOD, OF TRUSTING, GAVE TO HER A QUEER SORT OF SATISIFACTION,'' 116. 3. Literacy - emphasis in Heavy, regarding higher education for black people. The correct punctuation and adoption of white English dialect. Use example of him being pulled over by the police with his mom and her insistence that he use proper diction and grammar so that the cops know they are educated, to divide them from any criminal activities/stereotypes. How his writing skills enabled him to write about the trials of being a black person in America and at university. Show the link between education and your finances, health, well-being, and status. of society. Gives an air of respectability.

Explain which interpretive framework you find most historically helpful and why - Pan-Africanist or diasporic.

Pan-Africanism- the study of the African experience that emphasizes shared linguistic, cultural, and sociological roots among people of African descent worldwide; a political and intellectual worldview built on the idea of a shared national identity based on those common roots. Looks back to the context of Africa to see commonalities. Means or methodology of study, but also a political orientation. -Disapora Studies- the study of the experience of people of African descent in dispersed locales around the world that emphasize the legacy of forced removal processes. Diversity of where the Africans ended up. Pan-Africanism is more historically helpful. Paragraph 1- Harlem Renaissance / Black Bouregeosise of Quicksand. Paragraph 2 - the legacy of Anansi the Spider Paragraph 3-

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Freedmans Bureau - 1865 - Reconstruction founded in 1865 to help tend the needs of those in the South. The Bureau of Refugees, Freedman, and Abandoned Lands. Under the control of the army and they had a lot of tasks that they were responsible for. Getting land into the hands of the formerly enslaved Africans, educating formerly enslaved Africans, negotiations contracts between former enslavers and the enslaved. Adjudicating criminal trails that emerged at this time. Court system was highly compromised, so Freedmen's tried to stabilize that. Also food, medical, and transportation for the enslaved refugees. A big agenda, but very little personnel and funding. An underfunded mandate. Who the white people were involved in this Reconstruction process- Freedmen Bureau and the federal soldiers. The second group is the group who came down from the north many times with monetary gain in mind - carpet baggers. Many were educated, middle class, Union Army vets, but also teachers. The third group was the poor whites who aligned themselves with the fortunes of formerly enslaved Africans- scalawags. There were small farmers, some entrepreneurs, wealthy people. Essentially, white southerners who joined with Freedmen's Bureau, carpet baggers, and scalawags. The KKK was gutted by the Enforcement Acts of 1871. 1877 is the end of Reconstruction as the last of the federal troops are pulled out of the Souther states as there was no longer a federal presence to push back on the excessively controlled Democratic states.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Freedom Riders - founded by Congress of Racial Equality, which meets intensive violence, was adopted by SNCC, known as the shock troops of the civil rights movement, which is what SNCC did. Many took part in the freedom rides and were imprisoned. The leaders were initially largely male.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Gabriel Prosser - 1800 - Reconstruction Happened in Richmond, Virginia, in the upper south. By the end of the 18th century, there were 150,000 enslaved Africans who heard a lot of talk about oppression by one nation over another. Revolutionary fervor had led to the successful overthrow of the Americans over the British, in which America described themselves as enslaved, the slaves heard that. There was another successful revolution underway in 1800, that they knew about it. The enslaved people in Haiti were in the active midst of overthrowing France, whom were successful. Prosser was an enslaved blacksmith, but had freedom because of his occupation. He gathered clubs, swords, at his shop. In August 30, 1800, he and his friend, gather 1,000 enslaved Africans about 6 miles outside of Richmond. They begin marching. It was a sophisticated revolt because they warned the enslaved not to harm Quakers, Methodists, the French, or poor whites, because they figured those four groups would be the most likely to support their revolt. But, then they were betrayed. Pharaoh and Tom tipped off their slave owners, and the Governor of Virginia sends out 600 troops and shut down the revolt. Afterwards, 37 members of the revolt were executed. Nine were sent to the Deep South of New Orleans, harsher restrictions were put into place. Quaker populations within the Deep South are erased after the revolt.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Grandmaster Flash - His innovation has to do with going from one turntable to the next turntable where there is breakdancing, because breaks are extended. He does it with style and exemplifies this idea that there is a pushback against respectability that is show in hiphop. They reject the idea of respectability and find their own aesthetic. That is the roots of the early hip-hop movement.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Great Migration - Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929) The mass movement of African Americans out of the south initially to the north and then eventually to the west. There was a pushing out of the south and a pulling up to the north. Pushing out factors- cotton bowl weave, of 1919 reduced employment opportunities pushing them out of the south. Floods in Mississipi and Alabama which destroyed crops pushing them out of the south. Also the processes of disenfranchisement pushing them out of the south. In the buildup of WW1, there is a district shift of who is doing the rail work. Up until WW1, Europeans primarily did that work. But as WW1 is started, the immigration from Europe is shut off, so the north needs workers. So, the steel mills, railroads, meat processing plants, the car factories need people to do the work, so African Americans fill the gap. A need for them that wasn't need previously. 500,000 Af Americans departed from 1916-1919 from the south. Through the 1920's an additional million. Leads to major urban concentration in places like NYC or Chicago. A current of human talent that is flooding in places like Harlem. There were housing in Harlem because there was overbuilding, so there was a lot of empty space. Previously, where rental owners would not rent to a black family, they would start to rent to black families because of oversupply of houses. By 1910, there were black police officers in Harlem. With this movement to the North, black churches were moving in making it their own. St. Marks Epicopal and Baptist churches moved to Harlem. White-working familes payed $6.50 per room. A black family in Harlem would pay $9.50 per room. By 1920, Harlem was considered the Negro capital of the world. Populated by black businesses, chapters, and headquarters or organizations. NAACP, YWCA, YMCA, etc. This was the place to be. 75,000 Af Am's in Harlem by 1920. Expectations moving to Harlem with that population

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

H. Rap Brown - By 1967, election, there was even more power given to SNCC and black power. Much of the SNCC notion of non-violence was abandoned.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Haile Selassie As emperor of Ethiopia (1930-74), Haile Selassie I was known for modernizing his country, for helping to establish the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union) in 1963, for his exile (1936-41), and for being overthrown in 1974. He was also regarded as the messiah of the African race by many Rastas. Rastafarianism - impact on Marley and through him through DJ Kool Here. Rastafarianism comes from Alie Salossi from 1960's and early, the emperor of Ethiopia. Ethiopia was never conquered during the period of European colonization. A symbol of African indepdencne unparalleled from the entire African continent. The Emperor has a cultural position of an independent, African nation. Ras - Duke. Tafari- his last name. Religious group named after this man.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Paul Robeson - was put on a watch list. Was a tv star, football player, very popular. hAs his passport taken away because of his communist ties. An activist focused on bringing racial and economic justice in the 1930's. An opera star. Would travel around the world giving concerts. During the Cold War and red scares, he could no longer travel. Dies in his house where he becomes a recluse. Was paranoid.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Pauli Murray - one of the earliest and most important stateliest for the 1940's Civil Rights Movement, the first who tried out the sit-ins. Successfully integrated former segregated restaurants. She was a lawyer, the person responsible for the Plessy v. Ferguson court overruling. First black associate AG in California. An Episcopal priest and a feminist organization. She had socialist ideas and is marginalized in the civil rights movement.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Hip hop is political Will argue that the hip-hop movement throughout the 1980's was political in a culture sense. We will talk about the roots of the hip hop movement, the golden era and why we see within the early roots a political movement in a cultural sense. Hip-hop and its manifestations in the later periods were overtly political. Have to go outside to U.S. to one of the holy trinity of hip hop. Three leaders of the early hip-hop movement. Connection between Bronx and Jamaica B-boy - breakdancers. Taking of that style from Flash and doing it solely through dance. Some of the early B-boys drew on the Mardi Gras Indians and are honoring their elaborate dress styles. Gangs would send their breakdancing teen to face off against a rival breakdancing teen. The winner was able to pick the turf for the actual gang violence that would follow. As those tensions ease, breakdancing expands. A push to evermore challenging feats and displays in break dancing. Always trying to up the innovation and challenge. Breakdancing was to be Brough through broad audiences through Hollywood films and they fail miserably. Strip breakdancing from very aggressive, sexualized content. It is an aggressive form in the early forms and films tear that. down. Graffiti - In the tagging and writing, it is a claiming of public space by tagging a public space, you make it your own. Up to and including what female artist, Stoney did in 1972, when she tagged the Statue of Liberty. Originally, the graffiti was seen as guerrilla warfare and damaging public property. Then it was seen as urban nihilism. A commentary on the drudgery of urban existence as the train car would take them to meaningless jobs. In 1979, there would be Andy Warhol and other commentaries despite the cities efforts for clean-up campaigns. Done in spray paint which specifically developed for graffiti artists. It becomes a political act in order to claim that space and make political commentary. Began to define public space in their own terms.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

Ignore the evidence of the previous debate---- White were NOT threatened by the success of Reconsutrction The most powerful institutions hat was furthering the goals of Reconstruction, Freedmen's Bureau had only 900 members in the South, about one agent in every county of 20,000 people. They would usually side over with the land owners in land distribution suits. The violence of Black people was a lot as they did not show deference to white people. 1866- Pine Bluff Arkansas, a mob set fire to an entire black settlement, lynching 24 members. This is not the action of a community who is afraid. May 1866, after Black veterans freed a black prisoner, they killed 46 black people, and burned schools and churches down. July 30, 1866 in New Orleans in response to black demands fror black rights, were attacked by white people even though black people wanted to surrender, 36 killed. No fear from the White House as Jackson was not a threat. He is a Southerner from Tennessee , but still owned five slaves and Black people were incapable of governance, and white superiority. After months of Reconstruction, those who led succession, were brought into power again. They believed the Reconstruction era would be temporary and not have any concern. Benjamin F Perry, the African has been a savage and inferior, God created differences between the races and nothing can make them equal. Natural order would be restored.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Peter Norman (1968) white Australian who was very supportive of them doing this. He knew it would be inappropriate for him to raise his fist. Because he cooperated, he was not able to run any other events for Australia because of this act. When Norman died, Carlos and Smith were pallbearers. Carlos and Smith were initially stripped of their metals and found it hard to find work in the professional arena.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Philip Randolph - Harlem Renaissance - 1915-1929 He was a master organizer. His biggest initial success was organizing the Pullman Palace Company Orders. Black men would serve the clients in the trains. Very poor pay, hardly any vacation. he organizes the 12,000 members in unionizing them which changed their lives. They had more money, benefits, and vacation. The context and build up of H.R. is an organized, collective push back from rising racism.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

James Chaney, Goodman, Schwerner (1964) Begins in summer of '64 after much internal debate, Chaney, Goodman, Schwerner were all murdered by the KKK. Which would be called Freedom Summer. decided to recruit and bring down white colleges students to work in the summer to offer a measure of protection. They were equally concerned that the college students influx would allow them to take control, but they needed the white bodies so they would not die. Used this to form the Mississippi Freedom Party. After Smith v Alright, ruled the white democratic primary would not do, SNCC will start their own southern Democratic Party so that they could elect their own people. 80,000 people vote. Fannie Lou Hamer is one of them. They are given two seats but do not get them. This pushes many SNCC people from brining about change in a piecemeal way. In the aftermath of this experience, at the DNC, we begin to hear the rhetoric of black power emerge.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

James Forman - He was the staff leader, the administrator. He was much older than most of the SNCC volunteers. Would participate in the Black Manifesto. Black women were frustrated with his leadership style and a sit-down strike by the black women at SNCC headquarters.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

James Lawson - A Methodist Minister. AN expert on Ghandhian, non-violent theory. Frequently the SNCC people would bring him in to teach them on non-violence.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Jesse Gray - a Harlem politician who used the term black power in his speeches back in the 1950s, so did Robeson

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

John Carlos Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978) Using the Olympic medal ceremony to show solidarity with oppressed Black people worldwide impacted both the professional and the personal lives of Smith and Carlos for years afterward. Widely deemed a "Black Power salute," the men's gesture at the podium was by no means a random act

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

John Lewis - not the first president of SNCC, but one of the most long lastingg in SNCC. Known as the soul of the U.S. Congress. Brought a core value of nonviolent and religious sentiment to the civil rights movement. He was the elected leader of SNCC.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Jourdan Anderson - 1865 - Slavery In August 1865, Colonel Anderson of Tennessee wrote to his slave Jordan Anderson. Jourdon was emancipated at that time. was addressed to his former master, Colonel P. H. Anderson, in response to the colonel's request that Mr. Anderson return to the plantation to help restore the farm after the disarray of the war. It has been described as a rare example of documented "slave humor" of the period and its deadpan style has been compared to the satire of Mark Twain.[1] n the letter, Jordan Anderson describes his better life in Ohio, and asks his former master to prove his goodwill by paying the back wages he and his wife are owed for many years of slave labor, a total of 52 years combined. He asks if his daughters will be safe and able to have an education, since they are "good-looking girls" and Anderson would rather die "than have my girls brought to shame by the violence and wickedness of their young masters... how it was with poor Matilda and Catherine." The letter concludes: "Say howdy to George Carter, and thank him for taking the pistol from you when you were shooting at me."[4] The people mentioned in the letter are real and include George Carter, who was a carpenter in Wilson County.[2] "Miss Mary" and "Miss Martha" were Colonel Anderson's wife, Mary, and their daughter, Martha.[2] The man named "Henry", who had plans to shoot Anderson if he ever got the chance, "was more than likely Colonel Patrick Henry Anderson's son, Patrick Henry Jr., whom everyone called Henry, and who would have been about 18 when Anderson left in 1864."[2] The two daughters, "poor Matilda and Catherine", did not travel with Anderson to Ohio, and their fate is unknown; it is speculated that whatever befell them was fatal, or they were sold as slaves to other families before Anderson had been freed.[2] "V. Winters" in the letter was the aforementioned Valentine Winters, a banker in Dayton, and founder of Winters Bank, for whom Anderson and his wife felt such respect that in 1870 they named one of their sons Valentine Winters Anderson.[2] Colonel Anderson, having failed to attract his former slaves back, sold the land for a pittance to try to get out of debt.[1] Two years later he was dead at the age of 44.[1] Prior to 2006, historian Raymond Winbush tracked down the living relatives of the colonel in Big Spring, reporting that they "are still angry at Jordan for not coming back", knowing that the plantation was in serious disrepair after the war.[1]

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Political Activism

Popular Front (1930-1939)

Powell v Alabama (1932) Supreme Court says all people have the right to adequate legal representation.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Public Enemy Ascendant by the 1990s, Jesse Jackson's political dream of a multicultural community could not come to fruition. PEA begin to quote and sample Malcolm X and begin to be greeted enthusiastically by the Black Panthers. By 1988, a coalition of rappers did Stop the Violence movement to raise money for urban leagues racial violence initiative. Chuck D of PEA was not stepping into the full role of public figure. This comes out in PEA's soundtrack of Spike Lee's Do The Right Thing. In this movie it follows the development of a neighborhood in the hottest days of the summer, because the Italian American refuses to put any black photos on his pizzeria. The black delivery boy is caught between. It is between violent revolution and nonviolence. The film leads to a tragic end. PEA has an internal meltdown from Anti-Semitism

Ron Karenga

June 22, 1966 - ousting of all white volunteers. Ricks was warming up the crowd and yelled black power, and warned of white blood flowing, MLK JR was present in the crowd. King strides through the crowd and people tried to shake his hand. King ascends the platform and said Ricks is not going to turn him around. The crowd begins to calm down. He said he would not let any man pull him down to hatred. Finally, a frustrated SNCC administrator shouts at MLK Jr, mocks him. To the SNCC staffer's embarassemtn no one in the crowd laughed and recognized MLK's saintliness aloud. Some historians have suggested that the undoing of the civil rights movement was not because of MLK assassination, but black power leading the party astray. What that narrative fails to take into account, is the deliberate FBI group known as Counter Intelligence Program run from the basement of the FBI of Edgar Hoover, full support mandate and funding where he tried to discredit and undermine the SNCC and black power organizations. Under Hoover's authority, he found ways to pit Ron Karenga, the founder of the US Organization against members of the Black Panthers. One strategy was to hire paid informants to say what was going on in the US Organization and Black Panther Party, BPP - more racial integrative, where US Orgnization was not. They also paid them to make problems. They would pit the BP against Ron Karen's Us. Hoover staff would forge letters to say BP wanted war with Korenga. They then realize months later they were set up by the FBI. the FBI cooperated with and was in cooperation with the black power leaders assassination. Maulana Ndabezitha Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett, July 14, 1941), previously known as Ron Karenga, is an American activist, author, and professor of Africana studies, best known as the creator of the pan-African and African-American holiday of Kwanzaa.

Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

L. Douglas Wilder - Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978) L. Douglas Wielder - 2004- inaugurated as first black governor. Born Jan 17, 1931. Grandson of formerly enslaved Africans. 7th of 8 children. Named after Fredrick Douglas. Attended segregated elementary school, goes onto Virgina Union University, earning a degree in Chemistry. Fights in the Korean War, as part of integrated armed force troops. Allows him to then go to Howard Law School under GI Bill. In 1969, elected in the first wave of civil rights activist in Virginia State level. In 1985, becomes elected to lieutenant governor. 4 years later, he defat the repubican Marshall Coleman to become governor, won by 0.5 percent. Wilder effect - many white voters said they were going to vote for him, but many did not. Had a get tough on crime perspective, pro-death penalty, where some say he betrayed his civil right roots.

Popular Front (1930-1939)

Marcus Garvey promoted black capitalism for the black community. UNIA. Ran gas stations, drug stores, by and for the black community, lifting them up in a capitalist system. Another strain of racial uplift is the NAACP such as Walter White who promoted these values of education, proper dress and speech, operating within the capitalist system, to remove education and housing barriers. Wanted full and free access for all black people. It could be improved through hard work and proving oneself through adhering to the white people norms. NAACP want a full democratic society, legal strategies is a way to get there by way of respectability.

Harlem Renaissance

Marcus Garvey and the UNIA (1915-1929) - United Negro Improvement Association founded by Marcus Garvey with powerful speaking abilities where he could keep thousands of audience captured for hours. Black unity, self-improvement, and black separatist economic movement. Garvey spread through the urban centers and rural south. He was a controversial figure within the black community and within the U.S. too. He became so controversial that the Bureau of Investigation led by Hoover indicted in 1922 and convicted him in 1925 in trumped up mail fraud charges. After he was convicted, the jury appealed to the president to have him released. In 1927, they succeeded in reversing his sentence on the condition that he would leave America. Garvey Had a a Pan-African Mission. DuBois helped to organized Pan-African congresses in Europe. A movement of black identity that influences the H.R. Never set foot in Africa even though he was a Pan-Africanist.

Civil Rights and Black Power Movements (1944-1978)

Mary McLeod Bethune - 1935. Established herself in the education field. Went to seminary and learned to be a missionary in Chicago. Serves in Africa as a missionary teacher challenging the assumption of what type of missionaries they are. She comes back to the U.S. and starts an institute for Af Am girls in vocation and educational skills, which she then merges with boys, co=founding a college in 1923. She becomes president of the National Association for Colored Women. It was focused on racial uplift. She was frustrated with its focus on racial uplift, so she resigns from her position as president from NACW, and founds the National Council for Negro Women, with 20,000 different affiliates, and 90 different councils. Through their efforts with the organization, they developed the speaking, writing, and organizing skills that would become essential to the high-profile events in the 50's and 60's. She becomes close friends with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and becomes the first black women to hold a national governmental post, when in 1933-1935, she takes on the roll for the National Youth Administrator for Negro Affairs.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Million Man March October 16, 1995, black identity is captured by the attention of the nation. Bring a million African men to bring them to the mall in the DC, organized by controversial figure who led the Nation of Islam in this country as black respect and fulfillment, which was not based on drugs. Trying to put a new vision to them, strong hip-hop connections. Graffiti-influnced murals got the word out. It was in the nation's capital. Solely focused on individual behavior, he does not talk about partisan politics.

Slavery (1441-1865)

Nat Turner Revolt - 1831 - Reconstruction Turner was a mystic, Baptism exhorter. See the relationship between religion and revolt. He ran away successfully, but had a vision to go free his people. Had a since in 1831 of a lunar eclipse, and planned on July 4th to lead the revolt, but he got sick, so he waited for another time. He saw the saw turn greenish-blue, on August 13th, and decide to do it on August 21st. It was very violent and bloody. He killed his enslaver and his family. In the first 24 hours, 57 white people were killed. They were met by a combo of Virginia and Federal groups. 100 enslaved black people who participated were killed. Once the fighting is done, 13 ensalved Africans and three free blacks are hung on the spot. Turner escapes for two months, but is captured October 30. He is executed November 11. The slaves codes were strengthen in the aftermath. Almost everyone of the free black Baptist church were shut down. In the mid 1990s, there were lots of church burnings- a pattern overtime. It was an attempt to eradicate and erase a base of strength in the black community. Very few slave revolts happened after 1831. His action set off a massacre of up to 200 Black people and a new wave of oppressive legislation prohibiting the education, movement, and assembly of enslaved people.

Popular Front (1930-1939)

Racial Uplift v Racial Revolution Racial Uplift - promotes improving the social and economic condition of the African American community by working within the capitalist system. a philosophy. Proponents accepted the premise that capitalism can work for all people, did not think it was inherently racist and it could work if applied democratically Racial Revolution - Had little patience to operate within the system of capitalism and challenged the idea that capitalism could ever really support the black community. Saw it as racist and bankrupt. The system had to be overturned. Given the history of capitalism being built on the backs of the black people, they chose different strategies to overthrow this. One, the building up of a strong labor union for workers to prevail over the owners, the ultimate vision. A lot of time and energy to do that very thing. One strain is through A. Philip Randolph who did Pullman Car Porters, who would operate as moving butlers, building a strong organization of labor. He aligned himself with the CIO, AIOCFA, organized within the black community under racial revolution philosophy.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Racism - Harlem Renaissance- 1915-1929 Books and movies were celebrating white supremacy. Ex- 1916, a man named Madison Grant wrote a book called The Passing of the Great Race. He feared the white committee was committing race suicide by not having enough white people. He though N Europeans were being compromised by the S Europeans and created a basis of eugenics. John Lahtrop Stoder- his book in 1920 argued for the superiority of the white race. This then leads to a highly popular movie called The Birth of a Nation by D.W. Griffith which was a racist rewriting of U.S. history. It tells the story of a Civil Was as if the KKK saved the lives of those in the South. It was screened in the White House, which Woodrow Wilson enjoyed. It also caused violent afterwards. A white man killed a black man after seeing the film. Former clan members from Congress came to see it. It was a silent film but there were a lot of film techniques, the racist content was incredible. It ends up earning 18 million dollars at the same, which in today's money is over 500 million dollars. A few months after this film comes William J. Simmons found the 2nd KKK in the fall of October 1915 at Stone Mountain, GA. They wanted to intimated black people, Catholics, and Jewish. At its height of 1920, over 20 million members, 5,000 here in Montana. They were hugely popular at the time of the H.R.

Was Reconstruction a failure? Why or why not?

Reconstruction was a failure. Reasons - unequal land distribution. Land was not distributed. Special Order 15 by General Sherman on Jan 16, 1865 was to set up a 30 mile wide stretch from Charleston to 245 miles long to Jacksonville, an empty land, Black people will be given 40 acres and a mule to plow land. Former enslaved people had been raising crops on vacant land and had done so seriously In July 1865, General Oliver O'Howard issued special order 13 with specialized plots for African plots. When President Johnson overturned Special Order 15 and Circular Order 13, it stopped even though it was successful. The Homestead Act (1866) to give 3 million acres of land to Black people were swampy, untellable, but 4,000 black families got the land but did not have the money to till it or grow food, which was then bought by southern lumberers. The labor that was laboring was not truly free. The Freedmen's Bureau set up contracts with the previous enslaved owners and slaves, not paid in cash but in crops. Led to highly-exploitable schemes and debt inducing systems, where Black people could not get out of debt by 1870s. Black codes made sure there would be a black labor force which set up unpaid apprenticeships of African Americans from the time they were two years old to twenty years old. Also put in place was huge licensing fees from ten dollars to hundred dollars making it impossible for them to get their own businesses. No black man was elected to any gubernatorial offices like governor. Only 2 black US senators. Rural education was inadequate or not even built, some teachers were not paid. Were not able to make laws for compulsory education. Only one city in the South could made an integrated school in elementary which was New Orleans. The Popular Front was arguably created because of the reconstruction's faulty assessment and implementation of the black working class for labor rights. Nowhere did the forces of the old order respond more forcefully than in Memphis. There, blacks had retained the right to vote (unlike the rest of the South), while city leaders encouraged the existence of a few AFL craft unions, and gave wholehearted support to New Deal recovery programs. Yet city authorities did everything in their power to stop the organization of liberal, black, or CIO-led industrial labor movements, and turned the city into a battle ground over the right to organize during the late 1930s. As in the rest of the South, popular front politics proved especially relevant in Memphis, where the struggle for democratic rights remained fundamental to any labor or antiracist movement. Pg 46-47. Edward Crump, the Mississippi-bred son of a slaveholder who became an insurance executive, real estate speculator, and briefly a mayor and congressman, controlled virtually the entire Memphis vote by the 1930s. Crump used "donations" from vice establishments, businesses, and city em ployees to pay annual cumulative poll taxes for black voters, who were some times hauled into Memphis by the truckload from Mississippi. The Crump machine then deposited their votes for whichever candidate Crump supported in a given election. Crump controlled the white vote as well, through his pa tronage system in city employment, a powerful ward organization, and the poll tax. Crump also controlled local New Deal economic reconstruction pro grams and a brutal police force, and ran not only the city but much of the state, mostly without bothering to hold elective office himself. As a result of Boss Crump's unchallenged political power, even President Roosevelt dared not interfere with him.7 Not very.Under the dominance of Boss Crump and the city's business elite, workers in most sectors of the economy remained unorganized, subject to low wages, long hours, high accident rates, and terrible working conditions. The estab lished craft unions of the AFL and the white railroad brotherhoods had be come a part of the Crump machine long before the 1930s and provided no aid to the unorganized. The Crump machine placed building trades unionists on city licensing boards where they could control the supply of labor to local con tractors, appointed AFL leaders to judgeships and elective (formally speaking) offices, and provided craft unionists with city jobs. In return, AFL unions steered clear of organizing black and poor white workers in cotton compress ing and seed oil companies, lumber mills, warehouses, furniture factories, and other extractive industries owned by local capitalists. They also failed to or ganize municipal workers or mass production industries migrating from the North, such as Ford, Firestone, and Fisher Body Company. Furthermore, the AFL's systematic exclusion of blacks from union membership guaranteed that unions would continue to pose no challenge to industry. Similarly, the remnants of the Socialist party in Memphis in the early 1930s consisted of a few elderly reformers who posed no threat to the established order. pg. 47-48In Memphis, as in most southern cities, the more or less direct control of the business classes over political life, the absence of civil liberties, and the long-standing division of the working class along racial lines placed brakes on the industrial labor movement, which caused it to develop much later than in the North. The union of sharecroppers and farm tenants they created, spurred by mass evictions from the land resulting from the Roosevelt administration's Agricultural Adjustment Act, decided in its earliest meetings in 1934 not to follow the standard union practice of organizing separate locals for whites and blacks. For the first time since the Populist movements of the 1890s, former black slaves and former white Ku Klux Klans- men joined forces to oppose the landlords and agribusinessmen of the delta. From 1934 to 1939 the union engaged in a series of battles with the police, vigi lantes, and landlords, demanding an end to evictions from the land, higher wages for day laborers, and reform of the capitalist economy through the crea tion of agricultural cooperatives. Throughout these battles the union held to the proposition of its Socialist president H. L. Mitchell, that "there are no '******s' and no 'poor white trash' in the union . . . we have only union men in our organization, and whether they are white or black makes no difference." According to one black union leader, "segregation run out so far as the union was concerned." 17 The consolidation of agriculture in the hands of a few large landlords and the resultant proletarianization of thousands of rural workers encouraged by the New Deal, along with massive planter violence against the sharecroppers during a 1936 strike, doomed the movement to an early death. " When Cotton is King of any nation," wrote sharecropper poet John Handcox, "it means wealth to the planter—to the laborer, starvation." 18 While agricultural con solidation and planter violence destroyed the tenants' union, the Socialist par ty, the most active force backing the STFU, also collapsed after opposing reelection of Franklin Roosevelt in the 1936 election. Whereas the Com munists legitimized their activity and augmented their ranks by becoming a part of the Roosevelt coalition, Socialist membership went into a rapid decline when the party opted out of this version of the popular front. Although the tenants' union declined to near insignificance in the late 1930s, however, its struggle for interracial solidarity and black civil rights con tinued. Following a split between Socialists and Communists in the STFU and its secession from the CIO in 1939,19a number of STFU leaders joined with the communist leadership of the United Cannery, Agricultural and Packinghouse Workers of America (UCAPAWA) in organizing the cotton processing. 50 Moreover, for members of a class whose long workdays were spent in backbreaking, low-paid wage work in set tings pervaded by racism, the places where they played were more than relatively free spaces in which to articulate grievances and dreams. They were places that en abled African Americans to take back their bodies, to recuperate, to be together.Two of the most popular sites were dance halls and blues clubs. 84the form and content of such leisure activities were unmistakably collective.22The black body is here celebrated as an instrument of pleasure rather than an instrument of labor. Paragraph 3 - The reconstruction's failures can be seen through the hidden transcript and infrapolitics to circumscribe its shortcoming of social integration and true equality. despite appearances of consent, oppressed groups challenge those in power by constructing a "hidden transcript," a dissident political culture that manifests itself in daily conversations, folklore, jokes, songs, and other cultural prac tices. One also finds the hidden transcript emerging "on stage" in spaces controlled by the powerful, though almost always in disguised forms. The submerged social and cultural worlds of oppressed people frequently surface in everyday forms of resistance—theft, footdragging, the destruction of property—or, more rarely, in open attacks on individuals, institutions, or symbols of domination. Together, the "hidden transcripts" that are created in aggrieved communities and expressed through culture and the daily acts of resistance and survival constitute what Scott calls "infrapolitics." What are "infrapolitics"? Together, the "hidden transcripts" that are created in aggrieved communities and expressed through culture and the daily acts of resistance and survival constitute what Scott calls "infrapolitics." As he puts it, "the circumspect struggle waged daily by subor dinate groups is, like infrared rays, beyond the visible end of the spectrum. That it should be invisible . . . is in large part by design —a tactical choice born of a pru dent awareness of the balance of power."7Like Scott, I use the concept of infrapolitics to describe the daily confrontations, evasive actions, and stifled thoughts that often inform organized political movements. I am not suggesting that the realm of infrapolitics is any more or less impor tant or effective than what we traditionally consider politics. Instead, I want to sug gest that the political history of oppressed people cannot be understood without reference to infrapolitics, for these daily acts have a cumulative effect on power rela tions. While the meaning and effectiveness of acts differ according to circumstances, they make a difference, whether they were intended to or not. Thus, one measure of the power and historical importance of the informal infrapolitics of the oppressed is the response of those who dominate traditional politics. Daily acts of resistance and survival have had consequences for existing power relations, and the powerful have deployed immense resources in response. Knowing how the powerful interpret, redefine, and respond to the thoughts and actions of the oppressed is just as impor tant as identifying and analyzing opposition. The policies, strategies, or symbolic representations of those in power—what Scott calls the "official" or "public" tran script—cannot be understood without examining the infrapolitics of oppressed groups. pg 77-78 he design and function of buses and streetcars rendered them unique sites of contest. An especially useful metaphor for understanding the character of domina tion and resistance on public transportation might be to view the interior spaces as "moving theaters." Here I am using the word theater in two ways: as a site of per formance and a site of military conflict. First, plays of conflict, repression, and resis tance are performed in which passengers witness, or participate in, "skirmishes" that shape the collective memory of the passengers, illustrate the limits as well as the possibilities of resistance to domination, and draw more passengers into the "perfor mance." The design of streetcars and buses —enclosed spaces with seats facing for ward or toward the center aisle—gave everyday discursive and physical confronta tions a dramaturgical quality. Second, theater as a military metaphor is particularly appropriate because all bus drivers and streetcar conductors in Birmingham carried guns and blackjacks and used them pretty regularly to maintain (the social) order.In August 1943, for example, when a black woman riding the South East Lake- Ensley line complained to the conductor that he had passed her stop, he followed her out of the streetcar and, in the words of the official report, "knocked her down with handle of gun. No further trouble." Violence was not a completely effectivePublic transportation, unlike any other form of public space (for example, a waiting room or a water fountain), was an extension of the marketplace. Because transportation companies depend on profit, any action that might limit potential fares was economically detrimental. This explains why divisions between black and white space had to be relatively fluid and flexible. With no fixed dividing line, black and white riders continually contested readjustments that affected them. The fluidity of the color line meant that their protestations often fell within the pro scribed boundaries of segregationist law, thus rendering public transportation espe cially vulnerable to everyday acts of resistance. Furthermore, for African Americans, public transportation —as an extension of the marketplace—was also a source of eco nomic conflict. One source of frustration was the all too common cheating or short changing of black passengers. Unlike the workplace, where workers entered as dis- empowered producers dependent on wages for survival and beholden, ostensibly at least, to their superiors, public transportation gave passengers a sense of consumer entitlement. The notion that blacks and whites should pay the same for "separate but equal" facilities fell within the legal constraints ofJim Crow, although for black passengers to argue publicly with whites, especially those in positions of authority, fell outside the limits of acceptable behavior. 104"She came up later and began cursing and could not be stopped and a white passenger came and knocked her down. Officer was called and made her show him the money which was .25 short, then asked her where the rest of the money was. She looked in her purse and produced the other quarter. She was taken to jail." The incident served as compelling theater, a performance that revealed the hidden transcript, the power ofJim Crow to crush public declarations swiftly and decisively, the role of white passengers as defenders of segregation, the degree to which white men —not even law enforcement officers —could assault blackNo matter how effective drivers, conductors, and signs were at keeping bodies separated, black voices flowed easily into the section designated for whites, constantly reminding riders that racially divided public space was contested terrain. Black passengers were routinely ejected and occasionally arrested for making too much noise, often by directing harsh words at a conductor or passenger or launching a monologue about racism in general. Such monologues or verbal attacks on racism make for excellent theater. Unlike passersby who can hurry by a lecturing street corner preacher, pas sengers were trapped until they reached their destination, the space silenced by the anonymity of the riders. The reports reveal a hypersensitivity to black voices rising from the back of the bus. Indeed, verbal protests or complaints registered by black passengers were frequently described as "loud"—an adjective almost never used to describe the way white passengers articulated their grievances. One morning in Au gust 1943, during the peak hours, a black man boarded an Acipco line bus and im mediately began "complaining about discrimination against negroes in a very loud voice."60 Black voices, especially the loud and profane, literally penetrated and oc cupied white spaces. 107nce they were individualized, isolated events that almost always ended in de feat. Such an argument misses the unique, dramaturgical quality of these actions within the interior spaces of public conveyances; whenever passengers were present no act of defiance was isolated. Nor were acts of defiance isolating experiences. Be cause African-American passengers shared a collective memory of how they were treated on a daily basis, both within and without the "moving theaters," an act of resistance or repression sometimes drew other passengers into the fray. An in teresting report from an Avenue F line bus driver in October 1943 illustrates such a moment of collective resistance: "Operator went to adjust the color boards, and negro woman sat down quickly just in front of board that operator was putting in place. She objected to moving and was not exactly disorderly but all the negroes took it up and none of [the] whites would sit in seat because they were afraid to, and negroes would not sit in vacant seats in rear of bus."In the public spaces of the city, how ever, the anonymity and sheer numbers of the crowd, whose movement was not directed by the discipline of work (and was therefore unpredictable), meant a more vigilant and violent system of maintaining social order. Arrests and beatings were always a possibility, but so was escape. Thus, for black workers public spaces both embodied the most repressive, violent aspects of race and gender oppression and, paradoxically, afforded more opportunities to engage in acts of resistance than the workplace itself. 110In the end, whether or not African Americans chose to join working-class organi zations, their daily experiences, articulated mainly in unmonitored social spaces, constituted the ideological and cultural foundations for constructing a collective identity. 112 Freedmen's Bureau had only 900 members in the South, about one agent in every county of 20,000 people. Dubois' take on black codes and thus, reconstruction failure. "A DETERMINED CONCENTRATION OF SOUTHERN EFFORT BY ACTUAL FORCE TO DEPRIVE THE NEGRO OF THE BALLOT OR NULLIFY ITS USE.''The Codes spoke for themselves. They have often been re-printedand quoted. No open-mindedsttudenctan read themwith- out being convinced that they meant nothingmore nor less than slaveryindailytoilAll thingsconsidered,it seems probable that if the South hlad been permittedto have its way in I865 the harshnessof negro slaverywouildhave been mitigatedso as to make slave-tradingdiffi- cult,and to nmakiet possiblefora negroto hold propertyand appear in some cases in court; but that in most other respectsthe blackswould have remainedin slaverySomeplantersheldbacktheirformerslaveson theirplantationbsy bruteforce. Armedbandsofwhitemenpatrolledthecountryroadsto drive back the negroeswanderingabout. Dead bodies of murdered negroeswerefoundon andnearthehighwaysand by-paths.Gruesome reportscame fromthe hospitals-reportsof coloredmen and women whose ears had been cut off,whose skullshad been brokenby blows''This is what happened, but even in this case so much energy was taken in jeeping the negro from voting that the plan for keeping him in virtual slavery and denying him education failed. It took ten years to nullify negro suffer in part and twenty tears to escape the fear of federal intervention.'' In these twenty years a vast number of negroes had risen so far as to escape slavery forever.'' "Debt patronage could be fastened on part of the rural south, and was, but even here the new negro landholder appeared.'' "The South had been terribly impoverished and saddled with new social burdens.'' I'n other words, a state with smaller resources was asked not only to do a work of restoration but a larger social work.''Also, the new legislators, black and white. Thought they were novice governments and their friends were fools. They predicted that revolution and ruin would follow due to all these changes and burdens in the South.THE DISHONESTY IN THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SOUTH WAS HELPED ON BY THREE CIRCUMSTANCES.1. THE FORMER DISHONESTY IN THE POLITICAL SOUTH2. THE PRESENCE OF MANY DISHONEST NORTHERN POLITICIANS.3. THE TEMPTATION TO SOUTHERN POLITICIANS AT ONCE TO PROFIT BY DISHONESTY AND TO DISCREDIT NEGRO GOVERNMENT.4. THE POVERTY OF THE NEGRO THE GREATEST STIGMA ON THE WHITE SOUTH IS NOT THAT IT OPPOSE NEGRO SUFFRAGE AND RESENTED THEFT AND INCOMPETENCE BUT THAT WHEN IT SAW THE REFORM MOVEMENT GROWING AND EVEN IN SOME CASES TRIUMPHING, AND A LARGER AND LARGER NUMBER OF BLACK VOTERS LEARNING TO VOTE FOR HONESY AND ABILITY IT STILL PREFERRED A REIGN OF TERROR TO A CAMPAIGN OF EDUCATION, AND DISENFRANCHISED NEGROES INSTEAD OF PUNISHING RASCALS."BUT UNFORTUNATELY THERE WAS ONE THING THAT THE WHITE SOUTH FEARED MORE THAN NEGRO DISHONESTY, IGNORANCE, AND INCOMPETENCY, AND THTA WAS NEGRO HONESTY, KNOWLEDGE, AND EFFICIENCY.'' Refutation - THE NEW CONSTITUTIONS ARE NEARER THE MODEL OF THE RECONSTRUCTION DOCUMENT THAN THEY ARE TO THE PREVIOUS CONSTITUTIONS. THEY DIFFER FROM THE NEGRO CONSTITUTIONS IN MINOR DETAILS BUT VERY LITTLE IN GENERAL CONCEPTION.PRACTICALLY THE WHOLE NEW GROWTH OF THE SOUTH HAD BEEN ACCOMPLISHED UNDER LAWS WHICH BLACK MEN HELPED TO FRAME THIRTY YEARS AGO.THEIR SUCCESSOR MADE FEW CHANGES IN THE WORK WHICH THESE LEGISLATURES AND CONVENTIONS HAD DONE, BUT THEY LARGELY CARRIED OUT THEIR PLANS, FOLLOWED THEIR SUGGESTIONS, AND STRENGTHENED THEIR INSTITUTIONS. AAST Week 3- The Experience of Slavery (1441-1865) - Continuity vs. Disruption Point of capture and coast - 3 million.Point of leaving to seasoning - 3 million.10 million died totalDid the proce

Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Robert F. Williams Born in 1925, Monroe, NC. Born in a family of self-defense. In his youth, he receives a rifle from his grandmother, her name was Ellie Williams. She had gotten that rifle from her husband, Sykes Williams, who used that rifle to defend himself from those who attempted to take and destroy his print maker, as he was a radical editor of a newspaper. He learned how to handle guns even more during his military service from 1944-1947. After that, he comes back and organizes the Monroe, NC chapter of the NAACP. He was not a separatist and had strong connections with the white community. He is thrust into a national spotlight when he comes to the defense of very young black boys who were jailed of the accuse of kissing a white girl. He gets their release and advocates fro armed-offense, in which KKK chapters have 15,000 members. He is suspend from the NAACp after he has a highly publicized debate with MLK. He begins to explore his radical roots in 1960 with Fidel Castro. He is own the radar of the FBI by this time. In 1961, freedom rides are going on, so tensions are high in the south. During that time period, a young white couple get lost. They find their way into the neighborhood and a crowd comes around them. Williams invites them to his house for protection, giving them lodging and safe passage the next morning. Law enforcement say that he kidnapped that white couple and try to arrest him. He catches wind of this, so he flees. He manages to escape. He sets up with the support of the Cuban government in a radio station, Radio Free Dixie. in which he eventually comes to the U.S. He continues to talk about the importance of black self-defense. When he died of cancer, one of the speakers at his funeral was the icon of non-violence herself, Rosa Parks, even though he was a strong promoter of self-defense, challenging the ideas of the civil rights movement just being about non-violence.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Roots of hiphop

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

SCLC During 1966-67, they were solely focused on attacking segregation in the South. Southern Christian Leadership Conference, when before it was much more nationalized in scope. The record of SCLL was one of mixed success. Their campaign in Georgia '62, did not, in '63 Montgomery it did. Their philosophy was focused on equality, integration, and full democracy. That was what they were trying to bring about. Forced southerners to enforce the end of segregation after the Board of Education.

Seasoning (Maafa) (1441-1808)

Seasoning - when brought to the Caribbean, they are taught how to become a slave. They forced Africans to adapt to new working and living conditions, to learn a new language and adopt new customs. They called this process 'seasoning' and it could last two or three years. . While modern scholarship has occasionally applied this term to the brief period of acclimatization undergone by European immigrants to the Americas,[1][2][3] it most frequently and formally referred to the process undergone by enslaved people.[4] Slave traders used "seasoning" in this colonial context to refer to the process of adjusting the enslaved Africans to the new climate, diet, geography, and ecology of the Americas.[5] The term applied to both the physical acclimatization of the enslaved person to the environment and that person's adjustment to a new social environment, labor regimen, and language.[6] Slave traders and owners believed that, if a person survived this critical period of environmental seasoning, they were less likely to die and the psychological element would make them more easily controlled. This process took place immediately after the arrival of enslaved people during which their mortality rates were particularly high. These "new" or "saltwater" slaves were called "outlandish" on arrival. Those who survived this process became "seasoned", and typically commanded a higher price in the market.[3][7] For example, in eighteenth century Brazil, the price differential between "new" and "seasoned" slaves was about fifteen percent.

Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Septima Clark - Civil Rights and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978) 1959 - her parents were born in Africa. She was an educator, her first job is a rural school teacher and principal for black students, across the street in Charleston, SC, there was a school with only three students and one white teacher. As a black women she earns 35 dollars a month, the white teacher receives 84 dollars a week. Never anything equal about separate but equal. In 1937, she earns her BA with DuBois. Gets her MA in 1946. SC passes an ordinance making it illegal for public employees to be members of the civil organization, she refuses, and becomes fired. She works for the Highlander Center in TN working on the organization aspect. Developed her citizenship school models for black people to read, write, balance checkbooks, and make sure they were educated for the rights of citizenship. She would take them to register and give them the vote. Highlander Center is forced to shut down, so she heads to the SLC, from 1961-70. She said of MLK Jr, who didn't think too much of women and that the civil rights movements would not have taken off without women. She works for much of her life and continues civil rights organization until her death in 1987. She said MLK was sexist. Born in 1898.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Spike Lee Spike Lee, film director, producer and screenwriter, is renowned for a body of work that explores African American experience, challenges racial stereotypes, and addresses controversial subjects. Lee is also credited with opening up the American film industry--to an unprecedented degree--to the contributions of black

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Stokely Carmichael and Willie Ricks Carmichael and Ricks in the summer of '66 turned black power into a slogan. Wille Ricks gets the crowd riled up, chanting black power, and Carmichael begins to talk about black power. However, they did not invent the term black power. Willie Ricks

Slavery (1441-1865)

Survival and Resistance Why were there not more revolts? Others have said it sets up a false dichotomy of a complete overthrow or protesting on a daily basis in individual ways. What counts for resistance? Context for Slavery Is somewhat varied by region, but particularly in the Caribbean was so brutal the living and deaths, that between 1616-1807, ships brought well over 3 times as many Africans across the ocean to the British colonies as they did Europeans. Comparisons of enslaved Africans, free black people, and white people. In 1820, there are about 7.8 million, about 1.5 million enslaved Africans, and 250,000 free blacks. By 1860, free whites- 27 million, about four million enslaved Africans, and about 500,000 free blacks around Civil War. In the North, 1% free blacks, 99% white, upper south, 77% white, 22% enslaved, 3% black. Lower south- 54% white, 45% enslaved Africans, 1% free black. In the Deep South, it was getting close to a 50-50 proportionality. 4 million 27 million .5 million 50% relocation quality of life - most enslaved Africans endured at least one whipping within the course of their life. The dislocation was also common. Dislocation in North America, but not in Africa because children could be sold away from their parents, whereas in the Saharan slave trade, that was illegal to do to children. Most moved to the Southwest after being dislocated due to soil going empty. Between 1820-1850, 50% of enslaved Americans were forced to relocated. 150,000 dislocated each decade. Sexual exploitation of black women from white men was common place. Slave-holders would rationalize the sexual exploitation of black women to shield the prostitution away from white women. There was poor diet, little variety of that diet, clothing was made of cotton or wool, due to lack of nutrition or healthcare, enslaved population was susceptible to tainted water, hepatitis, diarrhea, typhus, etc. There were a host of forms of resistance. 250 - 250 organized slave revolts that we have a written record of.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP) was founded in October 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, who met at Merritt College in Oakland. It was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality. The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP) was founded in October 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, who met at Merritt College in Oakland. It was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality.

The civil rights movement and the black power movement are often thought to be in conflict with one another. Are they? Why or why not?

The Civil Rights movement and the Black Power Movement are not in conflict with one another. It is not a simple moral dichotomy, cutting aside any difference or nuance for any pushback on the black or white community. the story does not look at the nuances. It is a teleological story, in which there is only one ending, a foregone conclusion, but that is not correct. Could try to overcome socio-economic barriers or to simply return to the status quo, but this is a false teleological story. Story is middle class. Misses the grass-roots activism that was in the main sustained of people who were poor. It is largely a man's story. This is also false. The story is largely a political and legal story which sets aside the cultural, civic, and other growth areas. A shortened story. Some of the most significant economic breakthroughs took place place between 1965-1975. All kinds of organizing that got us to this point. To understand what happened in 1954-1968 comes the larger context. 1944- Smith v Alright SCOTUS decision which ended the all-white democratic primary in the south, 1978- California v. Bakke. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. It upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be one of several factors in college admission policy. National Youth Administration's Director of Negro Affairs - In 1937, she organizes a conference called the problems of the negro and negro youth which sets an agenda that are picked up for the rest of the black freedom struggle in the 20th century, against lynching, voting rights, end to segregation in travel, all of these were the primary focused agenda items fro the civil rights organization associated with King. If it weren't for the people such as Septima Clark, Robert F. Williams, or Fannie Lou Hamer within the civil rights movement, the black power movement would not have had the needed political foundation and knowledge to begin its platform. Septima Clark -1959 - her parents were born in Africa. She was an educator, her first job is a rural school teacher and principal for black students, across the street in Charleston, SC, there was a school with only three students and one white teacher. As a black women she earns 35 dollars a month, the white teacher receives 84 dollars a week. Never anything equal about separate but equal. In 1937, she earns her BA with DuBois. Gets her MA in 1946. SC passes an ordinance making it illegal for public employees to be members of the civil organization, she refuses, and becomes fired. She works for the Highlander Center in TN working on the organization aspect. Developed her citizenship school models for black people to read, write, balance checkbooks, and make sure they were educated for the rights of citizenship. She would take them to register and give them the vote. Highlander Center is forced to shut down, so she heads to the SLC, from 1961-70. She said of MLK Jr, who didn't think too much of women and that the civil rights movements would not have taken off without women. She works for much of her life and continues civil rights organization until her death in 1987. She said MLK was sexist. Born in 1898. Born in 1917, rural Mississippi, youngest of 20 children. She ends schooling at the age of 12, so she can earn money for her family. She stays on that plantation, where she meets her husband, Pap, a tractor driver. They adopt 4 kids, 2 boys, 2 girls, they tried to have kids, but she had had a hysterectomy. When a black woman would enter a white doctor's office, the doctor decides to give her a hysterectomy. She was an example of this horrific racist practice. She would often sing spiritual songs to encourage other workers. She didn't she had the right to vote, unless the SNCC came to her plantation or church and said she had the right to vote. She tried to sign up the next day, but she couldn't, someone shot through her house 16 times, and then got fired. She begins to work with SNCC full time. In Winona, MI, she is back from a trip trying to get people to register, where she is arrested and put in jail, where the black inmates beat her, giving her permenatn injury, sever kidney damage, and a limp. She goes to the DNC in 1964 as a Rep elected by the MI Freedom Democratic Party in which black people could indeed register. She gives testimony to a credential committee, where her testimony is so arresting, that LBJ holds a fake press conference where the news switch to LBJ, instead of her, but her testimony is broadcasted on prime time. She founds the Freedom Farm Cooperative, a farm in MI, helping 5,000 people on 600 acres of land. 176,000 black and white high schoolers made a march against hunger to get donations for Fannie Lou Hamer. Dies in 1977, aged 60. Black Power Movement feeds off the foundation of the civil rights movement 1968 Mexico City Olympics - the height of the Black Power Movement. An organizer behind the scene, Harry Edwards, who knew these two black men would end up on the podium. He tells them if this happens lets make this a moment to get everyone's attention. The two black men agreed to do this. Harry Edwards went on to have a career to have high-profile spectacle events in the sports world. In professional football, when Kaepernick did that, Harry Edwards encouraged him to do that. Of the many symbols were shoeless, black socks to represent black poverty. Smith (1st place) had a black scarf around his neck which was for black pride. The raised fist is black power. John Carlos unzipped his jacket to symbolize his solidarity with the working class. The beads around his neck are to represent those who were lynched and those who suffered from the Maafa. The box is a solidarity move with Palestine. All three men are wearing this round white patch which was coming from the Olympic Project for human rights. SCLC and the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedoms correlated to the desire of black power through a political aesthetic. SCLC - During 1966-67, they were solely focused on attacking segregation in the South. Southern Christian Leadership Conference, when before it was much more nationalized in scope. The record of SCLL was one of mixed success. Their campaign in Georgia '62, did not, in '63 Montgomery it did. Their philosophy was focused on equality, integration, and full democracy. That was what they were trying to bring about. Forced southerners to enforce the end of segregation after the Board of Education. Civil Rights - they were criticized at the same time, as the agenda they were pursuing was narrower than the Popular Front such as economic rights. Access to jobs, country's economy, overturning the criminal justice system. That had been the agenda, but things like land redistribution because of the slavery legacy were not on the agenda. 1964 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, but it is not talking entirely of the entire social-economic justice on the larger scale for racial justice. Those who had been advocating for those rights were no longer in the Civil Rights because they were pushed out by the Cold War. In the midst of the Cold War tension there were two dynamics in the black freedom struggle. Those voices that had been more leftist were shut down. SNCC, Ella baker, John Lewis, Freedom Riders SNCC - Student NonViolating Coordinate Committee. Following the student, sit in movement, Ella Baker - Following the student, sit in movement, she is done with the sexism and partriacrchy especially with MLK and the limited strategy of SNCC and their inability to connect with young people in the black movement. She gives a speech envisioning her idea. Central to her philosophy was a commitment to radical democracy, everyone had a voice. Pushed the young people not to write off anyone. She refused to have any official leadership in SNCC. She was the organizing genious. King originally want SNCC to be under his umbrella, but Baker said no way. Freedom Riders - founded by Congress of Racial Equality, which meets intensive violence, was adopted by SNCC, known as the shock troops of the civil rights movement, which is what SNCC did. Many took part in the freedom rides and were imprisoned. The leaders were initially largely male. Bob Moses - one of the most important leaders in SNCC. From New York, great at math, taught black students math. Brilliant, quirky, committed to grass roots leadership. Highly respected. An organizer. John Lewis - not the first president of SNCC, but one of the most long lastingg in SNCC. Known as the soul of the U.S. Congress. Brought a core value of nonviolent and religious sentiment to the civil rights movement. He was the elected leader of SNCC. Freedom Summer (political initiative) leads to the outgrowths of the black power movement Begins in summer of '64 after much internal debate, Chaney, Goodman, Schwerner were all murdered by the KKK. Which would be called Freedom Summer. decided to recruit and bring down white colleges students to work in the summer to offer a measure of protection. They were equally concerned that the college students influx would allow them to take control, but they needed the white bodies so they would not die. Used this to form the Mississippi Freedom Party. After Smith v Alright, ruled the white democratic primary would not do, SNCC will start their own southern Democratic Party so that they could elect their own people. 80,000 people vote. Fannie Lou Hamer is one of them. They are given two seats but do not get them. This pushes many SNCC people from brining about change in a piecemeal way. In the aftermath of this experience, at the DNC, we begin to hear the rhetoric of black power emerge. Black power met indigenous control. Said they should have the right to organize themselves. A call to militancy. Some members of SNCC were integral to the Black Panther Party. In may, '67 black separatists pushed to a vote for the push ut of white people as a move for their internal policy. Members of SNCC are ridiculing Fannie Lou Hamer who were not up to their development and push out Bob and Dottie Helmer. Stokely Carmichael - Carmichael and Ricks in the summer of '66 turned black power into a slogan. Wille Ricks gets the crowd riled up, chanting black power, and Carmichael begins to talk about black power. However, they did not invent the term black power. Willie Ricks Black Power Jesse Gray - a Harlem politician who used the term black power in his speeches back in the 1950s, so did Robeson. Adam Clayton Powell Jr - a representative from Harlem to the U.S. Congress had used the term black power. But it did not get national attention until it was with Carmichael and Ricks. Bob and Dottie Zellner - white people pushed out by SNCC during their black power movement of the SNCC. Two white people. H. Rap Brown - By 1967, election, there was even more power given to SNCC and black power. Much of the SNCC notion of non-violence was abandoned. Articulated the need where they could develop organizations without control and oversight. It was not enough of who just got to be included, but who got to call the shots. June 22, 1966 - ousting of all white volunteers. Ricks was warming up the crowd and yelled black power, and warned of white blood flowing, MLK JR was present in the crowd. King strides through the crowd and people tried to shake his hand. King ascends the platform and said Ricks is not going to turn him around. The crowd begins to calm down. He said he would not let any man pull him down to hatred. Finally, a frustrated SNCC administrator shouts at MLK Jr, mocks him. To the SNCC staffer's embarassemtn no one in the crowd laughed and recognized MLK's saintliness aloud. Some historians have suggested that the undoing of the civil rights movement was not because of MLK assassination, but black power leading the party astray. What that narrative fails to take into account, is the deliberate FBI group known as Counter Intelligence Program run from the basement of the FBI of Edgar Hoover, full support mandate and funding where he tried to discredit and undermine the SNCC and black power organizations. Under Hoover's authority, he found ways to pit Ron Karenga, the founder of the US Organization against members of the Black Panthers. One strategy was to hire paid informants to say what was going on in the US Organization and Black Panther Party, BPP - more racial integrative, where US Orgnization was not. They also paid them to make problems. They would pit the BP against Ron Karen's Us. Hoover staff would forge letters to say BP wanted war with Korenga. They then realize months later they were set up by the FBI. the FBI cooperated with and was in cooperation with the black power leaders assassination. -Essentially, both groups wanted social, political, and economic enfranchisement, but had differing ways of accomplishing these tasks, however, they reinforced each other in such a way, as they had the universal, shared objective of uprooting oppression once and for all.

Analyze the Scottsboro 9 trial and explain whether it best represents a strategy of racial uplift or revolution.

The Scottsboro 9 trial best represents a strategy of racial revolution due to several elements/outcomes: 1. it was the communists who got them the needed lawyers and legal protection, the funding. 2. Powell v Alabama and Norris v Alabama are manifested from this. 3. Justice is finally served for these 9 men within the capitalist and democratic structures, aligning with racial uplift, despite the racial revolution of the communists who helped the defendants. Racial Revolution - Had little patience to operate within the system of capitalism and challenged the idea that capitalism could ever really support the black community. Saw it as racist and bankrupt. The system had to be overturned. Given the history of capitalism being built on the backs of the black people, they chose different strategies to overthrow this. One, the building up of a strong labor union for workers to prevail over the owners, the ultimate vision. A lot of time and energy to do that very thing. One strain is through A. Philip Randolph who did Pullman Car Porters, who would operate as moving butlers, building a strong organization of labor. He aligned himself with the CIO, AIOCFA, organized within the black community under racial revolution philosophy. Angelo Herndon - aligned directly with the Communist party. He had worked in the coal mines of Alabama and got in touch with communist organizers. He was attracted to the party's racial and class equality, so he became involved as an organizer for the Communist party. In 1932, he began holding public demonstrations to oppose capitalist order. He is arrested under old law for black and white people to appear public together in GA. They hire a Benjamin Davis Jr to defend Herndon, he takes on the constitutional and racial gathering ordinances. However, he is found guilty and is sentenced to 20 years on a chain gang. The communist party continues to appeal and go all the way to the Supreme Court, in which they overturn Herndon's sentence and he is free. This shows that the communist party is willing to go to bat for them, and begin to pay attention to them. They maintained population of identifiable black people who would attend meetings and cooperate. Communists were successful with black participation but not necessarily membership with them. Scottsboro 9 Trial - known as the Scottsoboro Boys Trial but "boys" is derogatory during this time, so we use Scottsboro 9. The Scottsboro ranged from 13-20 years old, so they were not boys. A group of 9 young men who came together by chance and circumstance hoping to find work by hopping on one freight train to another to find work. They are passing through Tennessee, one night march 25, 1931, a fight breaks out between the white and black riders. 9 young men beat up the white guys and had the station chief phone ahead, "to capture every Negro on the train.'' While the train is coming to the next stop, a mob of 200 white people gather at the train stop waiting for the men to get dropped off. Seeing the mob, some riders hopped off early and escape. The 9 for whatever reason stay on the train. March 25, 1931 Ozie Powell, Clarence Norris, Charles Weems, Olen Montgomery, Willie Robertson, Haywood Patterson, Eugene Williams, Andy Right, and Roy Wright, - the mob grabs these men and two other individuals who were women named Ruby Bates, 19, and Victoria Pace, 17, these were not reputable women. They were dressed as men to find safety, Pace was arrested for prostitution , and Bates was drunk. The two women know this is a serious situation, the two white women could go to jail or accuse the men of having sexually assaulted them. They say they were raped and that is why the two women were on the train. A doctor examines the women and finds they had sex, but not recently. Also no physical problems with the two women. The rail car was filled with gravel. The doctor doubts there was any rape. Separated into 4 trials, lasting 4 days in total.. Took place in Scottsboro, Alabama. Their court appointed lawyer shows up drunk for everyone of the trial sessions. Two weeks after the arrest, eight of them were sentenced to death, and one was given a mistrial, as the jury wanted death, but the court, only wanted a life sentence, for the 13 y/o. Initially, the NAACP flounders and do not act quickly enough. Walter White was not sure of their innocence, but he did meet with all the defendants. The Communist party acts quickly. By the time White meets with them, the Communist do a massive march in their support, the ILD hire a lawyer to help the defendants to support them in appeals. By Feb, 1932, less than a year after th event, Ruby Bates admits that her story is false, as well as with Victoria Pace. Nonetheless, Alabama continues to try to give them death sentences. Alabama holds new trials. They are dismissed by the Supreme Court. BY 1937, a deal was set to drop charges of one of the nine, kept 4 in prison with minimal sentences, and the other 4 with extended sentences. Several of them had to wait until the end of WW2, and the last one until 1950. Ruby Bates, Victoria Pace. Outcomes NAACP response Communist Party Response Powell v. Alabama (1932) - Powell v. Alabama - Supreme Court says all people have the right to adequate legal representation. Norris v. Alabama (1935) - Supreme Court says all American have a right to trial of jury by your peers. Responses - white response - In the North, the trial generates an uproar about the sentences and legal loopholes. Some South liberals also though that legal system was messed up. Ex- some South women tried to stop lynching and the prostitution of the courts. Poor white workers in the South raised complaints about this miscarriage of Justice. black response - They followed the trial proceeding closely. Some say the quickness of the Communist party and others saw it as a way to show their prowess. Even more demonstrations, some every throughout the world. Communist Party use -used the trial for their own ends, said that NAACP were lackys who did nothing but pave the way for fascism. If the Scottsboro 9 had not gotten help from the Communist party, they argued they would have gotten the chair. They were able to organize labor unions. Organized the march for 3,000 black men and women in the streets. Langston Hughes - Communist sympathizer. Poet. "That Justice is a blind goddess, is a thing to which we poor are wise, her bandages hides two festering sore, the once perhaps were eyes. Clarence Darrow - NAACP tried to bring in the famous ACLU lawyer. NAACP will sit back and hope the Communist party wins the appeals. If the communist party can get the Scottsboro off, this will discredit their position of the American courts corruption which could never work. Walter White - Walter Francis White was a civil rights activist who led the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People for a quarter of a century, 1929-1955, after joining the organization as an investigator in 1918. He directed a broad program of legal challenges to racial segregation and disfranchisement. George Shuyler - a columnist who wrote for the black paper. W.E.B. DuBois - states that when black people unite together, the U.S. collectively comes together to break this objective. Not until 1976, was the last legal action taken to vindicate all the 9. Even for the pro-segregationist George C. Wallis, AL governor, the Scottsboro 9 was egregious. In Quick Sand, these juxtaposing approaches such as that of racial uplift of Ms. Hayes Rore/Naxos and of Anne are further demonstrated. Ex- Naxos orientation of its institutional program to adopt white values and to create from a multiplicity of black persons a machine of dull conformity. "Why must the race problem always creep in?" pg 48. "Anne hated white people with a deep and burning hatred. But she apted their clothes, their manners, and their gracious ways of living/ While proclaiming loudly the undiluted good of all things Negro, she yet disliked the songs, the dances, and the softly slurred speech of the race.''

Building on the stanzas below, explain the primary themes of the Harlem Renaissance being sure to identify the poem, the poet, and the date it was written:

The Weary Blues - Langston Hughes - 1925 He played a few chords then he sang some more-- "I got the Weary Blues And I can't be satisfied. Got the Weary Blues And can't be satisfied-- I ain't happy no mo' And I wish that I had died." And far into the night he crooned that tune. The stars went out and so did the moon. The singer stopped playing and went to bed While the Weary Blues echoed through his head. He slept like a rock or a man that's dead. Langston Hughes's "The Weary Blues," first published in 1925, describes a black piano player performing a slow, sad blues song. This performance takes place in a club in Harlem, a segregated neighborhood in New York City. The poem meditates on the way that the song channels the suffering and injustice of the black experience in America, transforming that suffering into something beautiful and cathartic. The poem thus reflects on the immense beauty of black art—and the immense pain that lies beneath it. The Pain and Beauty of Black Art "The Weary Blues" is about the power and pain of black art. The poem describes a black blues singer playing in a bar in Harlem late into the night, whose music channels the pain of living in a racist society. For the speaker, this music is a kind of relief: the speaker finds it soothing, even healing, to hear such sorrow transformed into song. But it doesn't have the same effect on the blues singer himself, for whom channeling so much pain and suffering is exhausting. This tension allows the poem to reflect on both oppression and creativity: it suggests how marginalized people may find solace and power in art, without shying away from how emotionally taxing that creative process can be. In other words, it honors the beauty of black art while also acknowledging the weight of the pain that led to its creation. For the speaker of "The Weary Blues," the blues is more than just music—it conveys the suffering and injustice that black people have endured living in a racist society. The music that the speaker hears is full of pain, and described as both "melancholy" and "sad." Even the piano that the blues singer plays seems to "moan"—as though it were crying out in anguish. As the speaker notes in line 15, this music comes "from a black man's soul." The pain it expresses is thus specifically tied to the pain of the black experience and to the trials of life in a racist society. Its pleasure thus comes from the way it negotiates and transforms that pain. Listening to the blues singer, the speaker experiences a kind of relief and release. Throughout the first stanza, he cries out, "O Blues!" and "Sweet Blues!" In these moments, the music seems to transport the speaker, eliciting cries of rapture and pleasure. Music offers both an acknowledgment of and an escape from the speaker's own troubles—which may explain why the speaker is so absorbed in the performance. In this way, the poem subtly suggests that musical traditions like the blues help black people resist and endure racism. But the poem is also attentive to the costs of making and playing such painful music. The singer does not share in the speaker's release. When the blues singer gets home after playing all night, he sleeps "like a rock or a man that's dead." Literally speaking, the simile just suggests that the singer is very tired—and that he sleeps deeply. But the simile's implications and undertones are a bit darker. They suggest that, for the blues singer, it's so painful and difficult to play this music that, by the time he's done, he's almost dead. Expressing his pain has, in a way, been sucking the life out of him. "The Weary Blues" thus celebrates the blues as a way of expressing black suffering and as a means of escaping and resisting a racist society. But it also carefully documents the costs of such resistance—the way that it drains and diminishes the artists who channel and express such suffering. Further, "The Weary Blues" isn't just a description of blues music: the poem itself takes on the form and rhythms of the blues. In writing the poem, Hughes mines the suffering of his community—and takes the weight of that suffering on himself. At the same time, he offers the poem as a source of celebration and pleasure, perhaps hoping the reader will experience the same relief and release that the speaker does. Stars are traditional symbols of hope and guidance. For instance, sailors have historically used the stars to help them navigate on their voyages. They used stars to locate themselves on a dark and threatening ocean. So when the speaker says that the "stars went out" as the blues singer walked home in line 32, that's a sign that things aren't going well: the blues singer is traveling in the dark, without the hope or guidance that the stars usually provide. (Note that the speaker doesn't describe the sun rising.) The speaker thus uses the symbol to suggest that the blues singer is trapped in deep, unrelenting darkness, with no way out. In turn, this suggests how costly it is, how painful to make the art that he does. Reflecting and channeling so much pain has deprived him of hope. Like the stars, the "moon" is a traditional symbol of hope—and of beauty. Poets often appeal to the moon because it seems so distant from their struggles and suffering. It's literally above the human world, and it literally looks down on human problems. The moon thus often proves reassuring: as much sorrow and pain as a poet experiences on earth, he or she can be sure that there is something out there that's above it all, unaffected and supremely beautiful. But the blues singer lacks that consolation: in line 32 the "moon" goes out. In other words, the moon—and all the beauty and hope it symbolizes—disappears from his life. This suggests some of the costs associated with his art. He channels black pain and suffering, transforming it into beautiful music—but at a price. Doing so seriously damages him, leaves him in a world that has no outlet, no escape, and no hope. The Weary Blues" was the title poem of Langston Hughes's first collection of poetry, The Weary Blues (1925). Hughes's early poems, like "The Weary Blues" were key to the Harlem Renaissance, a literary movement that developed in the 1920s in New York City. During the Harlem Renaissance, black artists, writers, and intellectuals—including Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen—worked to find ways of expressing the full complexity of black life in America. They often used their art to protest against racism and injustice. In doing so, many of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance worked hard to free themselves from white, European artistic traditions. They invented new artistic and literary forms; they found new language and new ways of making art that better expressed the black experience than fusty old poetic traditions like the sonnet. The reader can see that impulse at work in "The Weary Blues." In the poem, Hughes not only describes the blues, he also imitates the distinctive sounds and rhythms of blues music. Blues is a form of popular music that developed in the deep South out of African spirituals, work songs, and other musical traditions. As black Americans moved north in the 1920s and 1930s searching for more freedom and economic opportunity, they brought their music with them—and blues musicians from the Deep South began performing regularly in cities like New York and Chicago. Blues songs are usually written in four-line stanzas; they are repetitive, with lines echoing each other. In lines 19-22 ("'Ain't got nobody ... on the shelf.'") and 25-30, ("'I got the Weary blues ... I had died.'") the speaker directly imitates the lyrics of blues songs. And elsewhere, he does so indirectly, using repetition and alliteration to capture the mood of the music. The poem thus takes a form of popular black music and makes it into poetry. Better, the poem quietly insists that the blues is already as expressive, sophisticated, and significant as any European poetry tradition. Historical Context "The Weary Blues" was first published in 1925, at the height of the Harlem Renaissance. The 1920s were a difficult period for black Americans. In the South, segregation was legal—with separate schools, accommodations, and even drinking fountains, for blacks and whites. The Ku Klux Klan was resurgent: it terrorized and murdered black people in the South (and across the country). Many black Americans emigrated to the North, where they sought better job prospects and more freedom—a movement that historians call the "Great Migration." However, things were often just as bad in the North. Once they arrived in cities like Chicago and New York, black migrants were confined to over-crowded, segregated neighborhoods like Harlem (in New York City) and Bronzeville (in Chicago) and forced to live in tiny, poorly maintained apartments. In these tiny neighborhoods, black artists and intellectuals began to gather and launched a number of important literary and artistic movements, designed to protest the oppression under which black communities lived—foremost among them, the Harlem Renaissance.

J. Edgar Hoover

The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation who investigated and harassed alleged radicals.

In Quicksand, Nella Larsen explores themes of racial identity. Use the character of Helga Crane to identify the themes Larsen explores.

There are several prominent themes within Nella Larsen's Quicksand. These include eroticism, black bourgeoisie, racial uplift, belonging. 1st paragraph - belonging - "Negro society, she had learned, was as complicated and as rigid in its ramifications as the highest strata of white society. If you couldn't prove your ancestry and connections, you were tolerated, but you didn't belong. You could be queer, or even attactive, or bad, or brilliant, or even love beauty and such nonsense if you were a Rankin, or a Leslie, or a Scoville; in other words, if you had a family. But if you were just plain Helga Crane, of whom nobody had ever heard, it was presumptuous of you to be anything but inconspicuous and conformable.'' The emphasis of GRAY, neither black nor white. This knowledge, this certainty of the division of her life into two parts in two lands, into physical freedom in Europe and spiritual freedom in America, was unfortunate, inconvenient, expensive. 90. from the prejudiced restrictions of the New World to the easy formality of the Old, from the pale calm of Copenhagen to the colorful lure of Harlem.'' 90 Eroticism- When Helga goes to Denmark- But you, you're young. And you're a foreigner, and different. You must have bright things to set off the color fo your lovely brown skin. Striking things and erotic things. You must make an impression. pg 62. In her own mind she had determined the role that Helga was to play in advancing the social fortunes of the Dahls of Copenhagen, and she meant to begin at once. 63. What a prim American maiden you are, Helga, to hide such a fine back and shoulders. Your feet are nice too, but you ought to have higher heels- and buckles. "She ought to have earnings, long ones.'' 63. This feeling was intensified by the many pedestrians who stopped to stare at the queer dark creature, strange to their city.'' They were pleased with the success she was at the tea.'' Helga herself felt like nothing so much as some new and strange species of pet dog being proudly exhibited.'' pg 64. "Marie had indeed "cut down" the prized green velvet, until, as Helga put it, was "practically nothing but a skirt.'' However, in these social outings, "to them this girl, this Helga Crane, this mysterious niece of the Dahls was not to be reckoned seriously in their scheme of things.'' True, she was attractive, unusual, in an exotic, almost savage way, but she wasn't;t one of them. She didn't at all count.'' pg 65. It conveyed to Helga her exact status in her new environment. A decoration. A curio. A peacock.'' pg 67. Her Denmark suitor, Herr Olsen marriage proposal includes"you have the warm impulsive nature of the women of Africa, but, my, lovely you have, I fear, the soul of a prosititeu. pg 81. Helga then says, "Herr Olsen, I'm not for sale. Not to you. Not to any white man. I don't care at all to be owned. Even by you.'' 81. As discussed in class, Josephine Baker. Known for mocking the white sexualized gaze. Racial Uplift Ms. Hayes-Rore represents the character of racial uplift. This is seen as she is a "prominent race woman" and an authority on the problem was to deliver before several meetings of the annual convention of the Negro Women's League of Clubs, convening the next week in New York. These speeches proved to be merely patchworks of others' speeches and opinions. Helga had heard other lectures say the same things in Devon and again in Naxos.'' From the works of Wendell Phillips, Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, Du Bois. In class - racial uplift - promotes improving the social and economic condition of the African American community by working within the capitalist system. a philosophy. Proponents accepted the premise that capitalism can work for all people, did not think it was inherently racist and it could work if applied democratically. Moreover, Hayes Rore says not to mention her relations with the white folks, as people just won't understand it, especially Anne. 39. haracteristics - Hard work, if you work hard you will succeed. Also they promoted an acceptance of middle class norms of behavior, known as the politics of respectability. We're not going to act out in public by white standards or by dress, we will not give white people any excuse to criticize us. Focuses on promoting the value of education, going back to DuBois, the talented tenth. The top ten percent would be able to uplift the rest of the African American community through their excellence and intelligence. Actors- Marcus Garvey - promoted black capitalism for the black community. UNIA. Ran gas stations, drug stores, by and for the black community, lifting them up in a capitalist system. Another strain of racial uplift is the NAACP such as Walter White who promoted these values of education, proper dress and speech, operating within the capitalist system, to remove education and housing barriers. Wanted full and free access for all black people. It could be improved through hard work and proving oneself through adhering to the white people norms. NAACP want a full democratic society, legal strategies is a way to get there by way of respectability. Helga herself seems to more on the side of racial uplift as she is both black and white. Black Bourgeoisie Talking about Anne and affluent NYC - "Their sophisticated cynical talk, their elaborate parties, the unobtrusive correctness of their clothes and homes, all appealed to her craving for smartness, for enjoyment. pg 40. Soon all she was able to reflect with a flicker of amusement on that constant feeling of humiliation and infieriotiy which had encompassed her in Naxos. her New York friends looked with contempt and scorn on Naxos and all its works. Anne "carried herself as queens are reputed to bear themselves, and probably do not. Her manners were as agreeably gentle as her own soft name. She possessed an impeccably fastidious taste in clothes, knowing what suited her and wring it was an air of unconscious assurance. 41. However, Helga turns away from this black affluence and race revolution in that "she felt that it would be useless to to tell them that what she felt for the beautiful, calm, cool girl who had the assurance, the courage, so placidly to ignore racial barriers and give her attention to people, was not contempt, but envious admiration.'' 57 (interracial dancing). Nonetheless, Helga ultimately abandons the black bourgeoisie of Harlem to live a destitute life in Alabama, married to a Reverend, where she bears many children.

Deborah Gray White analyzes the experience of African-American women in slavery. Explain her primary argument and why you do or do not find it convincing.

Thesis - White's primary argument of Ar'n't I A Women centers around the premise that "slavery is terrible for men: but is far more terrible for women. Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and suffering, and mortifications peculiarly their own.'' pg 62. There are three primary assertions that I will make to further support this thesis. First, the notion that African American women were far more oppressed than black African American men is captured in the "impossible task that confronts black women." "If she is rescued from the myth of the Negro, the myth of the woman traps her.'' If she escapes the myth of the woman, the myth of the Negro ensnares her.'' pg. 28. 2nd body paragraph - Jezebel - impious, lustful, hyper-sexualized. 29. "Southern white women were kept free and pure from the taint of immorality because black women acted as a buffer against their degradation.'' 3rd body paragraph - talk about how this Jezebel archetype further exacerbates sexual abuse between owners and the women. "For black womne the consequences of the even sex ration were also severe. Once slaveholders realized the reproductive function of the female slave could yield a profit, the manipulation of procreative sexual relations became an integral part of the sexual exploitation of female slaves.Few of the calculations made by masters and overseers failed to take a slave woman's childbearing capacity into account. This was particularly true after Congress outlawed the overseas slave trade in 1807. The slave woman's "marital status, her workload, her diet all became investment concerns of slaveholders, who could maximize their profits if their slave women had many children.'' pg 68. Paragraph 1 - intro. Paragraph 2 - Jezebel/Assault/ Paragraph 3 - Mammy Archetype Paragraph 4- Emphasis on Motherhood and how this made it difficult for women to escape from slavery Paragraph 5- conclusion. Do a chronological progression of the average slave women's life, beginning at a young age (Jezebel), then Mammy, and the lifelong emphasis on motherhood. Show how men had some advtantages such as more moving abilities with work. Paragraph 3- Mammy - "Mammy was, thus, the perfect image for antebellum Southerners. As the personification of the ideal slave, and the ideal woman, Mammy was an ideal symbol of the patriarchal tradition. Mammy's roots in the cult of domesticity run deep. Her very title was steeped in maternal sentiment. Everything she supposedly did was in harmony with the tradition of woman as guardian of the hearth. pg. 58-59. Central to the maternal ideal was the characterization of women as religious.'' Whereas "black men can be rescued from the myth of the Negro, indeed, as has been noted, this seems to have been one of the aims of the historical scholarship on slavery in the 1970's.'' They can be identified with things masculine, with things aggressive, with things dominant.'' 28. In other words, the black man's identity was not as susceptible to social change and approval, as the black women's was incredibly so. Paragraph 4.- How the responsibility of motherhood impacted any potential for black women slaves to escape - "Some of the reasons why women were underrepresented in the fugitive population had to do with childbearing . Most runaways were between sixteen and thirty-five years old.. A woman of this ge was either pregnant, nursing an infant, or had at least one small child to care for.'' 70. Also important in understanding why females ran away less frequently than men is the fact that women tended to be more concerned with the welfare of their children, and this limited their mobility. Fugitive men loved their offspring, but unlike the runaway male, the slave woman who left her children behind could not be certain that they would be given the best possible care.'' A father could not provide for a suckling infant. 71 Moreover, this crucial importance of child-rearing further translated to the occupational diversification, yielding different amounts of liberty and opportunity to escape. For one, "the division of labor on most plantations conferred greater mobility on male than on female slaves. Few of the chores performed by bond-women took them off the plantation. Usually masters chose their slaves to assist in the transportation of crops to market, and the transport of supplies and other materials to the plantation.'' As a consequence, more men than women were able to test their survival skills under different circumstances.'' "the most important reason for the difference between male and female bondage, however, was the slave woman's childbearing and child care responsibilities. These affected the female slave's pattern of resistance and figured prominently in her general health.'' 90.

Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement (1944-1978)

Tommie Smith Using the Olympic medal ceremony to show solidarity with oppressed Black people worldwide impacted both the professional and the personal lives of Smith and Carlos for years afterward. Widely deemed a "Black Power salute," the men's gesture at the podium was by no means a random act.

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Tupac Shakur - called one of the greatest artists of all time, the most significant and influential rapper of all time. He sold 75 million records when he was alive. Tucker publicly challenges Tupac and he gets back at her by rapping about her. She sues him for 10 million dollars and use. Sept 7, 1996, Tupac is murdered.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

White Backlash threatened by the success of reconstruction The African American spread land distribution because they wanted to bring back the land distribution which threatened the white people. Moreover, education of the African American education was led by the African Community. More than 60,000 schools by 1869-150,000. By 1870, African Americans raised 1 million dollars to contribute to their education. Black teachers like Lydia Marie Child educated them through the Freedman's Bureau book, such as abolitionism, threatening white people. Widespread educational projects, burned schools down, shot and killed teacher of the Freedmen schools, and threatened to Lynch them. The University of South Carolina was required to hire black faculty and students. In the North, there were white allies who threatened southerners because House members were going to tsake away 400 million acres by the top ten percent to be re-distributed among the former enslaved Africans. They were threatened by civil unrest such as a sit-down demonstration. In 1867- a black civil rights demonstration. Black people went on job strikes that year. In 1869, Isaac Myers, the National Colored Labor Union was founded, threatening the white communities. Blanche K Bruce was the sheriff, tax collector, and served as the Supt of Education to put the Fear of God in the white community. So, the white people had to form the KKK under General Nathan Benford Forest who became the Grand Wizard of the KKK in 1866. Klan activity strongest where there was a minority or small minority in even decision between Republican and Democrats. With large black majorities, the KKK didn't;t show up. They murdered a legislate in 1868, another in Alabama, as they thought he gained too much influence. In 1871, Union County SC, they pulled eight prisoners from jail and lynched them from a an unfounded killing of a Confederate soldier.

Reconstruction (1865-1877)

White people brought about the demise of Reconstruction Even in SC, with black majority, whites oversaw that black majors as their was a white governor and majority in the senate. Were not able to get federal patronage, not black folks fault. Corruption and bribery were at all significant in key legislative proposals. It wasn't the violence in the community, but whites against blacks. KKK were effective in bring down black voters, legislators, and businesses. White community acting and reacting in terms of power. African Americans didn't do this to themselves. Deep in the south, whites began to vote again or were given full enclosure. Iron Clad Oath was overturned that by 1876 only South Carolina and Louisiana remained in Republican control, every other Southern State was under Democratic control to maintain white supremacy. IN 1867, by President Hayes, he said he would pull out the federal troops of the south. After the removal of the federal troops, barns and houses were burned, people were lynched. Whites became tired of intervening. Supreme Court gave ruling that the 15th Amendment creating the voter but not the process of voting. Host of measures to prevent them from voting. Gerrymandering, restricting time in both, or elaborate voting schemes.

Civil Rights and Black Power Movements (1944-1978)

Working Class History

Hip-Hop Movement (1973-today)

Youth Containment Containment policies and sweep laws - most urban cities moved to a policing policy called youth containment which were supported by sweep laws which made it illegal for someone to look like they were in the gang. Dressed like a hip-hop person, had to do with an aesthetic, the rejection of respectability, so they intesnfied juvenile crime statues. If you were standing on the sidewalk, you could be arrested because you could look like you were in a gang with your hip hop clothes. When they get processed, you are then in the database. Chicago had a database of 45,000 youth who had been processed, majority were black and Latin X. Racial profiling. By 1992, police were 5x more likely to arrest and detain an African youth than a white youth.

Harlem Renaissance (1915-1929)

Zora Neale Hurston - Harlem Renaissance - 1915-1929 strong sense of community. Brilliant ear for dialogue as she was so attuned to the manners of speaking and celebrated it. She is finding value in this lower class community which the higher classes often diminish. Colorism. Eroticism Black Bourgeoisie Racial Uplift Belonging "Helga Crane, who had been born in this dirty, mad, hurrying city, had no home here. She had not even any friends here. IT would have to be, she decided, the Young Women's Christian Association. "Oh dear The uplift/ Poor, poor colored people. (58). She goes to the city and talks about uplift there and the movement/Great Migration. Artist Jacob Lawrence arise on the Harlem scene towards the H.R. but produces his works often. He started painting in an after school program at the age of 13. He began painting portraits of important African Americans. He produces multi-paneled themes with a story. One was called the Migration of the Negro, which ad 60 panels that were focused on the movement of African Americans to the North, especially in the city. Picture of Chicago, New York, and St. Louis. Those were the three destinations of the three major railroad lines. Reds, yellows, blues, green colors associated with the Pan-African flag, which speaks to nationalism. "Go back to America, where they hated Negroes! To America, where Negroes were not people. To America, where Negroes were allowed to be beggars only, of life, of happiness, of security. To America, where everything had been taken from those dark ones,... Demonstrates racial pride. Poet Langston Hughes also writes of this. Also, delight in music. "They danced, ambling lazily to a crooning I'm Not Rough - Louis Armstrong (1927) Sexualization and excotisim in white eyes. pg. 64. "The ear-rings, however, and the buckles came into Josephine Baker. Known for mocking the white sexualized gaze. Contradiction of the black bourgeois. Had arrogant attitudes towards poor black people. Incident 1925