Abraham Maslow
peak experience
A moment of intense ecstasy, similar to a religious or mystical experience, during which the self is transcended.
What are peak experiences? Are they necessary for self-actualization?
A moment of intense ecstasy, similar to a religious or mystical experience, during which the self is transcended. They are not necessary for self-actualization.
metapathology
A thwarting of self-development related to failure to satisfy the metaneeds.
Metapathology
A thwarting to self-development related to failure to satisfy the metaneeds.
hierarchy of five innate needs
An arrangement of innate needs, from strongest to weakest, that activates and directs behavior.
In what ways was Maslow's childhood an example of Adler's theory of personality? How did Maslow's childhood influence the theory he developed as an adult?
As a child, Maslow believed he was different from other children. He was embarrassed about his looks and remembered his early teenage years marked by a huge inferiority complex. Maslow tried to compensate for his lack of physicality by forcing his development in the direction of athletic achievements. This was a living example of Adler's concept of compensation for inferiority feelings.
On what grounds has Maslow's work on self-actualization been criticized? How did he respond to his critics?
Criticisms center on his research methods and lack of experimentally generated supporting data. The sample from which the data arrived was too small for generalization. Information about his subjects have been inconsistent and vague. Maslow's definitions of various concepts have also been criticized. His use of the terms could be ambiguous and inconsistent. Critics also question the grounds of why self-actualization is innate and cannot be learned. Maslow's defense against these charges was that although his theory was not widely supported by laboratory research, it was successful in social, clinical, and personal terms.
How does Maslow's image of human nature differ from Freud's?
Dissimilar to Freud, Maslow's view of personality is humanistic and optimistic. He focused on health rather than illness, growth rather than stagnation, virtues and potentials rather than weakness and limitations. Additionally, Maslow believed that we have the ability to shape our lives and our society. Unlike the deterministic Freud, Maslow also believed we are capable of shaping our free will. Although Maslow recognized the importance of early childhood experiences he did not believe that we were the victims of experiences. Maslow did not argue against the existence of evil, however, he argued that human nature was basically good.
What does correlational research reveal about the relationship between self-actualization and certain personality characteristics?
Higher self-actualization has been positively related to: emotional health, creativity, well-being following therapy, academic achievement, autonomy, and racial tolerance. Negative correlations found: alcoholism, institutionalization for mental disturbances, neuroticism, depression, and hypochondriasis. It is important to note, however, that this research involves correlational studies and that there is no valid independent measure of self-actualization with which to correlate the POI scores.
What child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization?
Inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood. Typical sex-role training for boys can thwart the drive for self-actualization. Additionally, children that are overprotected and aren't permitted to try new behaviors are likely to not reach self-actualization. Parental permissiveness can also be harmful. Without adequate parental love, security and esteem it is also hard to strive for self-actualization in adulthood.
cognitive needs
Innate needs to know and to understand.
At what age do we develop the needs to know and to understand? Which of these needs is the strongest?
Late infancy and early childhood. The need to know is stronger than the need to understand.
Discuss the motivation and the characteristics of self-actualizing people.
Maslow proposed a distinct type of motivation for the self-actualizers called metamotivation. Metamotivation involves maximizing personal potential rather than striving for a particular goal object. Self-actualizers are not motivated to strive for a particular goal and instead develop from within. They are concerned with fulfilling their potential and with knowing and understanding their environment.
Describe the hierarchy of needs Maslow proposed.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an arrangement of innate needs, from strongest to weakest that activates and directs behavior. Listed from higher needs to lower needs: need for self-actualization, esteem needs, belongingness and love, safety needs (security, order, and stability), and physiological needs (food, sex, and water). These needs have a heredity component (instinctoid). These needs can be affected/overridden by learning, social expectations, and fear of disapproval.
instinctoid needs
Maslow's term for the innate needs in his needs-hierarchy theory.
Safety needs
Needs are particularly important drives for infants and neurotic adults. Emotionally healthy adults have usually satisfied their safety needs. Safety needs are seen clearly in infants behavior. Although most normal adults satisfied the safety needs, those needs may still impact behavior. Many of use choose predictable over the unknown and prefer order over chaos.
Belongingness and love
Needs that are attended to after safety needs. These needs can be expressed through a close relationship with a friend, lover, or mate, or through social relationships formed within the group. The need to belong is much harder to satisfy than safety and the need to give/receive love can be satisfied in an intimate relationship with another person
Describe the nature of self-determination theory. Identify the three needs proposed by the theory.
People have an innate tendency to express their interests, exercise and develop their capabilities and potentials, and overcome challenges. Self-determination is facilitated by intrinsic motivation. The three basic needs proposed in the theory: competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
How do people who are high in self-esteem differ from people who are low in self-esteem?
People with high self-esteem have greater self-worth and self-confidence. They feel more competent and productive than do people low in self-esteem. People high in self-esteem may function better in many situations. People with high self-esteem coped more effectively with difficulties than people with low. People with high self-esteem were found to also perceive themselves to be significantly higher in intellectual skills, agreeableness, and mortality and to be more extraverted. People with high self-esteem were more likely to participate in school sports and to have lower levels of anxiety and defensive behaviors. Low self-esteem was also related to depression, smoking, addiction, school dropout rates, criminal convictions, financial problems, strong emotional reactions to negative outcomes, and difficulties at work.
Metaneeds
States of growth or being toward which self-actualizers evolve.
metaneeds
States of growth or being toward which self-actualizers evolve.
What cultural and ethnic differences have been found with regard to self-esteem?
Studies conducted in the United States support the idea that self-esteem changes over the life span (increasing during adolescence, peaking at approximately age 60, and then declining). Research in Taiwan, however, found that self-esteem increased throughout childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood but changed very little after age 30. Other research has demonstrated that black teenagers report higher self-esteem than white ones. High self-esteem has been correlated with delinquency rates in Mexican-American teenage boys. Self-esteem has been shown to increase for blacks throughout adulthood but decline more steeply than for whites after age 60. Black women college student also have higher esteem if they identify strongly with black culture. College students in Japan consistently score the lowest in esteem.
Describe the developmental changes in self-esteem from childhood to old age. Has your own self-esteem changed as you matured?
Studies conducted in the United States support the idea that self-esteem changes over the life span (increasing during adolescence, peaking at approximately age 60, and then declining). Research in Taiwan, however, found that self-esteem increased throughout childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood but changed very little after age 30. With maturation, I believe I have developed a greater feeling of esteem and it has increased with age. I no longer take everything to heart and I know my best is always good enough.
Jonah complex
The fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a situation with which we will be unable to cope.
self-actualization
The fullest development of the self.
growth (being) needs
The higher needs; although growth needs are less necessary than deficit needs for survival, they involve the realization and fulfillment of human potential.
Growth needs
The higher needs; although growth needs are less necessary than deficit needs for survival, they involve the realization and fulfillment of human potential. Maslow was concerned with these needs
Why do so few people satisfy the need for self-actualization?
The higher the need in Maslow's proposed hierarchy, the weaker it is therefore it can be easily inhibited. In addition, inadequate education and improper child-rearing practices can thwart the drive for self-actualization in adulthood. Without adequate parental love, security, and esteem in childhood, it is difficult to strive for self-actualization. The Jonah complex is another reason for failure to reach self-actualization (the fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a situation with which we will be unable to cope). Self-actualization requires courage, effort, discipline, and self-control making it seem harder for people who would rather the easy way of accepting life the way that it is. In addition, people on the lower end of economic conditions make it difficult to satisfy lower needs making self-actualization less important.
Deficiency needs
The lower needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficiency in the body.
deficit (deficiency) needs
The lower needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficiency in the body.
What are the differences between the higher needs and the lower needs?
The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the greater the strength, potency and priority. The higher needs are weaker. Failure to satisfy lower needs lead to deficiencies in the body. The higher needs are less necessary and not needed for survival. The higher needs involve the realization and fulfillment of human potential. Higher needs contribute to growth, psychological benefits, and survival (but not necessary for it). Higher needs require more external circumstances than lower needs.
Describe Maslow's characteristics of needs. Do we always seek to satisfy these needs in a particular order of importance? Why or why not?
The lower the need the higher the strength, higher needs appear later in life, lower needs appear in infancy (belongingness and esteem arise in adolescence, self-actualization midlife). Higher needs can be post-poned while lower needs postponed produced a crisis. Less necessary needs contribute also to survival and psychological well-being. Better external circumstances are needed for higher needs. We are not driven by all the needs at the same time. In general, only one need will dominate our personality. Which one it will be depends on which of the others have been satisfied. The order of needs can be changed and a need does not have to be satisfied fully before the next need in the hierarchy becomes important.
metamotivation
The motivation of self-actualizers, which involves maximizing personal potential rather than striving for a particular goal object.
What conditions are necessary in order to satisfy the self-actualization need?
We must be free of constraints imposed by society and ourselves, not be distracted by the lower-order needs, must be secure in our self-image and in our relationships with other people; we must be able to love and be loved in return. Finally, we must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths and weaknesses, virtues and vices.
What criticisms did the humanistic psychologists make of behaviorism and psychoanalysis?
When psychologists study only abnormal or emotionally disturbed examples of humanity, they ignore the positive human qualities such as happiness, contentment, and peace of mind. When we fail to examine the best in people, we underestimate human nature.
