Absolutism and Constiutionalism in Western Europe

Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642): Appointed to the council of ministers in 1627 by Marie de' Medici, and in 1628 he became the president of the council (shortly after he was the first minister of the French Crown). Persuaded Louis XIII to appoint Jules Mazarin as his successor (see card) To justify his sometimes harsh apporaches that seemed to contradict traditional Christian teaching he developed his own reason of state: "Where the interests of the state are concerned, God absolves action which if privately committed, would be a crime" Policy: total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French monarchy; -Political: Sought to curb the power of nobles, who with their selfish and independent interests had long constituted the most serious threat to the centralizing goals of the crown. In 1642 Richelieu reshuffled the royal council (Eliminating potential power brokers and putting in people loyal to the crown --> dominates council), leveled castles (symbol of feudal power), and crushed aristocratic conspiracies with quick executions. Administrative system established: (see card) -Foreign Policy: Aim is destruction of Hapsburg territories that surrounded France. Supports Hapsburg enemies: 1631 aids Gustavus Adolphus (Lutheran king of Sweden) against the Catholics Hapsburg in the Swedish phase of the 30 year's war, French influence became an important factor in the political future of Germany. Richelieu acquired for France rights to Alsace in the east and Arras in the North. -Literature: Goal to centralize; 1635 Richelieu gave official recognition to a group of philologists who studied grammar and rhetoric --> established French Academy --> prepared a standardized dictionary for the French language (completed 1694) that had a large centralizing affect. -Urban Revolts: limited response (see card) -Economics: (See card; France's limited ability to Tax). Secured cooperation of the local elites and shared the proceeds of tax revenue with local powers --> never gained all needed income.

Charles II

(r. 1660-1685), eldest son of Charles I. Reestablished as king during the restoration of the English Monarchy. Personal: easy going and sensual Religion: Not interested in doctrinal issues. Parliament primarily handled this issue during his reign: enacted a body of laws that sought to compel religious uniformity. (Test Act --> card) Political: -Determined to keep good relationship between parliament and himself --> Establishes the Cabal (see card) -Harmony between Charles's and Parliament rested on the understanding that Charles would summon frequent parliaments and parliament would vote him sufficient revenues. ==> However Parliament was unable to provide sufficient funds and in 1670 Charles entered into a secret agreement with Louis XIV. The French king would give Charles 200,000 pounds annually and in return Charles would 1.) relax the laws against Catholics 2.) Support French policy against the Dutch 3.) Convert to Catholicism himself. ==> Treaty leaks out and a wave of anti-catholic fear grips England, esp. because Charles's heir was his brother James II, a Catholic. The commons passed an exclusion bill denying the succession to a Roman Catholic, but Charles dissolved Parliament and the bill never became a law.

Time Line of French absolutism

- 1589-1610 Henry IV reigned: his reign restored public order and France and laid the foundations for economic prosperity. - 1610-1643 Louis XIII (Richelieu) Rules: Richelieu set n place the cornerstone for French absolutism =, and his work served as the basis for France's cultural hegemony. - 1648-1653 The Fronde -1643-1715 Louis XIV reigns: peak of French absolutism.

Henry IV

-1589 Henry IV, later known as "Henry the Great" inherits the throne of France (Formally known as Henry of Navarre). -Conditions of France when he inherited the throne: Poor harvests --> starvation + peasants not only starved but had to fight of wolves and bands of demobilized soldiers => severe population decline, commercial activity had declined, and nobles, officials, merchants and peasants all desire peace, order and stability. -Religion: converted to Catholicism and sought better relations with the Pope. Tried to regain Protestant confidence by issuing the EDICT OF NANTES (1598) and by appointing Maximilien de Bethune, duke of Sully and a devout Protestant, as his chief minister. -War: Except for a short war with Savoy in 1601 Henry kept France at peace. -Economic: Sharply lowered taxes on overburdened peasants, introduced the Paulette (see card), + economic policies from Sully (see card) --> although taxes declined revenue increased because of stimulated trade. -Murdered in 1610

Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of Sully

-A devout Protestant, appointed chief minister by Henry IV as a way to restore confidence with the Protestants. -Economic policies: combined the indirect taxes on salt, sales and transit, leased their collection to financiers, subsidized the Company for Trade with the Indies, and started a country-wide highway system. He even dreamed of an international organization for the maintenance of peace.

Reasons A constitutional monarchy developed in England

1.) 1215 Magna Charta (see card) 2.) 1350s Parliament developed during the 100 years war with a house of lords and a house of parliament. 3.) 1353 King Edward signs law saying that the King cannot tax without Parliament;s consent. 4.) 1400s-1600s: Greater social mobilty and power for the English middle class. Capitalism and capitalist values are strong in commerce and agriculture (Protestant values). Inflation doesn't outstrip income in England. Privileged classes find a clear voice in the House of commons, willing to pay taxes unlike the continent. (see card)

Oliver Cromwell

1599-1658 Background: from the country gentry (House of Commons). Sat in the long Parliament. Rose in the parliamentary army and achieved nation wife fame for his "New Model Army" (see card) Initially the army proposed a constitution, The Instrument of Government (see card), however Cromwell destroyed this document after many disputes --> Continued a standing army and proclaims quasi-martial law. Disbands Parliament. Administration: Divided England up into 12 military districts, each governed by a major general. The major generals acted through the justices of the peace and sometimes overrode them. Religion: Generally Tolerant, instrument provides for some toleration. State protection of many different Protestant sects. However this policy was generally unpopular Irish: Cromwell identified Irish Catholicism with sedition and in 1649 brutally crushed a rebellion in Ireland. Rigorously censored the press, forbade sports and kept the theaters closed in England. Economic: Mercantilism policies. -Navigation act (see card) Social: Welcomes immigration of Jews because of heir skills. Crushes rebellion of Levelers and Diggers (See card) End: Military government collapses with Cromwell's death.

Stuart Kings vs. Parliament (Commons)

1603-1649 Bitter squabbles erupted between the Crown and the Commons. 1.) Viewed the House of Common's desire to obtain a say in the use of taxes as a intolerable presumption and a threat to their divine-right to rule --> Charles I's attempts to govern w/o parliament (1629-1640) and to finance his government by arbitrary non-parliamentary levies brought the country to crisis. 2.) Religion: Increasing numbers of English people felt dissatisfied with the Church of England. Many puritans believed the reformation had not gone far enough. Conflict between commons and catholic sympathetic crown. 3.) Divine right vs. people's right to only have property taken after due process by law

Charles I

1625-1649 Son of James I. Personal: deceitful, dishonest, and treacherous. But also intelligent. Religion: Protestant, however Catholic favoring. Supported William of Lard which led to the Scottish revolt. Economic: Had ruled without calling Parliament for 11 years. He financed his government through stopgap levies considered illegal (ex: Ship money (see card)). When these issues were brought up in court the judge always decided in his favor because he had bought them out. --> eventually forced to call Parliament in response to the Scottish revolt --> The long Parliament (see card) Response to Scottish and Irish rebellions (see cards): Agreed to terms of the long Parliament in fear however peace as on achieved because radical members of the commons continued to try and push increasingly revolutionary propositions and partly because Charles maneuvered to rescind those terms he'd already approved of. The Long Parliament also remained unwilling to put any army under a king they did not trust --> When the Irish revolt Charles instigates own military action against Parliamentary forces; recruited an army drawn from the nobility and its cavalry staff, the rural gentry, and mercenaries. He also arrested 5 key leaders, among them Cromwell. Parliamentary forces were composed of the militia of the city of London, country squires with buss. connections, and men with a firm belief in the spiritual duty of serving. --> English Civil War Involved in the Petition of Rights and the Long Parliament and the English civil war. Beheaded on January 30th 1649.

Petition of Rights

1628 Reaffirms the Magna Charta

Scottish Revolt

1640 Resulted from William's Lards attempt to impose uniformity of the Scottish Protestant church (see card) ==> Forced King Charles I to summon Parliament

Urban Protest in Spain

1640 Revolts in Catalonia and Portugal.

Long Parliament

1640-1660 Charles I was forced to call this Parliament in order to stop the Scottish rebellion. The Parliament looked upon Charles unfavorably as they viewed that his methods of taxation without consent amounted to arbitrary and absolute despotism. Enacted legislation that limited the power of the monarch and made arbitrary government impossible (ex: Triennial act --> see card). Impeached Archbishop Laud and abolished the Court of High Commission. Charles hurridly agreed to their terms, however understanding and peace were not achieved because a.) radical members of the House of Commons pushed increasingly revolutionary propositions and partly because Charles maneuvered to rescind terms approved.

English Civil War

1642-1649. Instigated by Irish revolt. Tested whether sovereignty in England was to reside in the king or in Parliament. Initial success for Royalist (Cavaliers) but Parliamentary (Roundhead) forces regroup (New Model Army) and prevail. Ended in 1649 with the execution of King Charles for high treason.. Period after called the "interregnum" (see Cromwell and the Protectorate)

Rump Parliament

1649 Parliament that condemned Charles I for treason. Manipulated by Cromwell: 50 of the original 500 members condemn Charles after 100 opponents "purged" in order to secure a "majority".

Navigation Act

1651 Passed by Cromwell. Required that English goods be transported on English ships. ==> Boosted the development of an English merchant marine and brought about a short but successful war with the commercially threatened Dutch.

Treaty of Pyrenees

1659 Ended Spainish-French war and Compelled Spain to surrender extensive territories to France. End of Spain as a great power. 1643 France curshed the Spanish army at Rocroi.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

1685 Louis XIV revokes the edict of Nantes. New law orders the destruction of churches, the closing of schools, the Catholic baptism of Huguenots and the exile of Huguenot pastors who refused to renounce their faith. -Mass conversion has occurred before the Revocation. -Richelieu had already deprived Huguenots of their political rights Reasons: 1.) French monarchy had never intended religious toleration to be permanent (religious pluralism not a 17th century ideal), Although Louis himself was moderately tolerant he considered religious unity politically crucial to realizing his goal of a united state. 2.) Religious toleration was not a popular policy, especially in respects to the aristocrats. --> the revocation won Louis praise. Economic affects: Huguenot craftsmen, soldiers, and business people emigrated depriving France of their skills and tax revenues and carrying their anger to Holland, England, Prussia and Cape Town.

Bill of Rights

1689 England. Formulated by the bringers of the great revolution. Basic principles: -Law to be made by Parliament and once made it could not be suspended by the crown. -Parliament called at least once every three years -Crown cannot interfere with election to and debate in Parliament. -Judges could only hold their offices during "good behavior" --> independence of judiciary. -No standing army in peace time (No cromwell) -Protestants may have arms for self defense -Freedom of worship to Protestant dissenters and nonconformists -English monarch must always be Protestant.

Glorious Revolution

2 events that signal for revolution (overthrow of James II): 1.) Seven bishops of the Church of England petitioned the king that they not be forced to read the declaration of indulgences because they believed it was an illegal act. --> imprisoned but soon acquitted 2.) June 1688 James II's 2nd wife produced a male heir -->the catholic dynasty was ensured ==> Fear of a Roman Catholic monarchy supported by France and ruling outside the law prompted a group of eminent persons to offer the English Throne to James' Protestant daughter Mary, and her dutch husband. William of Orange. 1688 James flees to France 1689 William and Mary crowned. This revolution from 1688-1689 is called the glorious revolution because it replaced one king with another with minimum shed. ==> Also represented the destruction of the idea of divine-right monarchy. William and Mary's acceptance of the English from throne solidified the fact that Parliament was supreme. Established the principle that sovereignty was divided between the king and Parliament and that the king ruled with the consent of the governed. ==> Not a democratic revolution. Placed sovereignty and Parliament and Parliament was composed of the upperclasses. Age of aristocratic government.

Mercantilism

A collection of governmental policies for the regulation of economic (esp. commercial activities) by and for the state. 17th-18th century economic theory state that a nation's international power was directly proportional to its wealth (gold). -B/c resources are limited states need to intervene to secure the largest part of limited resources. -To accumulate gold a nation needs to export more than it imports.

France's limited ability to Tax

A state secures its revenues through taxation however the social and economic structure of France greatly limited the state's ability to tax: (17th century France was still a collection of local economies + societies with local elites.) -Rights of some assemblies in some provinces to vote on their own taxes. -Hereditary exemption from taxation of many wealthy members of the nobility and the middle class -Royal pension system ==> because the state could not tax at will it never completely controlled the financial system and therefore French absolutism was limited.

Sovereign

A term applied to a state when the state possesses a monopoly over the instruments of justice and the use of force within clearly defined boundaries: -No system of courts (ex: ecclesiastical tribunals) compete with the states courts in the dispensation of justice -private armies pose no real threat to the state because the state's army is larger -Law touches all people within the country

Gaspar Guzman, count-duke of Olivares.

Administrator. Appointed by Philip IV. Developed new methods of collecting revenues, however still clung to the belief the Spain could be restored if the Spanish government returned to its imperial tradition. --> Imperial tradition demands revival of war with the Dutch at the expiration of the 12 year truce in 1622, long war with France over Mantua (1628-1659) --> emptied treasury and brought disaster

Francois le Teier (Marquis de Louvois)

Appointed secretary of state for war by louis in 1666. Under Louis's watchful eye he created a professional army that was employed by the French state rather than private nobles. Methods to recruit troops: dragooning (seize men off the streets, often drunks, bums and criminals), conscription, and after 1688 lottery. Also recruited regiments of foreign mercenaries in Italy, Germany, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Switzerland. Under strict direction of Jean Martinet (died 1672) the foreign and native-born soldiers were turned into tough, obedient military machines.

William Lard

Archbishop of Canterbury (1573-1645). Supported by Charles I. Tried to impose elaborate ritual and rich ceremonials on all churches. Insisted on uniformity and enforced this uniformity via an ecclesiastical court called "Court of High Commission". 1673 tried to impose 2 new elements on the church organization in Scotland: 1.) A new prayer book, modeled on the Anglican Book of Prayer 2,) Bishoprics ==> Presbyterian Scots firmly reject and the Scots revolt

Thomas Hobbes

Background: (1588-1679) English philosopher and political theorist. Author of Leviathan --> unpopular view. States of Nature: Laws of nature; justices equity, modesty, mercy. Do to others as you would be done too --> but individual state of a person doesn't follow that way. Maintains that sovereignty is ultimately derived from the people who transfer it to the monarchy. Liberty: Once can destroy himself or his property but you can/t do it to another person. Liberty not license: license is complete freedom but liberty has constraints. Interested in the control of one ruler.

John Locke

Background: (1632-1704). Author of Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) which was used to justify the glorious revolution. Inherited his ideas from ancient Greece and Rome, that there are natural or universal rights equally valid for all peoples and societies. Maintained the people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty and property. A government that oversteps its proper function becomes a tyranny. People have a natural right to rebel against tyrants. Natural rights: Rights basic to all men because all have the ability to reason. State of Nature; State of equality, men ought not harm another, by establishing one kind of gov't then their will be inequality, common wealth only way to rule people well, natural state w/o gov't is equaity.

Cabal

Charles II's response to the problem of the relationship bw/ the king and the House of Commons. A council of five men, appointed by the King, who served bth as his major advisers and as members of Parliament, thus acting as a go-between b/w the executive and legislature. Named for its five original members -- Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashely-Cooper, and Lauderdale. Cabal answerable in Parliament for the decisions o the king. --> royal ministers must answer to the commons.

The Fronde

Civil wars of 1648-1653 that raged intermittently in France during the early reign of Louis XIV. "fronde" means "slingshot" and "Frondeur" was originally used to refer t a street urchin who threw mud at the passing carriages of the rich. However because the Fronde originated in the provinces and not in Paris the term came to be applied to anyone who opposed the policies of the government. Cause: Mazarin's attempt to increase royal revenues and the fact that influential segments of the nobility resented the increased power of the monarch under Louis XIII and the reduction of their role in government. Royal bureaucrats, judges in the parlements, and intendants who considered their positions the means to social and economic advancement felt that they were being manipulated by the Crown and their interests ignored. Vast increase in the state bureaucracy and new means of extracting money from working people angered the peasants and urban artists. Results: -Financial positions weakens because entire provinces refuse to pay taxes. -The defeat of Spanish armies at Rocroi in 1643 led the French people to believe that b/c there was peace taxes were no longer needed and when the government created new taxes the Parlement of Paris rejected them. -Popular rebellion breaks out led by the aristocratic factions (spreads from the provinces to Paris). --> civil order breaks down Lasting affects on the future: 1.) Government would have to compromise with the bureaucrats and social elites that controlled local institutions and constituted the state's bureaucracy. King had to confirm the privileges of these groups: ex largely tax exempt + social status. 2.) Economy badly disrupted. 3.) Louis XIV will come to believe a strong (absolute) monarchy is the sole alternative to anarchy --> does not trust nobles (Secret police, has the nobles feel involved but does not actually involve them)

Claude Le Peletier

Colbert's successor as minister of fiance (see Louis Wars)

The Grand Alliance

Composed of: English, Dutch, Austrians and Prussians. United againt France. Dominated by Eugene, Prince of Savory (HRE), and John Churchill, duke of Marlborough (English).

Treaty of Nijmegan

Concluded France's six year war with Holland. 1678 France gains additional Flemish towns and all of Franche-Comte.

The Instrument of Government

Constitution originally proposed by Cromwell's army in 1653 that was eventually destroyed. Stated: -Invested executive power in the lord protectors and a council of state -triennial parliaments -Parliament the sole power to raise taxes -Religion: Gave all Christians, except Roman Catholics, the right to particle their faith.

"New Model Army"

Cromwell's new form of army that brought him fame and victor. Infused army with Puritan convictions and modeled the army into a highly effective military machine.

Cabinet System

Developed during 18th century England. In a cabinet system: leading ministers (who must have seats in and the support of the majority of the house of commons) formulate common policy and conduct the buss. of teh country. ==> Influenced of crown gradually declines. ==> First Prime minster: Sir Robert Walpole. ==> Legislative and executive power held by leading ministers.

Protestantism in England

Dominant Religion was Calvinism: English attracted by the socioeconomic implications of John Calvin's theology. Calvinism emphasized hard work, sobriety, thrift, competition, and postponement of pleasure. --> fits with economic approaches and practices of many buss. people and farmers. People were dissatisfied with how Catholic the English church was namely in its use of elaborate vestments and ceremonials, the position of the altar in the church, etc. Puritans extreme Calvinists.

Paulette

Economic policy introduced by Henry IV to make up for revenues lost during tax decrease. Introduced in 1602-1604. Was an annual fee paid by royal officials to guarantee heredity in their offices.

Dutch East Indian Company and Dutch West India Company

Established in 1602. Formed by regents of Holland. A joint stock company --> investors receive proportion of profits = to money put in. Cut heavily into Portuguese trading in the East Asia, grabbed the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon and Malacca and established trading posts there. DWIC: founded in 1621 and traded with Latin America and Africa ==> Although the purpose of these trading companies was initially commercial the dutch found themselves involved in the imperialist exploitation of parts of the world with great success: -1652: Found Cape town

Restoration of English Monarchy

Fed up with military rule the English longed for a return to civilian government, restoration of the common law, and social stability. 1660 Charles II established as the monarchy and both houses of Parliament restored, together with the established Anglican church, the courts of law, and the system of local government through justices of the peace. Failed to solve 2 major problems: 1.) What was to be the attitude of the state toward Puritans, Catholics, and dissenters of the established church? 2.) Relationship b/w Parliament and the King? During the Restoration Charles II and James II ruled (see cards and their approaches to these questions).

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Financial situation for France under Louis XIV's reign: The expanding professional bureaucracy, the court of Versailles and extensive military reforms cost a lot of money. Taxes failed to produce enough revenue (Tax farmers, agents who purchased from the Crown the right to collect taxes in particular district, pocketed the difference between what they raked in and what they handed over to the state --> they profit while the gov. got less than what the people paid)(An old agreement between the nobility and te king agreed that the king could freely tax the common people provided he did not tax the nobles --> since nobles didn't not pay taxes they could not legitimately claim a say in how taxes were spent --> lose of control ==> Louis looses potential revenue)(Many middle-class become tax-exempt)(Tax burden falls on peasants, the least able to pay). Colbert: (1619-1683) Son of a wealthy merchant financier of Reims. Louis named him controller general of finances. Economic Policies: -Mercantilism: Insists the France sell abroad and buy nothing back, France should be self-sufficient --> outflow of gold halted, debtor states would pay in bullion, and with the wealth of the nation increased, its power and prestige would be enhanced. --> Supports new and old industries to accomplish this goal (ex: cloth, rug, tapestries, mirrors, lacemaking, steel and firearms, etc.) -Sets up system of state inspection and regulation to ensure production of high product goods. -Encouraged skilled foreign craftsmen and manufactures to immigrate to France and gave them special privileges. -Compelled all craftsmen to organize into guilds, and that within each guild he gave the masters absolute power over their workers, in order to better order each industry. -Built roads and canals (ex: Canal des Deuz Mers) to better communication. -Abolished many domestic tariffs and enacted high foreign tariffs to protect French goods. -Created a powerful merchant marine to transport French goods: gave bonuses to French shipower and shibuilders, established a method of maritime conscription, arsenals, and academics for the training of sailors. -Hoped to make Canada, a place rich in untapped minerals and agricultural land, part of the vast French empire. Gathered 4,000 peasants and shipped them off to Canada where they peopled the province of Quebec (Established in 1608 by Sully). Jesuit Jacques Marquette and the merchant Louis Joliet sailed down Mississippi river and claimed lands. 1648 French explorer Robert La Salles cont. down the Mississippi to its mouth and claimed vast territories and rich delta for Louis (Louisiana). Success?: -Great achievements in the development of manufacturing (esp. textile industry). -Commercial classes prospered. -However the national economy still rested on agriculture. -peasants mercilessly taxed (hardships afflicted them ex poor harvests, continuing deflation of the currency and fluctuation in the price of grain.) ==> many peasants immigrate causing a loss in revenue as the number of taxable people declined. ==> total inadequate tax base and heavy expenditure for war made Colbert's goals unattainable.

Siege of La Rochelle

Focus point of Louis XIII's decision to strip Huguenots of the military and political independence. La Rochelle: 4th largest of the French Atlantic ports and a major commercial center with strong ties to the Protestant states of Holland and England. Louis XIII cut off English aid to the city and personally supervised the siege. October 1628 the city falls and its municipal government is suppressed and its walls torn down. Protestants were allowed to retain the right of public worship, however the king reinstated the Catholic liturgy. ==> Military fall of La Rochelle weakened the influence of aristocratic Huguenots and took another step in the direction of a unified French state.

Parlement

French system of courts and judges that had the ancient right to approve laws.

Philip of Anjou

Grandson of Louis XIV who was named by Charles II as his successor which sparked the War of Spanish Succession.

Establishment of Absolutist Spain

In the 16th century Spain had developed the standard features of the absolute monarchy: a permanent bureaucracy staffed by professional employed in the various councils of states, a standing army, and national taxes that fell most heavily on the poor. Developed an international absolutism on the basis of the silver bullion from Peru.

James I

James Stuart, Elizabeth's Scottish cousin, inherited the throne after her death (r.1603-1625). Personal Character: Well educated, learned and had 35's years of experience as King of Scotland. However he lacked the common touch and failed to live up to the English people's expectation of what a King should be. He also was resented for his Scottish accent. Religion: Protestant but seemed sympathetic to the Catholics. Strong believer in the divine right to rule (Rebellion worst political crime). His view that the crown had total royal jurisdiction over the liberties, persona and properties of the English people ran directly counter to the long standing English idea that a person's property could not be taken away without due process of law. Economic: Elizabeth left the state with a sizable debt and James I continued to squander revenues. The extravagance displayed by James's court and his flaunting of his male lovers weakened the respect for the monarchy.

Levellers and DIggers

Levellers: 1.) No enclosure 2.) Religious toleration 3.) All male suffrage 4.) Constitutional amendments Diggers: 1.) Agrarian equality --> Communes 2.) No enclosure

Urban Protests in France

Louis XIII, Richelieu and Louis XIV all faced serious urban protests. Causes: real or feared unemployment, high food prices, grain shortages, new taxes, rumor/misinformation and what ordinary townspeople viewed as oppressive taxation. Major insurrections: Dijon (1630, 1668), Bordeaux (1635, 1675), Montpellier (1645), Lyons (1667-1668, 1692), Amiens (1685, 1695, 1704, 1711). All characterized by: deep violence and anger and punishment of royal officials who attempted to announce or collected taxes. Municipal and Royal response: lack means for strong action and fear that stern repressive measures would create martyrs and further aggravate the situation while forcible full-scale military intervention would be expensive. Thus they decided to let the crowds wear themselves out as long as they did not do too much damage --> royal edicts were suspended, prisoners were released and discussions were initiated. By the end of the century municipal governments were better integrated into the national structure and local authorities had prompt military support of the Paris government. Those who publicly opposed were swiftly dealt with.

The Palace of Versailles

Louis XIII: Used Versailles as a hunting lodge to retreat from a Queen he did not like. Was a dismal sight. Louis XIV: Louis XIV's architects Le Notre and Le Vau transformed the palace. The palace radiated a sense of grandeur, vastness and elegance. Louis XIV Installed his royal court at Versailles and required all the great nobility of France, at he peril of great social, economic and political disaster, to come live at Versailles for at least part of the year. ==> Become model of rational order, the center of France and the perfect symbol of the King's power.

Louis XIV (Wars)

Louis XIV kept France at war for 33 years of his 54 year reign in pursuit of the title "conqueror". Military Reform: -Phenomenal expansion of the army --> increase in costs to the state -Appoints Francois le Tellier as secretary of state for war: Under Louis's watchful eye he created a professional army that was employed by the French state rather than private nobles. (see card) -Personally appointed not only marshals of France but also all officers down to the rank of colonel. -Established a commissariat to feed the troops --> stop pillaging of country side for supplies/fun -Established ambulance corp -Uniforms and weapons standardized -A rational system of training and promotion was imposed ==> gave France potential to dominate foreign affairs Wars/invasion: Cont. Richelieu's expansionist policy. -1667 invaded Flanders, parts of the Spanish Netherlands, and Franche-Comte in the east --> acquires 12 towns (Lille and Tournai). -1672 leads army of over 100,000 into Holland and the Dutch ultimately save themselves by opening up the dikes and flooding the country side --> war lasts 6 years, eventually includes the HRE and Spain. Concluded in the Treaty of Nijmegan --> Louis gains additional Flemish towns and all of France-Comte. -1681 seized the city of Strabourg and three years later he sent his armies into the province of Lorraine. -Wars b/w 1680s-1690s bring him no additional territores. -France vs. League of Augsburg (see card) -War of Spanish Succession ==> Nearly bankrupts France with wars and oppresses people

William of Orange (William III)

Married to James II's Protestant daughter. Named King of England and was king of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. ==> fought frequently with France.

Irish Rebellion

Occurred during the Reign of Charles I. Instigated the civil war. History: Henry II conquered Ireland in 1171. English governors had mercilessly ruled the land and exploited the Irish people. In addition the Irish remained Catholic further aggravating the tensions between the two countries.

Ship Money

One of the methods used by Charles I to raise funds without calling Parliament. Considered illegal by most of the people. Based on a medieval law that required coastal districts to help pay the cost of ships for defense. Charles's I levied this tax on inland counties as well as cost-land counties. ==> Taxation without Representation

Test Act

Passed by parliament in 1673 during the reign of Charles II. Stated: Those who refused to receive the Eucharist of the Church of England could not vote, hold public office, preach, teach, attend the universities, or even assemble for meetings --> restrictions not well enforced

Magna Charta

Passed in 1215 --> one of the reasons England is unique in its development of constitutional monarchy. Was produced because the people and barons were resentful of King John's high taxes and his eagerness to throw people in jail. Entails: 1.) Can only tax with Parliaments consent. 2.) People have a right to trial. Habeau corpus: Witness be in court --> right to know evidence being held against you. + trial with peers. 3.) Implied limits to monarch power ==> King had to obey the lws

Triennial Act

Passed in 1641 during the Long Parliament. Stated: -King had to call Parliament every three years. -No taxes without Parliaments approval

Peace of Utrecht.

Peace treaty to War of Spanish Succession: -Philip was to remain the first Bourbon king of Spain however the French and Spanish Crowns would never be unified -Frances surrenders Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudon Bay territory to England. -Spain surrenders Gibraltar, Minorca, and control of the African slave trade to England. -Austria receives former Spanish Netherlands (Dutch nothing) -Balanced of power principle (Limits French expansion) Affects: --> End of French Expansionist Policy --> End of Spain as a great power --> Expanded British Empire --> Experience in international operation --> Beginning of Dutch decline b/c of economic expenditure

Kings of Spain

Philip III (r.1598-1622) --> left kingdom in the hands government over to Duke of Lerma who used it to advance his own political standing. Philip IV --> leaves Kingdom in hands of Olivares, leads nation into war which increases their debt, and in 1659 looses to France. Charles II --> mentally defective and sexually impotent. Named Philip of Anjou his heir in his second will when he died in 1700.

Commercial Prosperity of the Netherlands

Political success of the Netherlands rested on their economic prosperity: 1.) Moral and ethical bases of the commercial wealth were thrift, frugality, and religious toleration. 2.) Religious toleration: Jews enjoy a level of acceptance and absorption in Dutch business and general culture. (Gluckel of Hameln) --> Highly unusual ==> Attracts a great deal of foreign capital and investment. People of all races and creeds traded in Amsterdam. 3.) Deposits at the Bank of Amsterdam were guaranteed by the city council and in the middle years of the century. The bank became Europe's best source of cheap credit and commercial intelligence. 4.) Fishing industry the cornerstone of the Dutch economy (herring) --> Stimulated shipbuilding and by 1600 had lowest shipping rates in Europe and the Merchant marine was the largest in Europe. 5.) Pattern of buying supply: Dutch need to import wood so the buy whole forests from norway. Buy vineyards from France. Controlled the Baltic grain trade by buying up entire wheat and rye crops. --> dealt in bulk so nobody could undersell them. 6.) Wide range of products in the city. 7.) Dutch East Indian Company and Dutch West India Company (see card) ==> wealth ==> highest standard of living. Because of massive granaries food supply and prices fluctuated little and low prices of bread meant that people could spend money on other foods. Income of all people generally increased.

Louis XIV (Policies)

Political: -Achieved a cooperation of the nobility, the powerful social class that historically had opposed the centralizing goals of France --> throughout France nobility agreed to participate in activities that both exalted the monarchy and reinforced the aristocrat's ancient prestige. Ex: In the province of Languedoc Louis and his agents persaed the notables to support the construction of the Canal des Deuz mers, a water way that linked the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. Royal encouragement of the manufacture of luxury draperies in the Languedocian towns tied provincial business people to national goals (not able to compete with dutch however). The two class strongest common goal was their desire to repress the Huguenots. --> Louis wins increased military taxation from the Estaes of Languedoc --> Nobility is granted privileged social status and increase access to the enormous patronage the king had to dispense. -Although he achieved cooperation from the nobles he also systematically excluded them and used court ceremonials to undermine the power of the nobility: excluded the highest nobles from his councils, he weakened their ancient right to advise the king and to participate in government. Used operas, fetes, balls, gossip, and trivia occupied the noble's time and attention. ==> reduced the major threat to his power. He separated power from status and grandeur. -Dominated the court -In the government Louis utilized several councils of state, which he personally attended -Used Intendants ==> questions flow between provinces and versailles ==> uniform and centralized administration imposed on the country. -Appointed councilors from the recently ennobled or the upper middle class. Royal services a means of social mobility. --> Choose middle class to give impression that he did not share the power with his advisers. -Had no first minister -Spied, used terror (secret police, system of informers) and opened private letters. Economic: (See Colbert) -Despite increasing financial difficulties he never called a meeting to the Estates General and therefore the nobility had no means of united expression or action. Centralizing and Propaganda: (See French Classicism for more on art) -Palace of Versailles: Installed his royal court at Versailles and required all the great nobility of France to come live at Versailles for at least part of the year. ==> Become model of rational order, the center of France and the perfect symbol of the King's power (see card for more) -Used architecture and art to overawe his subjects and foreign visitors. -French language replaces Latin as the language of international scholarship and learning. France inspired a cosmopolitan European culture in the late 17th century and that culture was inspired by he king. Religious: -Revocation of Edict of Nantes (see card)

Edict of Nantes (Law of Concord)

Published in 1598 by Henry IV. Created a temporary and provisional situation of religious toleration in order to secure not the permanent coexistence of two religions but the confessional reunification of all French people under the king's religion, Roman Catholicism. The Edict of Nantes named 150 towns throughout France in which the Protestants were granted the right to freely worship.

Louis XIV (personal)

Reigned from 1643-1715. Nicknamed "The Sun King" Education: Knew little arithmetic and Latin (Renaissance standards not well educated) however was fluent in Italian and Spanish, wrote and spoke elegant French and knew more French history and European geography then many of the ambassadors accredited to his court. Studied state papers and attended councils meetings and sessions. --> learned by direct experienced and gained professional training in the work of government. Religion: a devout Catholic, and religion, his mother and Mazarin all taught Louis that God had established kinds as his rulers on earth. Believed Kings still had to obey God's laws and rule for the good of the people. Wife: Queen Maria Theresa. Married as a result of a diplomatic agreement with Spain. The fronde: made him extremely suspicious of nobles.

Cardinal Richelieu's administrative system

Richelieu extended use of royal commissioners (nobles of the robe) called intendents. France was divided into 32 generalites in each of which after 1634 presided a royal intendant who held a commission to perform specific tasks (financial, judicial, and policing ex: supervised the collection of taxes, recruited for the army, presided over the administration of local law, checked up on the local nobility, and regulated the economic activities in each district). Intendants transfered information form local communities to Paris and delivered royal orders from the capital. Intendants were appointed directly by the monarch and were loyal only to the monarch. Intendants could not be natives of the local district --> ensuring no personal vested interest in their localities. Were to use their power in 2 related purposes: 1.) enforce royal orders in the generalites of their jurisdiction 2.) Weaken the power and influence of the regional nobility ==> As the intendant's power increased so did the power of the centralized France.

Louis XIII

Son of Henry IV.Reigned from 1610-1643. Essentially Cardinal Richelieu ruled through him. Major issues of the Time and Louis XIII's responses; Religion: 1627 Louis XIII decided, with the unanimous consent of the royal council, to end Protestant military and political independence as they posed a threat to the unity of the state. Louis believed that the Huguenots' refusal to allow Catholic worship in their cities equivocated to political disobedience. \ Urban revolts: little to no action (see card) Wife: Queen Anne of Austria Son and Heir: Louis XIV

War of Spanish Succession

Source of Conflict: Territorial disputes of the previous century, also involved the dynastic question of the succession to the Spanish throne (Charles II named Philip of Anjou his successor in direct violation of the treaty made by European powers (including France) in 1689 to divide the vast Spanish Possessions between France and the HR emperor who were Charles II's brothers-in-law. Louis accepts this will instead of the treaty). 1701 France vs. The Grand Alliance (English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians.) See card. Frances: Fighting for both Spanish national interests and French dynastic and national interests Grand Alliance: Fighting to prevent France from becoming to strong, overseas maritime rivalry, check France's expanding commercial power in North America, Asia and Africa. 1704-severe defeat of French by Eugene and John Churchill at Blenheim in Bavaria. Followed by victories at Ramillies near Namur in Brabant. 1713 War concludes at Utrecht. (See peace of Utrecht)

Decline of Absolutist Spain

Spain was reduced by 1715 to the a second-rate power. Kings of Spain offer no solutions (See Kings of Spain card) Reasons for Decline: 1.) Lack of a strong middle class which resulted largely from: the expulsion of the Jews and moors, the cultural disdain for money and money making that caused those with influence and connection to seek titles of nobility and social prestige, and thousands entered economically unproductive jobs such as priests, monks and nun. 2.) the agricultural crisis and population decline: 3.) The failure to invest in productive enterprises 4.) The intellectual isolation: 5.) Psychological malise 6.) Decline in Revenue: The flow of silver from Mexico and Peru + the trade with the colonies had greatly enriched Spain. However in the 17th century Dutch and English began to trade with Spanish colonies, cutting into their revenues. The people in Mexico and Peru also began to develop their own local industries which further cut into Spanish revenue. The Indians and Africans who labored under terrible conditions also suffered epidemics of disease. The Lodes also began to run dry. 7.) Huge expenditure and increased debt: as revenues declined debt increased. The solutions applied were devaluation of the coinage and declaration of bankruptcy (1596,1607,1627,1647 and 1680). --> public confidence deteriorates. 8.) Inflation: Severe inflation caused by the flood of gold and silver increased production costs and Spanish products could no longer compete in colonial and international markets. 9.) French aristocrats tried to hold on to their extravagant life style by increasing rents on their estates. --> High rents and heavy taxes caused many peasants to leave the land --> Agricultural production suffered and unemployed peasants swarmed the cities.

French Classicism

Style: deliberately imitated the subject matter and style of classical antiquity (Renaissance, and the French art possessed the classical qualities of discipline, balance and restraint. -Style of Louis's court. Peak 1661. After Louis ascended to power individualism was not allowed and the principles of absolutism molded the ideals of French classicism --> glorification of the state. Examples: Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665): Masterpiece: The Rape of the Sabine Women (Subject ancient rome, fgures ideal, and emotions are studied) Finest example of French classicist painting. Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687): Orchestral works, ballets, operas Francois Couperin (1668-1733): harpsichord and organ works. Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704): Solemn religious Jean Baptiste Popquelin (1622-1673): "Moliere". Playwright, stage manager, director, and actors. Comedies that exposed the hypocrisies and follies of society through brilliant caricature. ex:The Bourgeois Gentlemen. Jean Racine: Powers of love. Tragic dramas based on Greek and Roman legends.

Jules Mazarin

Successor and protege of Richelieu, appointed by Louis XIII. 1602-1661. Background: An Italian diplomat with great charm. Served on the council of state under Richelieu and in doing so acquired considerable political experience. -1641 became a cardinal -1643 became a French citizen. When Louis XIII died in 1643 and Queen Anne of Austria became the queen regent Mazarin became to dominant power in the government. He continued Richelieu's centralizing policies but he wasn't as effective and his attempts to increase royal revenues led to the civil wars known as "the Fronde" (see card)

Constitutional state

The limitation of the government by law. Implies a balance between the authority and power of the government and the rights and liberties of the subjects. -Binding force comes from the government's acknowledgement that it must respect that constitution. -People look on the laws and the constitution as the protectors of their rights, liberties and property. Constitutional monarchy: A king or queen serves as the head of state but ultimately sovereign power rests in the electorate. --> NOT THE SAME AS A DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT: right for all to participate not necessarily true

Reformation of the House of Commons

Under Elizabeth the I the House of Commons had come to appreciate its own financial strength and intended to use the strength, under James I, to acquire a greater say in the government of the state. Composed of the Gentry (The New Monarchy) Reasons for this change: 1.) Profound social changes: The dissolution of the monasteries and the sale of monastic land had enriched man people. Agricultural techniques (ex: draining of waste land and application of fertilizer) had improved the land and its yield. 2.) Many people invested in commercial ventures at home ad through partnerships and joint stock companies engaged in foreign enterprises. 3.) Prudent marriages 4.) Capitalism 5.) Commercial and agricultural income increased fast enough to compete with inflation. ==> Greater social mobility Typical pattern of gentry: the commercially successful would set themselves up as country gentry creating an elite group that possessed a great portion of the nation's land and wealth. ==> Increased wealth also produced better-educated and more articulate House of Commons members. ==> No social stigma attached to paying taxes, unlike in France, and members of the House of Commons were willing to tax themselves as long as they had a say in the use of those taxes.

France vs. League of Augsburg

Wars b/w 1680s-1690s 1689 William of Orange became king of England and joins the League of Augsburg (Hapsburg emperor, the kings of Spain and Sweden, and the electors of Bavaria, Saxony and the Palatinate.) William is the leaders and he throws the power of England and the Netherlands into the struggle. Neither the French nor the league when any decisive victories. French difficulties: had to opposed the great nations of Europe, the powerful Bank of Amsterdam and the Bank of England. -Inequitable system of taxation --> army requires funds the state could not meet. -Le Peletier resorted to the devaluation of currency and the old device of selling offices, tax exemptions and titles of nobility. -1689 Louis published a declaration ordering that all that nation's silverware be handed over to mint --> did so for the palace of Versailles. ==> all measure did little good and burden of taxation fell on peasants which led to further urban revolts. -Bad harvests (cold, wet summers) between 1688-1694 brought catastrophe --> prices sky rocket --> Starvation ==> Rising grain prices, new taxes for war on top of the old ones, a slump in manufacturing and thus in exports, and the constant nuisance of the pillaging troops all these meant great suffering for the French people. ==> Louis grants respite for five years which leads up to War of Spanish Succession

Protectorate, Interregnum

When Charles I was beheaded in 1649 a commonwealth was proclaimed that was controlled by the army that had defeated the royal forces. Oliver Cromwell controlled this army (See Oliver Cromwell). This period of time from 1649-1660 is referred to as the Interregnum. Protectorate is what his rule was called, although in reality it was a military dictatorship.

Marie de' Medici

Wife of Henry IV and headed the government when her son Louis XIII, who was still a child at the time, inherited the throne because of his father's murder. In reality however the feudal nobles and princes of the blood dominated the political scene. -Appointed Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, to the council of ministers.

Government of United Provinces of the Netherlands

Within each province an oligarchy of wealthy merchants, called "regents" handled domestic affairs in the local estates. The provincial Estates hold all real power. A federal assembly, or States General, handled matters of foreign affairs, such as war. However the States General did not possess sovereign authority since all issues had to be referred back to the local estates for approval. Stadholders: Representatives of the states general in each province. Carried out ceremonial functions and was responsible for defense and good order. Sons of William the Silent, Maurice and William Lous, held the office of stadholder in all 7 provinces. As members of the House of Orange they were closely identified with Dutch Patriotism. --> Each province jealously guarded its own independence and resisted centralization. However Holland, which had the largest Navy and most wealth, dominated the republic and the states General. Estates assembled at Holland's capital, The Hague. --> confederation; a weak union of strong provinces. --> emphasized strongly middle-class values. --> resist conquest

Don Quixote

Written by Miguel de Cervantes (154-1616) Plot: Main Character, Don Quixote, lives in world of dreams. Quixotic "Idealistic but impratical) --> Characterizes 17th century France: stuck in past and unwilling to adapt to reality around them.

Absolutist state

power is embodied in the person of the ruler. Claimed to rule by divine right, however they did have to respect the fundamental laws of the land. Absolute rulers tried to control competing jurisdictions, institutions, or interest groups in their territories.

James II

reigned 1685-1688. Brother of Charles II and Duke of York. A catholic. Huge anti-Catholic sentiment. James II appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the army, the universities, and local government in direct violation of the test act. Suspended laws at will, bought the judges, seemed to be reviving absolutism. Issued a declaration of indulgence granting religious freedom to all in attempt to appeal the Protestant dissenters and nonconformist. --> Over thrown and his crown offered to William of Orange. 1688 Flees to France with family.