abnormal psych

internal validity vs external validity

- Internal Validity: confidence that we can place in the cause and effect relationship in a scientific study(how strong your research methods are). - External Validity: can results be generalized outside your study?

Synaptic transmission(*neurons*, *dendrites*, *axon*, axon terminal(*neurotransimtter*), *synapse*, excitatory or inhibitory)

Sending neuron: *neurons*-nerve cell that transmits messages throughout the body *dendrites*- branch like structures that receive signals from other neuorns *axon*-send signals to other neurons axon terminal-tiny bulbs on it that contain chemicals(neurotransmitters) receiving neuron: neurotransmitters released into space between neurons( *synapse*) and are taken up by the dendrites of next neuron which relays the message down the axon, etc. the binding of the neurotransmitters to receptors either causes the neuron to fire electric impulse (excitatory) or inhibits impulse (inhibitory)

*Medivial Period: Dark Ages(belief? treatment?tarantism?)*

belief : mental illness due to supernatural causes; devil possession View is promoted & reinforced by Church Treatment: *exorcism* ↦ persuade/compel evil spirit to come out of body ↦Beatings, waving cross, starvation Mass madness ↦*tarantism*(believed to be caused by the bite of a spider): maniacal dancing in large groups

The Multipath Model(dimensions within it)

contains factors found to be important in explaining mental disorders biological-genes, epigentics, brain anatomy etc. psychological-personality, cognition, emotions etc. social-family, interpersonal relationships, social support etc. sociocultural- race, gender, sexual orientation etc.

Three sections of the brain?

forebrain-Controls higher order functioning (e.g., speech, language reception, memory) midbrain- vision & hearing & control of sleep, alertness →Also has role in making certain neurotransmitters: serotonin, norepinephrine & dopamine hindbrain-controls basic functions: heart rate, sleep, respiration Houses reticular formation(important role in aorusal/awakeness) = sleep, attention, alertness

Cognitive Models( *Appraisal*, *Attribution*, irrational beliefs)

*Appraisals*: way we judge our behavior and *what* happens to us *Attributions*: *why* do things happen to us Internal: happen because of things inside me I failed the test because I'm stupid External: happen because of things outside of me I failed the test because it was too hard Irrational beliefs: overgeneralizing(one bad date=many bad dates, catastrophizing(you should drop out of college because you failed one exam)

*Modeling*(how are new behaviors acquired? tend to learn more when? vicarious reinforcement?)

Acquire new behaviors by observing others Learn through vicarious reinforcement - see others reinforced so imitate them Behaviors that are punished are inhibited Tend to learn more when model is similar to learner

Advantages and Disadvantages of Experiments

Advantages: Best method to ascertain cause & effect relationships Helps understand etiology(causation) Can be replicated Disadvantages: Artificial Maybe impractical & unethical(Does PCP cause hallucinations?)

*Psychodynamic models-Anxiety Motivating behavior and defense mechanisms*

Anxiety motivates much of our behavior *Realistic: real potential danger in environ; ego vs. external environment* *Moralistic*: fear live up to own moral standards; superego(caused by super ego) vs. ego(tries to reduce that anxiety) *Neurotic*: arises from an unconscious fear that the impulses of the ID will take control at an inopportune time. ; id vs. ego Defense mechanisms: designed to ward off neurotic anxiety; always unconscious Denial, projection, reaction formation, rationalization

Behavioral Models(abnormal behavior due to? optimistic theory? three basic paradigms?)

Assumes that abnormal behavior due to faulty learning; we are products of our environment Optimistic theory: if can change the environment, can change person Three basic paradigms Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Modeling

*Psychological factors*-mental disorders(contribute to? 4 major perspectives?)

Assumptions: Psychological factors contribute to causes of mental disorders Four major perspectives Psychodynamic Behavioral Cognitive Humanistic-existential

*family systems model-social relational model(3 characteristics)*

Behavior of one family member affects entire family system Characteristics: Personality development strongly influenced by family characteristics Mental illness reflects unhealthy family dynamics and poor communication Therapist must focus on family system, not just an individual

field studies(what is it? main technique? why must observers be highly trained?)

Behaviors and events are observed and recorded in their natural environment (e.g., after floods, earthquakes, and war) The main technique is observation --->Also uses interviews, questionnaires, and review of existing data Observers must be highly trained: ---->Avoid disrupting the natural environment

*Biochemical theory hypothesis*

Biochemical theory hypothesizes that mental disorders due to biochemical imbalances of neurotransmitters in brain Ex: Dopamine Ho: schizophrenia caused by too much dopamine in the brain

Multipath implications(Biological Explanations best considered in? inheritance and predisposition? Activates a predisposition?)

Biological explanations are best considered in the context of other factors that most individual differences result from some combination of genetic and environment variations →*People do not inherit a particular abnormality but rather, a predisposition to develop illness*(N.B. !!!) → Environmental forces (stressors) may activate the predisposition, resulting in a disorder

Sociocultural factors(socio cultural models): Immigration & Acculturative Stress

Challenges of moving to new country, leaving family behind Circumstances under which immigrated Hostile reception? Educational and employment challenges

Cognitive model(cognitions? cognitive model states? indivduals with mental disorders ofetn have?

Cognitions are mental processes Cognitive model posits that cognitions influence behavior; abnormality due to faulty cognitions(*cognitive distortions*) Individuals with mental disorders often have rigid, inflexible, automatic ways of thinking Have negative expectations; see glass as always 'half empty' Negative self-efficacy (thinking low of yourself to complete a goal; I won't do well in stats because im dumb at math)

*Multicultural Psychology*(what is it? what do mental health professionals need to do in regards to multicultural psychology?)

Culture, race, ethnicity, gender, age, and socio-economic class relevant to understanding and treating abnormal behavior Mental health professionals need to: Increase cultural sensitivity Acquire knowledge of diversity Develop culturally relevant therapy approaches

Experiment( *Independent variable, dependent variable,* *experimental group*, *control group*, placebo group)

Designed to look at cause and effect relationships *Independent variable (IV)*: variable that experimenter manipulates; the "cause" *Dependent variable (DV)*: the outcome, the "effect" *Experimental group: receives treatment* *Control group*: similar to Experimental group except doesn't get independent variable Placebo group: receive an inactive substance

Confounds(differential mortality; control for confounds)

Differential mortality: people in one group drop out at different rate than people in another group Ex: people in Exp group drop out at higher rate than people in control group Control for confounds: random assignment into groups Double blind studies Restriction: concerned about gender, only have males in study Statistically control( using statistical procedures to remove the influence of a particular factor that could not be eliminated or controlled ex: partial coverance).

*Sociocultural models(what is it? list some factors)*

Emphasizes importance of several factors in explaining mental disorders : Race Ethnicity Gender Sexual orientation Religious preference Socioeconomic status Other factors

Endophenotype(definition? must be?)

Endophenotype: measurable characteristic; indicates a genetic pathway to a disorder. Endophenotypes must be: Heritable Seen in family members who don't have the disorder Occurs more frequently in the affected family than in general population Example: 80% of people diagnosed with schizophrenia have irregularities in way track objects with eyes 45% of relatives WITHOUT schizophrenia have same irregularities Only 10% of families without schizophrenia have this trait.

Correlations(what is it: positive and negative correlation? advantages and disadvantages?)

Examine relationships between variables Correlation coefficient: r Tells you the strength of relationship: [1] Tells you the direction of the relationship: +1 to -1 ------> Dollar value decreases, interests rate increase(negative correlation) ---->High self esteem related to high school achievement(positive correlation) Advantage: not artificial, avoid ethical problems Disadvantages: cannot examine cause & effect relationships

Epidemiological Survey Research(prevalence and incidence)

Examines rate and distribution of mental disorders in the population. Prevalence Percentage of individuals in targeted population with a particular disorder during a specific period of time ( For example, we might be interested in how many(percent of individuals) school-age children (targeted population) had a spider phobia during the previous 6 months (6-month prevalence)). Incidence: Number of new cases of a disorder that appear in an identified population within a specific period of time (for example, if after exposure to a particular stressor we find an increased incidence of a disorder (i.e., more new cases) in a population, we can hypothesize that the stressor caused the disorder).

Behavioral Model-exposure therapy(definition + example_)

Exposure therapy, (also known as extinction therapy), can involve graduated exposure, gradually introducing a person to feared objects or situations, or flooding, which involves rapid exposure to produce high levels of anxiety. For example, if you had a spider phobia, the therapist might ask you to imagine seeing a spider (graduated exposure) or might hand you a jar containing a live spider (flooding)

True or false: does biology alone explain mental disorder?

False: Individual differences in disorders result of combination of genetic and environment variations. Environmental forces (stressors) may activate a predisposition, resulting in a disorder

Sociocultural Factors(socio cultural models)-*Gender* and SES(Gender-Higher prevalence of ----- in ------ due to greater life stressors such as -----; SES- low SES results in?)

Gender: Higher prevalence of depression, anxiety and eating disorders in women ----->Women experience greater life stressors Exposure to sexual violence/harassment SES Low SES = poorer health outcomes, higher rates of depression Poverty - multiple stressors

*Genetic Model*-mental disorders(heredity? *twin studies-monozygotes?* *dizygotes*? what does a higher concordance rate suggest?)

Genetics plays role in mental disorders Heredity: genetic transmissions of traits Look at *twin studies*: * Monozygotes* share 100% of heredity Dizygotes share same genetic materials as regular sibs = 50% Look at concordance rate of disorders for monozygotes; if higher, suggests genetic factors For schiz, monozygotes @ 48% concordance; dizygotes @17%; siblings @ 8%

*Humanistic(goal? *unconditional and conditional positive regard?* and effecs?)

Goal is to be *self-actualized* = reach your fullest potential To be self-actualized, need *unconditional positive regard* = People love you "just because", not for what you do but for you People often impose *conditions of worth *on each other - I'll love you if you do this or if you act this way - *conditional positive regard* --->Results in an incongruence between your potential and how you view yourself = low self-esteem

Epigentic Studies(what is it? builds on what idea? Epigenetic changes can?)

Is a gene expressed due to environmental factors? Builds on idea that certain environmental factors have greatest impact during sensitive periods in development Epigenetic changes can leave an imprint on eggs or sperm Affects traits inherited by future generations

*Biological factors*(assumptions: many mental disorders associated with? *key word?* tries to identify? *synodromes*)

Many mental disorders associated with inherited biological vulnerabilities/abnormalities Changes in thoughts & behaviors→ corresponding changes in activity in brain *Mental disorders can be treated with medication* Try to identify syndromes = group of symptoms that tend to occur together

How do medications work? what occurs when *NT* are decreased or *increased*?)

Medications work by increasing or decreasing the amt of neurotransmiters available in brain. Medications may block synapses = decrease in neurotransmitters (class example: stop wave; less neurotransmiters) Medications may block *reuptake*(unused neurotranmitters reabsorbed and recycled) = increase in neurotransmitters(class example: restart wave; more neurotransmitters) Ex: antidepressants increase neurotransmitters to improve mood & energy

Defining abnormal behavior and mental disorder(mental health professions often focus on ---------- and ----------- to define abnormal behavior and mental disorder; define these approaches; DSM-V uses, but encourages professions to asses disorders using ------------- --------)

Mental health professionals often focus on dimensions and categories to define abnormal behavior and mental disorder. A dimensional approach refers to defining abnormal behavior along a continuum; mater of degree(normal, mild, moderate, less severe, more sever) A category is a large class of frequently observed syndromes or mental disorders; "yes/no" approach DSM-V uses categorical approach but encourages mhp to assess disorders using dimensional perspective.

*Multipath approach assummptions*

Multiple pathways contribute to development of disorder Biological, psychological, social & sociocultural factors can also help people be more resilient. Same triggers or vulnerabilities may cause different disorders -Within each dimension, distinct theories exist -Many disorders heterogeneous in nature -Different combinations within the four dimensions may influence development of a particular condition -Not all dimensions = contributions -Framework is interactive and integrative

*negative reinforcement* vs. *punishment*

Negative Reinforcement - strengthens a behavior because a negative condition is stopped/ avoided as a result of the behavior. Punishment- weakens a behavior because a negative condition is introduced or experienced as a consequence of the behavior.

What does the *recovery movement s*peak about?

Perspective that people with mental illness can recover Live satisfying, hopeful, and contributing lives

*Characteristics of Clinical Research*

Potentially self-correcting: exchange ideas & info thru conferences, meetings etc. & work has to be replicated to try to remove personal bias from theories Hypothesizing relationships: try to identify & explain relationships between variables Operational definitions: tell you what the variable is and how you plan to measure it )(in a research study: age is defined as participant's age measured in years/not months and addiction is defined as whether or not the participant currently meets the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder). Reliability & validity: measures used have to be reliable and valid *reliability*--->degree to which a procedure, test, or classification system yields the same results repeatedly under the same circumstance *validity* --->extent to which a test or proce- dure actually performs the function it was designed to perform. *Base rates*: rate of occurrence of behavior in natural environment *Statistical vs. clinical significance*: research findings have to be statistically significant; even if it is statistically significant(chances that it occurred by chance), maybe clinically irrelevant( real genuine, palpable, noticeable effect on daily life) Ex: People who successfully plead guilty by reason of insanity are much more likely to have a psychotic disorder; on other hand, successful plea occurs less than 1% of the time

Assessment(what is it? theoretical model of abnormality influence? referral?)

Professional gathers info in systematic manner to obtain knowledge about individual to make appropriate recommendations. Theoretical model of abnormality influences types of questions you ask, type of assessment tools you'll use & how you will interpret information. Referral: important part of assessment; it is the question that you are being asked to answer by the teacher, parent, client, court system, colleague

Importance of Replication(what is it? what has it resulted in in previous findings?_)

Replication: Repeating results under similar test conditions Replicating research has resulted in changes to previous findings described as "conclusive" in mass media Examples: Childhood vaccines may cause autism (not supported) Antidepressants raise suicide risk in children and adolescents (needs further research)

*Humasitic model(what is center of these theories? when do problems persist?*

Self is center of these theories - reflects our individual perceptions and values When have conflict between perceptions you acquire from personal experience and perception acquire from others = problems ---You are very smart & do well in school ----Parents are never happy unless you have all A+'s on your report card; learn to devalue yourself

*Some recovery model assumptions*

Some of the recovery model assumptions: »Recovery is possible and begins when person realizes that positive change is possible. » Recovery involves occasional setbacks »Healing involves separating one's identity from the illness

Objective Psychological Test(what is it? how is the test administered? how are the results compared?)

Standardized measures that are used to assess intellectual abilities, personality, social skills, cognitive skills and vocational interests that are administered in a standard way & use standardization sample Tests are administered same way to all people, scored using same criteria for all people Results are compared to norm reference group that should be representative of the people who take the test

Critique of DSM and classifications

Strong medical/bio bias Validity of process used to select classifications: some politics are involved ----->Premenstrual dysphoric disorder Labels imply that all of person's behavior is abnormal Labels lead to people being ostracized Labels become self-fulfilling prophecies Labels don't necessarily tell you about functioning Cross Cultural Concerns( The preva lence of some disorders differs across the globe. it may be that some descriptions of disorders developed in Western countries do not fit other cultures.)

Assessment(techniques used in assessment? want to be sure that?)

Techniques used in assessment Interview Life history records (e.g., school, medical records) Tests Observations Want to be sure techniques you use yield reliable & valid results

Projective test(what is it? types of projective technique)

Tests have stimuli that are relatively ambiguous ----> More ambiguous the stimuli, more you project your own personality onto the stimuli Types of Projective Techniques: Association: state what stimuli means to you (Rorschach) Construction: generate story, sentence (TAT) Expressive: express yourself through activity (DAP)

Forebarin(thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebral cortex)

Thalamus = relay station(sorts incoming sensory info to the appropriate part of the brain) Hypothalamus = regulates drives (hunger, thirst, sex, temperature, hormone balance) Limbic system: involved with expressing & experiencing emotions & motivation Cerebral cortex: involved with higher order functioning like language

*The most widely used classification system?* *How is a mental disorder characterized*?

The most widely used classification system: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition *(DSM-5)* A mental disorder is characterized by: Disturbance in thinking, emotion, or behavior Distress or difficulty with daily functioning Not being culturally expected, not explained by religious or political beliefs

Traditionally psych used what type of models to understand and explain abnormal behavior? What models are now used and why?

Traditionally, psychology has used one-dimensional models to understand and explain abnormal behavior. Now realize that one-dimensional models are too simplistic Human behavior complex, multifaceted and multidetermined

Validity( what is it? content; concurrent; predictive; construct)

Validity: does the test measure what it is supposed to measure? Content: does the content on the test(specifically test questions) actually aligns with what you measuring( for example: on a physics exam, should only measure physics). Concurrent: results of a particular test or measurement correspond to those of a previous test measurement for the same construct? Predictive: how well test predict future behavior (Colleges and universities often use applicants' SAT or ACT scores to predict future college grades) Construct: Is the test measuring what it claims to measure(the specific construct?) (for example, you might try to find out if an educational program increases emotional maturity in elementary school age children. Construct validity would measure if your research is actually measuring emotional maturity.)

Analogue Studies(What is it? when may it be used?)

attempts to simulate real-life situation under controlled conditions Used when not possible to control all variables in real-life situations or when ethical, legal, or moral issues preclude other types of studies. example Effects of alcohol on driving Effects of alcohol on social inhibitions ( possible effects of new treatment for anxiety disorders, researcher experiments with students who have test anxiety rather than individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder.)

Reliability(what is it? test-retes reliability; internal consistency reliability; alternative form; interrater)

consistency of test or technique Test-retest reliability- determines whether a measure yields the same results when given at two different points in time(if you take a personality test in the morning and then retake the test later in the day) Internal consistency reliability- do all the items on the test measure the same concept? (on a test assessing anxiety, each test item should reliably measure characteristics related to anxiety) Alternative form: equivalent forms of test are given to minimize practice effects Interrater reliability refers to how consistent (or inconsistent) test results are when scored by different test administrators(both trained to diagnosed using same classification system, one clinician diagnoses anxiety disorder and one diagnoses depression, there would be poor interrater reliability)

True or false: pscyhologist always equate the diagnosis with the person

false. the person has schizophrenia. they're not schizophrenic.

diagnosis (Dx)

observation + history+psych test

*Freud's Psychosexual Stages( oedipus/electra complex)*

oral-0 to 3(weaning off breastfeeding or formula). anal-1-3(toilet training) phallic-3-6(Oedious/Electra Complex) latency-6-12 genital(12+)

diathesis

psychological disorder=predisposition + stressful events.

*defense mechanism*(splitting, repressing, *intellectualization*)

repressing- emotion is conscious, but idea behind it is missing. splitting- problems integrating negative and positive aspects on self and others(only seeing the good in others). *intellectualization*- concentrating on the intellectual components of a situation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provoking emotions.

psychophathology

scientific study of mental illness and disorders, psychological impairment.

Abnormal psyc studies?tries to?

studies psychopathology tries to: Describe behavior↦based on observations Explain behavior↦determine causes of behavior Predict behavior↦very difficult; look at risk factors Modify behavior↦interventions: primary, secondary, tertiary

Historical perspective of abnormal behavior(+ what is our current world view shaped by?)

views of abnormal behavior shaped by prevailing world views(Western Culture)↦ example: abnormal behavior viewed as sign of possession - shaped by religion Current world view shaped by science: abnormality = physical + psychosocial factors

Twin Studies(monozygotic(share?) and Fraternal(share? used to evaluate?)

Monozygotic (identical) twins Share the same DNA Have different fingerprints Develop more differences from one another as they age Fraternal twins Share same childhood environments Often used to evaluate hereditary versus environmental influences on development

*confounds*(non-random assignment, *(sampling bias*, *experimenter bias,*subject bias*,*demand characteristics*).

*Confounds*: nuisance variables that can influence the results Nonrandom assignment: people are not randomly assigned to groups *Sampling bias*: systematic error in way people are included in study; some people are less likely to get into study than others (phone survey) *Experimenter bias*: experimenter intentionally or unintentionally influences subject.(scientist performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome example: picking people you think might give you a certain response). *Subject bias*: subject behaves a certain way because they know in experiment(they behave in a way they think the experimenter wants them to act). ---->Try to control experimenter & subject bias via double blind *Demand characteristics*: characteristics of study induces subjects to behave a certain way because trying to figure out what hypotheses are(participants sometimes change their natural behavior in line with their interpretation of the aims of a study).

Operant conditioning(*continuous reinforcement and paetial reinforcewment *

*Continuous reinforcement*: reinforce behavior after each response; helps individual learn quickly(acquisition) *Partial reinforcement*: reinforce behavior after certain # of responses or after varied periods of time - harder to learn behavior but also harder to extinguish it. (gambling)

Couples and groups-social relational models(*couples therapy* aims at? what is* group therapy*: define?provides? allows therapist)

*Couples therapy*: Aimed at helping couples understand and clarify their communication, needs, roles, and expectations *Group therapy*: Initially strangers Share certain life stressors Provides supportive environment Allows therapist to observe patient's actual social interactions

Three components of personality(define)

*Id*-impulsive, pleasure-seeking aspect of our being; seeks immediate gratification of instinctual needs regardless or moral or realistic concerns *Ego* -reality principle; realistic and rational part of the mind; need to adjust behavior to meet the demands of the enviornment. *Superego*-moral complex

*classical conditioning*(*acquisition*, *extinction*, classical conditioning explains how some objects?)

*Learning = acquisition* If you continue to ring the bell but don't pair it with the bone, eventually, bell no longer associated with the bone, so the animal *stops responding = extinction* *Classical conditioning*- explains how some objects acquire emotional significance --Beat child with belt - belt elicits fear

Socio cultural factors(socio cultural models)-*Race and Etnicity* & *cultural context*(race and ethnicity-older models assume? more contemporary models *cultural context* mental professionalizes should be careful about u?

*Race & Ethnicity* Older models assume deficits(When something/someone is different they are lacking) More contemporary models: different ≠ deficit All cultures have strengths and limitations All theories arise out of cultural context: Individualism & autonomy valued in Western cultures Group identity, collectivism valued in other cultures Mental Health Professionals may misinterpret behavior if using wrong cultural norms

Scientific Methods(*scientific method?* Hypothesis? *theory?*)

*Scientific method*: involves the systematic collection of data thru controlled observations so can test hypotheses *Hypothesis*: statement that usually describes the relationship between two variables Theory: group of principles or hypotheses that are used to explain phenomenon

classical conditioning(*unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response)*

*UCS( unconditioned stimuli)* will automatically elicit a response *UCR ( unconditioned response)*UNLEARNED reflex(we smell food and immediately start to salivate) *CS (conditioned stimuli)* provides a cue; learn to associate the Conditioned stimuli with the unconditioned stimuli; dog LEARNS to respond to CS(sound of bell----> food coming) *CR (conditioned response)* response to conditioned stimulus; always weaker than unconditioned stimulus(dog starts to salivate)

Cultural consideration(*culture*? externally;internally)

Culture: way of life of the people; shared, learned behavior that is transmitted from one generation to the next & evolves from complex interaction between individuals & society Externally: artifacts, roles, language, and institutions of a people Internally : values, beliefs, attitudes, epistemology, and consciousness of a group of people (Marsella, 1988; pp. 8-9).

view regarding roles of culture

Expression/determination of behaviors depends on lifestyles, cultural values, and worldviews Cultures vary in what they define as normal or abnormal behavior. In some cultural groups; example hallucinating (having false sensory impressions) is considered normal in some situations, particularly religious ceremonies. However.... Symptoms and causes of mental disorders are independent of culture (bottom line: cultures determine what behavior is considered abnormal or not. However, symptoms and causes of mental disorders are often similar despite cultures.)

*Demonological Model of abnormality(trephining)*

Model attempts to explain abnormality in terms of divine will & spirits pre-historic times: people believe abnormality caused by evil spirits trephining-Would drill holes in person's head to release the spirit ; most people died

*Social relational model*(Healthy relationships? Absent of healthy relationships)

Healthy relationships are important for human development and functioning --->Provide many intangible benefits When relationships are dysfunctional or absent, individuals are more vulnerable to mental distress

Origin of medical model(what did the hippocrates believe-*melancholia* example?)

Hippocrates believed mental illness due to imbalance of humors = vital bodily fluids. precursor to modern medical model examples: People who were sluggish = too much phlegm *Melancholia* = too much black bile Quick-tempered = choleric = too much yellow bile

Human Genome Project(Hopes? Problem?)

Human genome- All the genetic information in a person. Hoping that identification of genes responsible for hereditary diseases would lead to cures Problem: very few diseases caused by just one gene; caused by multiple factors

*Clinical Case Study(what is it? relies on clinical data such as?? *Advantages? Disadvantages?)

In-depth study of individual's life *Relies on clinical data*: Observations Medical and psychological tests Historical and bibliographic information Advantages: Not artificial, helps generate hypotheses; used to study therapeutic techniques Helps get at material that is difficult to access Disadvantages Selectivity: because historical retrospective, memories are distorted Can't replicate behaviors or generalize beyond individual

*Dimensions underlying mental disorders(normal, mild, more severe)*

Normal: •Emotions↦ good alertness and positive emotional state. •Cognition↦" not doing too well, keep trying your best" •Behavior↦ Going to class and studying for next round of tests. talking to professor. Mild: •Emotions↦feeling sad or down temporarily, but not for long. •cognitions↦"these bad grades hurt. This may set me back for awhile. I'm really worried." •behavior↦skipping class, unmotivated to study, avoiding contact with professors and classmates. Severe: •Emotions↦Extreme sadness all the time with great trouble concentrating and complete loss of appetite. •Cognitions↦ "my grades are bad. I'm a failure. I'm not doing anything today" •behaviors↦unable to get out of bed, eat leave house, lack of energy and frequent crying.

Assessment techniques-obserations( define, naturalistic and observation) and Interview(define,structured and semi)

Observations: Systematically monitor & record overt behavior Naturalistic: done in natural environment by trained observers; can be informal or based on elaborate observation schema Analogue observations: done in controlled setting; may ask participants to engage in specific behaviors Interview: involves an interaction between two persons. Structured: ask standard set of questions in standard manner; usually involves checklists (e.g., DISC); more reliable & valid Semi-structured: ask certain questions but more flexibility in way you ask questions, order in which you ask them and ability to probe for more info

*Operant Conditioning*(*positive* and negative reinforcement)

Positive reinforcement: increases likelihood that behavior will occur again ---Good grades = study Negative reinforcement: increases likelihood behavior will occur because something aversive is removed -----Afraid of public speaking - transfer to another class to AVOID public speaking ; avoidance behavior is REINFORCED

*Psychodynamic Therapeutic Approaches(psycho analysis, object relations, interpersonal*

Psychoanalysis: Uncover unconscious material via free association(telling the therapist whatever is on your mind), dream analysis(interpreting the hidden meaning behind dreams), early attachment influence on later development Object relations: Early family relationships, especially with mother shapes future relationships; less focus on sexual and aggressive drives Interpersonal : Short term therapy; based on attachment theory (strong emotional and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is critical to personal development) and focus on communication patterns, expressing emotions more effectively, letting go of emotional baggage.

Biological Treatments-mental disorders

Psychopharmacology Meds: Antianxiety or anxiolytics Antipsychotics of Major Tranquilizers Antidepressants Mood stabilizers ECT(electroconvulsive therapy) Neurosurgery & Brain stimulation

What could public and self stigma lead to?

Public stigma↦ avoid the label of mental disorder(that they are dangerous) by not seeking services that might be helpful. Self-stigma↦ may lead people with mental disorder to feel incompetent and unworthy of help.

*Psychodynamic model(views disorders as a result of? on what level do most problems operate and how do we come to terms with them? three components of personality)*

View disorders as result of childhood traumas, problems Most of our problems operate on unconscious level; person has to be made aware of material that is unconscious Three components of personality: Id, Ego & Superego

Types of prevention(*primary*, *secondary* and *tertiary*)

•*Primary Prevention*: »try to prevent the occurrence of mental disorder Usually target large group or population Ex: prevent tooth decay by putting fluoride in H2O •Secondary Prevention: » try to decrease amt of disability people experience from mental disorder Try to "catch" problem early Ex: Deviation Program for students who are just starting to abuse alcohol *Tertiary prevention*: reduce severity & duration of mental disorder Examples: antidepressants to treat mood disorders; cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) to treat depression