Adolescent Psych Quiz #3 Review (Chapter 7,8,9)

Chapter Overview of Chapter 7

- Family systems and subsystems​ ​ - Parents' development at midlife​ ​ - Relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family members​ ​ - Parenting styles​ ​ - Historical contexts of adolescents' family lives​ ​ - Family problems​

Chapter Overview​ (Chapter 8)

Contrast between friendships and family relationships​ Friends as a source of emotional highs and lows​ Developmental changes in friendship and peer groups in adolescence and emerging adulthood​ ​ Family contexts in relation to friendship and peer groups​ ​ Friends' influence, popularity, and unpopularity​ ​ Youth culture​ ​ Friends and leisure activities in emerging adulthood​ ​

Family Systems Approach​ (Key Ideas)

Two key ideas:​ ​ 1. Each subsystem influences every other subsystem in the family​ ​ 2. A change in any family member or family subsystem results in a period of disequilibrium (e.g., imbalance) until the family system adjusts to the change​

Interventions for Unpopularity​

Adolescent​: Neglected ​ Intervention Focus​: learning the social skills needed for making friends​ Adolescent​: Rejected ​ Intervention Focus: ​learning how to control and manage anger and aggressiveness​

Changes in Divorce Rate

Americans have the highest divorce rate of any country in the world​

Sexual Scripts​

Different cognitive frameworks for understanding how a sexual experience is supposed to proceed and how sexual experiences are to be interpreted​ ​ Examples:​ - Boys are expected to "make the moves" ​ - Girls set the limits on how far the sexual episode is allowed to progress​

American Parenting Styles​

What beliefs are reflected in the parenting styles?​ ​ - Research on child rearing goals shows that American parents tend to value independence highly as a quality they wish to promote in their children​ ​ - Authoritarian parenting clearly discourages independence but the other three parenting styles reflect parents' beliefs that it is good for adolescents to learn autonomy ​

Traditional Parenting Style

- A term proposed to describe the kind of parenting typical in traditional cultures - High in responsiveness and high in a kind of demandingness that does not encourage discussion and debate - Expects compliance by virtue of cultural beliefs supporting the inherent authority of the parental role

Running Away from Home​ (Adolescents)

- About 1 million adolescents run away from home each year in the U.S. (Whitbeck, 2009)​ - About ¼ of these are "throwaways" - their parents forced them to leave​ - Adolescents who run away have often experienced high conflict with their parents​ - Many have experienced physical or sexual abuse​ - Adolescents who run away tend to be highly vulnerable to exploitation​ Characteristics of adolescents ​ who run away​​ Involved in criminal activity​: - Use illicit drugs​ - Had problems at school​ - Had psychological difficulties​ - More likely to be gay or lesbian​ ​

Facts about the "Facts of Life"​

- About 30% of pregnancies of American adolescents end in abortion​ - 14% of adolescents miscarry​ - Of the children who are born, only about 5% are put up for adoption​ ​ ...That means​... about 50% of adolescents raise their own children (sometimes with the help of the father but most often with the help of the adolescent mother's own mother)​

Extended Family Relationships​ (American Majority Culture)

- Adolescents' contact with extended family members is relatively infrequent​ - Extended family members often live many miles away ​ American adolescents have significantly less contact with extended family than those in European countries​ - An exception to this occurs among adolescents in divorced families who tend to have increased contact with grandparents​

Constructing Ideas:​ Romantic Relationships in Emerging Adulthood​

- Romantic relationships tend to change as adolescents enter emerging adulthood​ ​ - What quality do emerging adults look for? (remember to differentiate between males and females)​ ​

Arranged Marriages​

- Although romantic love is found in all cultures, it is not considered the proper basis of marriage in all cultures​ ​ - Marriage has more often been seen as an alliance between two families rather than as the uniting of two individuals (Buunk, Park, & Dubbs, 2008)​ ​ - The most important considerations in an arranged marriage is the other family's status, religion, and wealth​ *Globalization is having an effect on how young people are beginning to value individual choice and the pursuit of happiness​ Today in most Eastern cultures the "semi arranged marriage" is the most common practice (Lessinger, 2002).*

Sex Education​

- Americans agree that rates of premarital pregnancy and STDs in adolescence are serious problems that must be reduced​ ​ However, there is vehement disagreement about what is the best solution​: - One side: comprehensive sexuality education​ - Other side: abstinence promotion​ 10 characteristics of effective programs​: 1. Focus narrowly on reducing one or more sexual behaviors​ 2. Base the program on theoretical approaches for other risky behaviors​ 3. Give a clear message about sexual activity and contraceptive use​ 4. Provide basic, accurate information about risks and methods​ 5. Include activities that teach how to deal with social pressures​ 6. Model and provide practice in negotiation and refusal skills​ 7. Use a variety of teaching methods​ 8. Incorporate behavioral goals specific to age, culture, and sexual experience​ 9. Run the program over a sufficient period of time​ 10. Train teachers, youth workers, and peer leaders who believe in the program​

Street Children around the World​

- As many as 100 million street children worldwide​​ Why children are on the streets:​ - Family dysfunction ​ - Poverty ​ - War ​ - Family breakdown due to AIDS​ - Parental substance abuse​ - Physical and/or sexual abuse​ - In India, it is estimated there are over 10 million street children​​ - In Brazil estimates of the number of street children range from 7 to 30 million. Some return home in the evening bringing what they've collected. Others return home rarely.​

What about the baby of a teen parent?​

- Children born to adolescent mothers face a higher likelihood of a variety of difficulties in life​: ​ - Babies are more likely to be born premature​ - Lower birth rate​ - Premature and low birth rate are related to a variety of physical and intellectual problems​ - Greater likelihood of behavioral problems​ - School misbehavior, delinquency, and early sexual activity​ ...It is important to note..:​ These problems are not just due to having an adolescent mother but also due to the fact that most adolescent mothers are not only young and unmarried but poor as well​

Culture and Conflict with Parents

- Conflict is not universal or 'natural' - Biological and cognitive changes take place among adolescents in all cultures - Parent-adolescent conflict is not typical in all cultures - Culture can take the raw materials of nature and shape them in highly diverse ways

Conflict...Did you know?

- Conflict with parents increases sharply in early adolescence and remains high for several years​ ​ - Conflict in adolescence is especially frequent and intense between mothers and daughters​ ​ - It is only in late adolescence and emerging adulthood that conflict with parents diminishes substantially​

Falling in Love​

- Consensual validation​: People like to find in others an agreement, or consensus, with their own characteristics​ Finding this consensus supports, or validates, their own way of looking at the world​ ​ People of all ages tend to have romantic relationships with people who are similar to them in characteristics such as:​ - Intelligence​ - Social class​ - Ethnic background​ - Religious beliefs​ - Physical attractiveness​

Emerging Adults Living at Home​ (Europe)

- Emerging adults tend to live with their parents longer than in the U.S. (Douglas, 2005, 2007)​ ​ - European university students are more likely than American students to live at home​ ​ - Emerging adults who don't attend university may have difficulty finding or affording an apartment ​ ​ - European cultural values emphasize support within the family while allowing young people substantial autonomy​

Bullying​

- Extreme form of peer rejection​ 1. Aggression (e.g., physical or verbal)​ 2. Repetition (e.g., patterns over time)​ 3. Power imbalance (e.g., the bully has higher peer status than the victim)​ ​​ - Discuss the negative impact of bullying on the bullies and the bullied​ - A new variation of bullying is cyberbullying​

Parents' Development ​During Midlife​

- For most parents, their children's development during adolescence and emerging adulthood overlaps with their own development during midlife​ Why is this the case? - Median age of marriage and first childbirth in industrialized societies is quite high (e.g., late 20s or early 30s)​ ​ - If adolescence begins about age 10, this means that most parents are nearly age 40 when their first child enters adolescence​

Parent-Adolescent Conflict​

- G. Stanley Hall (1904)​ - Anna Freud (1946)​ ​ - Both researchers made it sound as though it was universal and inevitable that ALL adolescents rebel against their parents and that ALL parents and adolescents experience intense conflict for many years ...Keep in Mind... Few scholars agree with Freud and Hall with regard to this anymore! ​ Rather..... 1. Studies in the 1960s (dispelling the stereotype of 'storm and stress') found that ​ - most adolescents like, trust, and admire their parents​ - disagreements are usually about minor issues (e.g. hairstyle, curfew)​ 2. Adolescents and their parents agree on many of the most important aspects of their views of life​ ​

Applying Sternberg to Adolescence

- In most adolescent love relationships, commitment is either missing or highly tentative (Feldman & Cauffman, 1999)​ ​ - The absence of long-term commitment in adolescence means that there are two principal types of adolescent love: infatuation and romantic love​ ...Keep in Mind .....​ - In industrialized countries, people are not likely to get married until they are in at least their mid-to-late twenties​ - Under these circumstances, it is understandable that adolescents' love relationships would not involve commitment as much as passion or intimacy​

Parents and Emerging Adults​

- Relationships between parents and emerging adults improve once the young person leaves home ages 18 to 19​​ - Emerging adults report greater closeness and fewer negative feelings toward their parents after moving - Those who remained home reported​ poorest relations with their parents in these respects​ ​

Cohabitation​

- In the U.S. as well as Northern Europe, cohabitation before marriage is now experienced by at least two-thirds of emerging adults​ - The percentage is highest in Sweden where nearly all young people cohabitate before marriage (Syltevik, 2010)​ - In the U.S., cohabitation tends to be brief and unstable​ - In contrast, cohabitating couples in European countries tend to stay together as long as married couples (Hacker, 2000)​ *Emerging adults from divorced families are especially likely to cohabit because they are especially determined to avoid their parents' fate (Arnett, 2004; Cunningham & Thornton, 2007).*

Sexual Harassment​

- Includes a wide range of behaviors from mild harassment, such as name-calling, jokes, and leering looks, to severe harassment involving unwanted touching or sexual contact​ ​ - It is estimated that over half of American women will experience sexual harassment at some time during their professional life​ ​ - Date Rape is one form of sexual harassment that takes place when a person, usually a woman, is forced by a romantic partner, date, or acquaintance to have sexual relations against her will​ - 15% of adolescent girls and 25% of emerging adult women (18 to 24) have experienced date rape​ - Alcohol plays a big part in date rape on college campuses​

Conflict in Traditional Cultures​

- It is rare for parents and adolescents to engage in the kind of frequent, petty conflicts typical of parent-adolescent relationship in the American majority culture​ ​ Reasons:​ 1. Economic: In non-industrialized traditional cultures, family members tend to rely a great deal on each other economically​​ 2. Culture: Cultural beliefs about parental authority and the appropriate degree of adolescent independence

The Developmental Course of Adolescent Love​

- Love relationships among American adolescents tend to follow a developmental sequence of four steps:​ 1. Adolescents in same-gender groups go to places where they hope to find other-gender groups​ 2. Adolescents take part in social gatherings arranged by adults, such as parties​ 3. Mixed-gender groups arrange to go to some particular event together, such as a movie​ 4. Adolescent couples begin to date as pairs in activities such as movies, dinners, concerts, and so on​

Emerging Adults Living at Home​ (U.S)

- Most emerging adults move out of their parents' home in their late teens​ ​ - About one-fourth stay home through their early twenties​ ​ - Staying at home is more common among Latinos, African and Asian Americans than among White Americans​ ​ - About 40% of American emerging adults "return to the nest" at least once​

Adolescent Passion in ​Non-Western Culture​

- Of 186 traditional cultures representing 6 distinct geographical regions around the world, it was found that there was evidence that young people fell passionately in love in all but one of the cultures​ ​ - However... this does not mean that young people in all cultures are allowed to act on their feelings of love​ ​ - On the contrary... romantic love as a basis for marriage is a fairly new cultural idea (Hatfield & Rapson, 2005)​

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

- One-half of STIs in the U.S. occur in people 15 to 24​ ​ - Rates of STIs are the highest in emerging adulthood​ ​ - Two important characteristics of STDs​: 1. Asymptomatic​ - People show no symptoms of the disease​ - They are especially likely to infect others because neither they nor others realize that they are infected​ 2. Latency Period​ - There may be years between the time people are infected and the time they begin to show symptoms​ - During this time, they may be infecting others without either themselves or their partners being aware of it​ - HIV/AIDS​ - Strips the body of its ability to fend off infections​ The body is highly vulnerable to a wide variety of diseases​ - 90% of cases of HIV in the U.S. result from intercourse between homosexual or bisexual partners​ - Outside the U.S. HIV/AIDS is spread mainly between heterosexual partners​ - Has a long latency period (tend to be asymptomatic up to 5 years)​ - AIDS is the leading cause of death worldwide among persons 25 to 44 years old​ - 10 of every 11 new HIV infections worldwide come from Africa​ - The mortality rate for people who have AIDS remains extremely high​

Family & Friends in Traditional Cultures​

- Pattern of increasing time spent with peers, decreasing time spent with parents ​ ​ - More likely to have substantial gender differences in terms of family relationships​ ​ - Even in cultures where most adolescents attend school, the social and emotional balance tilts toward family

Pornography​

- Pornography has been appealing to especially male adolescents and emerging adults​ - Depict women in sexual poses and various sexual acts​ - Due to the advent of the Internet pornographic material is easier to obtain​ - 8% of 13-year-olds and 20% of 14 to 17-year-olds have viewed pornography (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005)​ - In the U.S. Internet pornography use is higher in emerging adults 87% of men and 31% of young women (Carroll et al., 2008)​

Dating & Relating​

- Prior to the 1970s adolescent love in Western culture was structured by dating which usually followed more or less formal rules (Furman & Hand, 2006). -Teens now are more likely to go out in mixed-gender groups without any specific pairing up. ​ Boys and girls may go out simply as friends.​

Using Sarcasm & Ridicule in ​ Crowds & Cliques​

- Promotes dominance hierarchy​ ​ - Reduces non-conformity and increases group cohesion​ ​ - Directed at outsiders, clarifies group boundaries​ ​ - Eases anxiety by directing attention to others​ ​ - In other cultures, directed at adults, reinforces community standards

A More Complex Picture ​of Parenting Effects​

- Reciprocal or Bidirectional Effects:​ Adolescents not only are affected by their parents but also affect their parents in return​ ​ - Complexity of Siblings:​ Most research on the effects of parenting styles involves only one adolescent per family​ ...Based on Research...​ The few studies that have included more than one adolescent per family have shown that adolescent siblings within the same family often give very different accounts of what their parents are like toward them​ - Differential Parenting​: Parents' behavior often differs toward siblings within the same family (East, 2009)​ ​ - Non-shared Environmental Influences​: Differential parenting can result in non-shared environmental influences, meaning that the adolescents experience quite different family environments, and the consequences of these differences are evident in adolescents' behavior and psychological functioning​

Popularity in Adolescence: Sociometry​

- Sociometry: a research method in which students rate the social status of other students​ ​ - Social Skills: qualities most often associated with popularity and unpopularity​ ​ Unpopularity: Two Types​​: 1. Rejected ​ 2. Neglected​ - Being unpopular reduces their chances ​ of inclusion in the kinds of social interaction that would help them develop social skills​​ ​ *Aggression is NOT always associated with unpopularity* - Controversial students, high in aggressiveness, may be strongly liked AND strongly disliked by different people​

Lesbian, Gay, & Bisexual Adolescents​

- The degree of confusion and anxiety is often multiplied​ - They are exposed almost entirely to heterosexual models of dating, love, and sex​ - The "presumption of heterosexuality" is part of their socialization from parents, friends, school, and media *It is important to note:​ - Distinguishing between having homosexual experiences and having a sexual orientation is important​ - A high percentage of adolescents and emerging adults (predominantly males) report some kind of sex play but only about 2% of adolescents become adults with a primarily homosexual orientation​​ - It is during adolescence that most gay, lesbian, and bisexual (LGB) people become fully aware of their sexual orientation​ - Coming out: In most Western cultures, LGB adolescents commonly engage in the process of coming out​ Involves a person's recognizing his or her own sexual identity and then disclosing the truth to friends, family, and others​ ​ - Homophobia​: Fear and hatred of homosexuals​ Because of this phenomenon, coming to the realization of an LGB identity can be traumatic for many adolescents​

Effects of Dual-Earner Families​

- The effects of dual-earner families depend on the gender of the adolescent​ Effects on Girls​ - Often quite positive​ - Tend to become more confident​ - Have higher career aspirations​ Effects on Boys​ - More negative than for girls​ - More arguments with mothers and siblings​ - Poorer school performance for boys in middle- and upper-middle-class families​​

Parenting In Other Cultures

- The most striking difference in parenting styles is how rare the authoritative parenting style is in non-Western cultures - Parents expect that their authority will be obeyed, without question and without requiring an explanation - The role of the parent carries greater inherent authority than it does in the West - Parents are not supposed to provide reasons why they should be respected and obeyed

Ethnic Differences​

- The proportion of high school students in grades 9-12 who had intercourse is:​ ​ - Lowest for White adolescents (44%)​ - Somewhat higher for Latino adolescents (52%)​ - Highest for African American adolescents (67%)​ ​ - Research has indicated that Asian Americans are considerably less likely to engage in sexual activity in adolescence compared with any other major American ethnic group​

Family & Friends in Adolescence​

- Time spent with family​ (decreases​ 28 minutes per ​ day with parents) - Time spent with friends increases​ (103 minutes per ​ day with friends​)

Family Systems Approach

- To understand family functioning one must understand how each relationship within the family influences the family as a whole - The family system is composed of a variety of subsystems​ Keep in mind ...​ EXAMPLE: The subsystems in a family consisting of ​ two parents and an adolescent would be:​ Mother and adolescent​ Father and adolescent​ Mother and father​

What about (teen) Mom?​

- Twice as likely to drop out of school​ - Less likely to go to college or become employed​ - Less likely to get married​ - More likely to get divorced if they get married​ ​ Do they catch up? (a sample of 300 mothers)​ ​ - Five years after given birth, teenage mothers still lagged behind their peers in educational, occupational, and economic progress​ ​ - After 18 years​: 25% were still on welfare​ 25% had succeeded in making it into the middle class​ A majority had eventually completed high school​ 33% had completed at least some college education​

Extended Family Relationships​ (Traditional Cultures)

- Young men generally remain in their family home after marriage; young women move into their husband's home​ - Children typically grow up in a house that includes parents, siblings, grandparents, and often uncles, aunts, and cousins​ - Similar patterns of closeness to grandparents have been found among adolescents in American minority cultures​

Effects of Single Parenthood​

-As with divorce, adolescents in never-married, single-parent households are at greater risk for: -Low school achievement -Depression -Anxiety -Substance use -Early initiation of sexual activity Interesting Footnote: African American families have a long tradition of extended ​family households, and an extended family structure has been​ found to provide important assistance to single-parent families​

Effects of Remarriage​

1. Adolescents typically take a turn for the worse when their mothers remarry​ ​ 2. Adolescents in stepfamilies have a greater likelihood of:​ - Depression​ - Anxiety​ - Conduct disorders​ - Lower academic achievement​ - Engaging in delinquent activities​ Girls tend to have an especially negative reaction to their mothers' remarriage​

Reasons for Conflict in Early Adolescence​

1. Biological Changes​ - Adolescents become bigger and stronger physically, making it more difficult for parents to impose their authority by virtue of their greater physical presence​ ​ 2. Cognitive Changes​: - Increased abilities for thinking abstractly and with more complexity make adolescents better arguers and it becomes more difficult for parents to prevail quickly in arguments with their children​

Historical Change: The Last 50 Years​

1. Divorce Rate​ - Nearly half of the current generation of young people are projected to experience their parents' divorce by the time they reach their late teens​ ​ 2. Single-Parent Households​ - Mothers represent 90% of custodial parents​ There has also been a rise in the proportion of children born outside of marriage​ ​ 3. Dual-Earner Families​ - Employment among women with school-aged children has increased from about 10% to 70% ​

Key Chapter Ideas​ (Chapter 8)

1. Friends become increasingly important during adolescence, as confidants and sources of personal advice and social support. ​ ​ 2. The amount of time spent with friends increases and time spent with family decreases.​ ​ 3. From preadolescence to adolescence friendships exhibit the increased importance of intimacy and a focus on qualities like trust and loyalty.​ ​ 4. The most important basis for friendships in adolescence is similarity, particularly in ethnicity, educational orientation, media/leisure preferences, and participation in risk behavior.​ ​ 5. The extent of the negative influence of peer pressure may be exaggerated. ​ 6. Friends may influence each other against and toward risk behavior and have a variety of positive influences on one another.​ ​ 7. Participation in leisure activities with friends declines during emerging adulthood.​ ​ 8. Cliques are small groups of close friends. Sarcasm and ridicule are used to establish a dominance hierarchy and to enforce conformity.​ ​ 9. The age-graded Western school lends itself to reputation-based crowds to define and organize a social structure. ​ ​ 10. Traditional cultures sometimes have a version of a peer crowd, with a separate dormitory where adolescents hang out, relax, and engage in sexual play.​ 11. Relational aggression includes sarcasm and ridicule as well as gossip and exclusion. It is especially common among adolescent girls.​ ​ 12. The most important determinant of popularity and unpopularity in adolescence is social skills.​ ​ 13. Bullying is a particular trend that has been shown in adolescence that impacts development, particularly cyberbullying.​ ​ 14. A distinctive youth culture first appeared in the West during the 1920s. ​ ​ 15. Late adolescents and emerging adults are the main participants in youth culture.​

Youth Culture: Three Components​

1. Image -dress, hairstyle, tattoos, other aspects of appearance​ ​ 2. Demeanor - distinctive forms of gesture, gait, posture​ ​ 3. Argot - certain vocabulary and way of speaking​ ​ - Generate examples of the three components from your days as an adolescent, from the media, from past generations, etc...​

Key Chapter Ideas (Chapter 7)

1. In the family systems approach each subsystem influences the others, and change creates disequilibrium requiring adjustments. ​ 2. Adolescents in industrialized countries generally have higher conflict with siblings than in other relationships.​ 3. In traditional cultures, a caregiver relationship between siblings is most common. ​ 4. The two key dimensions of parenting styles focused on by scholars are demandingness and responsiveness. ​ 5. Authoritative parenting is generally related to positive outcomes for adolescents in the American majority culture. ​ 6. A "traditional" parenting style that combines responsiveness with a stricter form of demandingness is most common in non-Western cultures.​ 7. Attachments to parents are related to young people's functioning in numerous ways.​ 8. Autonomy and relatedness in relationships with parents are compatible rather than competing qualities. ​ 9. Conflict between parents and children tends to be highest during early adolescence.​ 10. Parent-adolescent conflict tends to be lower in traditional cultures as the parent role holds greater authority and there is greater economic interdependence.​ 11. Profound social changes in the past two centuries have influenced the nature of adolescents' family lives.​ 12. Parents' divorce tends to be related to negative outcomes for adolescents. ​ 13. Adolescents tend to respond negatively to their parents' remarriage​ 14. Having two parents who work tends to be unrelated to most aspects of adolescents' functioning. ​ 15. Physically abused adolescents tend to be more aggressive and more likely to do poorly in school or engage in criminal behavior.​ 16. Sexual abuse is most common between daughters and their fathers/stepfathers who are often incompetent in relationships with other adults. ​ 17. Sexual abuse has a variety of negative consequences, especially in girls' abilities to form intimate relationships. ​ 18. Running away is most common among adolescents who have experienced family abuse, high conflict, or parents' alcoholism. ​ 19. Adolescents who stay away from home over a week are at high risk for assault, substance use, and suicide attempts. ​ 20. Street children around the world exhibit high rates of problems, but many of them are strikingly resilient. ​ ​

Model of Adolescent Love

1. Initiation Phase​ - First tentative explorations of love; usually superficial, brief, and often fraught with anxiety, fear, and excitement​ 2. Status Phase​ - Begin to gain confidence in their interaction skills with potential romantic partners​ Remain acutely aware of the evaluations of their friends and peers​ 3. Affection Phase​ - Come to know each other better and express deeper feelings ​ Beginning to engage in more extensive sexual activity​ 4. Bonding Phase (usually occurs in emerging adulthood)​ - The romantic relationship becomes more enduring and serious - partners begin to discuss the possibility of a lifelong commitment​

Technological Change ​& Youth Culture (Mead, 1928)

1. Post-figurative Culture​ - Youth learn from their elders (e.g., traditional methods of farming)​ ​ 2. Co-figurative Culture​ - Learning from both elders and peers ​ ​ 3. Pre-figurative Culture​ - Chanté teaches her grandmother how to use the Internet​

Key Chapter Ideas​ (Chapter 9)

1. Romantic relationships tend to begin with mixed-sex groups in early adolescence, developing into pairs by late adolescence. ​ ​ 2. Dating is a mostly American phenomenon. ​ ​ 3. Adolescent love usually lacks long-term commitment, so it is most often characterized by infatuation or romantic love. ​ ​ 4. Many non-Western cultures restrict adolescents' expressions of passionate love because they believe that marriage should be based on family interests rather than individual choice.​ 5. With respect to their views on adolescent sexuality, cultures can be generally classified as restrictive, semirestrictive, or permissive. ​ ​ 6. The U.S. today is probably best classified as semirestrictive, with a great deal of ambivalence and divided opinions about adolescent sexuality.​ ​ 7. Adolescent sexual activity tends to follow a progression from masturbation, followed by kissing and necking, sexual intercourse, and oral sex. ​ ​ 8. Having first intercourse at age 15 or younger is associated with problems such as higher rates of drug and alcohol use. ​ ​ 9. American adolescents tend to use contraceptives inconsistently or not at all, due to deep ambivalence about adolescent sexuality.​ ​ 10. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents often have difficulty coping with their sexual orientation in a culture that stigmatizes homosexuality. ​ ​ 11. Rates of sexually transmitted infections are especially high in the late teens and early twenties. ​ ​ 12. Most sex education programs are ineffective, but some recent programs have shown promise in reducing adolescent pregnancy.​ ​​

Research Issue: Limitations​

1. Self-report​ - Adolescent egocentrism may be associated with adolescents' perceiving more similarity between themselves and others than actually exists​ ***Correlation does not imply causation**​ ​ 2. Selective Association​ - People tend to choose friends that are similar to themselves (not influence, just similarity)​

How do conflicts with parents change during adolescence and what is the main source of conflict (make reference to biological and cognitive development)?

Conflict is a part of adolescent development to a greater or lesser extent and teenagers become bigger, stronger and better at arguing!

Who do adolescents talk to?​

Adolescents are more likely to talk to their friends about more personal issues, and to their parents about education and future occupation. ...Keep in Mind...​ The importance of friends in adolescence does not mean that close relationships with parents are incompatible with having close friendships.

Abuse in the Family​ (Abused Adolescents)

Abused Adolescents​: - Tend to be more aggressive in their interactions with peers​ - More likely to engage in antisocial behavior and substance use​ - More likely to be depressed and anxious​ - Perform more poorly in school​ Factors Related to Physical Abuse​: - Abusive parents more likely to have been abused themselves ​ - Family stresses or problems in parents' lives​ - Parents tend to be poorly skilled at parenting​

Since adolescence is the stage of identity, chapter 8 is significant in that friends and peers play an important role in this. How does Arnett define peers vs. friends and how do friendships change from childhood to adolescence (make reference to intimacy and gender)? On page 221, Thomas Berndt discusses four types of support that friends may provide to each other during adolescence. Give a personal example from your adolescence of one of these types of support: informational, instrumental, companionship or esteem. How does Arnett define cliques and did you experience this as an adolescent? Erik Erikson states that sarcasm and ridicule in cliques can "become clannish, intolerant, and cruel in their exclusion of others who are 'different,' in skin color or cultural background, in tastes and gifts, and often in entirely petty aspects of dress and gesture ..." (Arnett, p.223). What does Erikson say motivates this type of behavior? Would you expect popularity and unpopularity to be more important or less important in emerging adulthood compared to adolescence? Why? What has been your experience with friends' influence? Has it ever led you to do something you wish you had not done? To what extent has it been positive or negative? (CHAPTER 8 DQ)

Arnett defines cliques as small groups of friends who know each other well, do things together, and form a regular social group. I do not think I experienced this in adolescence as I had a friend group, but I do not think I was a clique. Erik Erikson states that sarcasm and ridicule in cliques can "become clannish, intolerant, and cruel in their exclusion of others who are 'different,' in skin color or cultural background, in tastes and gifts, and often in entirely petty aspects of dress and gesture ..." (Arnett, p.223). Erikson says that behavior is motivated by adolescents being unsure of their own identity and this behavior was their way to ease those feeling by bringing attention to someone they saw as different. The four types of support that friends provide each other are informational, instrumental, companionship, or esteem. Informal support is when friends give advice and each other with personal problems. Inrustemental support is when friends that help each with various tasks. Companionship support is when friends rely on each other for social activities. Esteem support is when friends give each encouragement and conciliation for failure. An example from my adolescence of informal support is when my friends and I would call each other for emotional support about our different problems. I would expect popularity to be less important in emerging adulthood compared to adolescence because many people at that age have a stronger sense of self, compared to the beginning of adolescence where people are still creating their identity and are still trying to fit in with their peers. My experience with friends' influence depended on my relationship with the friend depending on if I was close to them or not. I have been betrayed or pushed forcefully pushed out of my comfort zone relating to my friends' influences on me. I had experiences where friends' influences were both positive and negative. Overall, my experiences are more positive as I've become more selective of who I open up to and more aware of the different influences my friends could have on me.

Attachment Styles​

Attachment styles between lovers have been found to resemble the parent-child attachment styles​ ​ Secure​ Characterized by emotional support and concern for the partner's well-being​ ​ Insecure​ Excess of dependence on the partner​ Excess of distance​

Attachment Theory​

Attachments between parents and children have an evolutionary basis in the need for vulnerable young members of the species to stay in close proximity to adults who will care for and protect them.​ -Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1980)​ ​ Two types of attachment (Ainsworth, 1967, 1982):​ ​1. Secure attachment:​ - Infants use the mother as a 'secure base from which to explore but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened​​ 2. Insecure attachment:​ - Infants are wary of exploring the environment and resist or avoid the mother when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation​

What Parents Might Say...(Depending On Parenting Style)

Authoritarian: "Do it my way because I said so! Don't argue with me ... it's my house and my rules" Authoritative: "No you can't go to the mall today. We made plans to visit your aunt in the hospital. How about we drop you off at your friend's house on the way home? Good enough compromise?" Disengaged: Adolescent: "Mom are you home? ... Mom?" {no answer} ... Adolescent: "I guess I make my own dinner again" Permissive: "Sure you can have a party in the house while we're away - the key to the liquor cabinet in is your father's sock drawer

Discuss the four types of parenting and which is ideal and why?

Authoritative parenting is the most effective as it sets firm boundaries while empowering the child to have a "voice." It is quite common for parents to alternate between parenting styles based on emotional states and social settings, however, consistency is optimal from the developmental perspective. When you alternate between parenting styles, this will ultimately confuse children and can result in inconsistent behavior.

What about (teen) Dad?​

Being a teenage dad is related to a variety of negative outcomes​: ​ - More likely to become divorced​ - Lower level of education​ - Lower paying job​ - More prone to drug and alcohol use​ - More likely to violate the law​ - More feelings of anxiety and depression​ ...Interesting Footnote... : ​ Like adolescent mothers, the problems of adolescent​ fathers often began prior to parenthood​

Sexually Active Adolescents​

Characteristics of non-virgins: ​ - Similar self-esteem as virgins​ - Similar overall life satisfaction as virgins​ - More likely to be early maturing​ - Tend to have lower levels of academic performance and academic aspirations ​ Adolescents who have sex early (<15 years)​: - Early users of drugs and alcohol​ - More likely to be from single-parent households​ - More likely to have grown up in poverty​ ​ ​

Clarifying the Difference​ Between Cliques & Crowds

Cliques: - Small groups of friends who know each other well, do things together, and form a regular social group (Brown & Klute, 2003) Crowds: -Larger, reputation-based groups of adolescents who are not necessarily friends and do not necessarily spend time together (Brown et al., 2008; Brown & Klute, 2003; Horn, 2003)​

Sternberg's Theory of Love​

Different types of love involve combining three fundamental qualities of love in different ways​ ​ These three qualities are: ​ 1. Passion​ Involves physical attraction and sexual desire​ ​ 2. Intimacy​ Feelings of closeness and emotional attachment​ ​ 3. Commitment​ The pledge to love someone over the long run​ *Different types of love involve combining the three fundamental qualities (Intimacy, Commitment, and Passion) in different ways...*

In this chapter, understanding family relationships is so significant in that it sets the foundation for adolescence as a time of seeking identity. Arnett discusses the concept of disequilibrium in adolescence and how this is normal. Thinking back to your adolescence, did you experience this and if so, how was it resolved? Arnett describes midlife as occurring between 40 and 60 years of age and the stereotypes of "midlife crises" and "the empty nest syndrome" are not the norm, despite the perception of society. With women having children later in life, how would "midlife" impact upon adolescence? Did any of you have parents in "midlife" when you were an adolescent and if so, how did it impact upon you? Discuss the four types of parenting and which is ideal and why? What type of parent are you to your virtual teen (and did this change during the course of the assignment)? Are you modeling the same parenting you received as a child? Why or why not? How does parenting style impact upon a secure or insecure attachment and what does this set the foundation for? How do conflicts with parents change during adolescence and what is the main source of conflict (make reference to biological and cognitive development)? Why does this decrease in emerging adulthood? How many of you experienced this with your parents? (CHAPTER 7 DQ)

Disequilibrium is a time in a child's life when they are less balanced which could result from a change in a family's subsystem. During my adolescence, I had a time of disequilibrium during the realization of my father's medical condition after he had surgery, and it was resolved once my father clearly explained his condition and the need for his surgery. The impact of "midlife" on adolescents, is that the parent's midlife development overlaps with the child's development. Due to this fact, many adolescents, especially younger adolescents, may feel undervalued and act out to gain attention from their parents. When I was an early adolescent, around age 10, my parents were around the mid-life age but did not have a midlife crisis resulting in it not having much impact on me. The four parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and dismissive. The ideal parenting type is authoritative because a parent who is authoritative allows their child to be independent and develop freedom of expression but also clearly explains the rules that are needed for the child. This allows for a more positive development of the child. The type of parent I am for my virtual teen is an authoritative parent. I am modeling based on the same parenting I received as a child because it is a copy of the rules my parents gave me but with my own additions. Parenting style impacts secure or insecure attachment as it sets the foundations for the child's sense of worth and identity. If a child has a secure relationship with their parents, they are more likely to be more independent and have higher self-esteem and well-being, as the opposite is true for insecure attachments. Conflict with parents changes during adolescence as it is usually a stronger agreement. Culture also impacts if parent-child conflicts are frequent. Due to biological development, an adolescent becomes physically stronger, and it may be harder for a parent to show their authority over the adolescent. Similarly, cognitive development allows for an adolescent to have more complex thinking, resulting in an argument that the parent may not easily be able to quickly finish the argument compared to earlier times of adolescence.

Disequilibrium In Adolescence

Disequilibrium is an interesting concept as it does not require conflict, but rather acknowledges the changes experienced at any point in life, especially puberty. This stage of adolescence is felt by parents too, as they are having to learn to "let go" and empower their children to become independent. This can be challenging, especially for parents who are anxious and worried types, authoritarian or over-controlling.

Gender and Intimacy​

Females​ Friendships- Tend to have more intimate friendships than boys, more likely to place a higher value on talking together as a friendship component​ Males​ Friendships - Tend to have less intimate friendships than girls​, more likely to emphasize shared activities as the basis of friendship​

Research Issue: ​Friends' Influence on Risk Behavior​

Finding: A correlation exists between rates of risk behavior for adolescents and their friends

Sibling Relationships​

Five common patterns in adolescents' relationships with siblings​: 1. Caregiver relationship​ 2. Buddy relationship​ 3. Critical relationship​ 4. Rival relationship​ 5. Casual relationship​ - In traditional cultures, the caregiver relationship ​ between siblings is the most common form​​ - Adolescents in traditional cultures often have child-care responsibilities​

Is There a "Midlife Crisis"?

For many people, midlife is the prime of life: ​ ​ - Job satisfaction peaks​ - Job status and power peaks​ - Earning power increases​ - Marital problems decline​ - Gender roles become less restrictive​ - People's personalities tend to become more flexible and adaptive​ - Adolescents' increased autonomy may be welcomed by parents​ ... but that's not the whole story​... - For men in blue-collar professions that require physical strength and stamina, job performance becomes more difficult to sustain and job satisfaction declines (Gilbert & Constantine, 2005)​ ​ - Only about one-fourth of divorces take place after age 40, but midlife divorces tend to be even more emotionally and financially difficult​ ​

How does dating now compare to dating in the 1970's? Compare your first date with perhaps you mother or father's first date? How are they the same and how are they different? What role does culture play in this? Dating today is even referred to differently; i.e. it was described as "date", "dating" to "seeing", "going with" and "hanging out with." When I was an emerging adult I used to use the term "seeing" because for me it didn't necessarily indicate it was a serious relationship. What term do you use? Based on the textbook, what are the reasons (listed on pg. 243) that adolescent's report forming love relationships? Does biological maturity have anything to do with this? What was your first "love" experience? Was it based on any of these? Provide a personal example of a proactive and reactive script in reference to dating (keep in mind that these are schemas)? What distinguishes a friendship from a romantic relationship? Sternberg discusses consummate love in a relationship as encompassing passion, intimacy and commitment? Do you think adolescents are capable of this? Are emerging adults capable of this? Why or why not? Why is achieving a sense of identity essential to forming intimate relationships? Read the scenarios on page 254 on Masturbation, Necking and Petting, Sexual Intercourse and Oral Sex. In adolescence these issues can be a source of embarrassment as Johnny age 15 describes when he talks about masturbation. Were any of these topics discussed among your peers and if so, in what context? Were friends a source of information and support or perhaps was there peer pressure to engage in certain sexual behaviors (CHAPTER 9 DQ)

In modern times it is easier to connect after the date because of the countless opportunities to continue the connection. It's also very different as in modern times, people can meet and completely date through online sites or apps. Based on the textbook the reasons that adolescents report forming love relationships are recreation, learning, status, companionship, intimacy, and courtship. Biological maturity is physical changes that happen during an adolescent's development. Biological maturity doesn't relate to this, as an adolescent's physical maturity doesn't relate to their development mentally when still learning to be in a relationship. Sternberg discusses consummate love in a relationship as encompassing passion, intimacy, and commitment. I believe adolescents can be capable of this to a certain extent, they can be intimate but still don't understand everything at this point of development and usually lacks long-term commitment. Achieving a sense of identity is essential to forming intimate relationships because if a person doesn't have a secure attachment then they are less likely to be able to be intimate because they don't know who they really are. The topic of sex was discussed amongst my peers during adolescence, especially in a school setting with friends.

Friends: Support & Nurturance​

Informational Support​ "What should I do? Should I ask Jimi to go out with me?"​ ​ Instrumental Support​ "Thanks for helping me with my math homework"​ ​ Companionship Support​ "Let's go to the game together - that way we can sit together. I don't know anyone at Riverdale High."​ ​ Esteem Support​ "Don't worry about it, you're the best guitar player here. You'll win the songwriting contest next time."​

Friendships in Late Adolescence & Emerging Adulthood

Late adolescents and emerging adults describe their closest relationship:​ ​ Friendly (focus on shared activities)​ ​ Intimate (focus on affection, emotional attachment)​ ​ Integrated (combines friendly and intimate)​ ​ Uninvolved (focus on neither shared activities nor intimacy)​ *College students were more likely than high school students to be rated as having an intimate or integrated friendship relationship.*

Relational Aggression​

Non-physical forms of aggression:​ - Gossiping​ - Spreading rumors​ - Snubbing​ - Excluding ​​ - Covert, indirect form of aggression common amongst girls​ - Aggressors prone to depression and eating disorders​

Parenting Styles​

Parenting has been described in terms of two dimensions​ ​ 1. Demandingness (i.e., control)​ The degree to which parents set down rules and expectations for behavior and require their children to comply with them​ ​ 2. Responsiveness (i.e., warmth)​ The degree to which parents are sensitive to their children's needs and the extent to which they express love, warmth, and concern for their children​

PROFFESOR COMENTS FROM CHAPTER 8 DQ

Peers have greater influence on teenagers than parents/caretakers. In adolescence, the developmental goal is to identify with "anyone," so a teen will look to connect with any group (for better or worse), just to try to and fit in. For this stage of development that is perfectly normal. However, as an emerging adult, with brain development, growth and maturity, a stronger sense of identity should have been achieved and there's less focus on others and more focus on the self. This is why being popular as an emerging adult becomes less important. However, if a strong identity is not achieved as adolescent's, as emerging adults there may still be a need to "fit in" and feel accepted. Great example of informational support and having friends that help each other work through problems is important as an adolescent. Friends in adolescence can be a positive or negative support, however, regardless of the experiences (which can be a mix of both), teenagers who emerge into young adulthood should learn to become more confident, resilient and stronger in their identity. For those teenagers who are unable to persevere through these stages with little to no success, may fall towards the negative outcomes of Erikson's stages of development which can lead to role confusion and difficulties in life. Being betrayed is a tough lesson in life at any stage of development, especially as a teenager, however, it is an experience that has shaped you today and one that will enable you to set boundaries and have empathy for those in a similar situation.

Clarifying the Difference​ Between Peers & Friends

Peers: People who are about the same age​ ​ Friends​: People with whom you develop a valued, mutual relationship​

Dating Scripts​

Proactive Script​: ​ Males tend to follow this type of script​ ​ Includes: ​ - initiating the date​ - deciding where to go​ - controlling the public domain (driving the car)​ - initiating sexual contact​\ Reactive Script​ ​ Females tend to follow this type of script​ ​ Focuses on:​ - private domain (grooming & dress)​ - responding to the male's gestures in the public domain​ - responding to his sexual initiatives​ *"Romantic experiences are associated with both positive and negative outcomes in adolescence."*

Why Adolescents form Love Relationships​

Recreation​ - Fun and enjoyment​ ​ Learning​ - Becoming more skilled at dating interactions​ ​ Status​ - Impressing others according to how often and whom one dates​ ​ Companionship​ - Sharing pleasurable activities with another person​ ​ Intimacy​ - Establishing a close emotional relationship with another person​ ​ Courtship​ - Seeking someone to have as a steady partner​

Cultural Beliefs & Adolescent Sexuality​

Restrictive cultures:​ - Strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity before marriage​ - Strict separation of boys and girls​ - May include the threat of physical punishment or public shaming for premarital sex​ - Usually more restrictive for girls than boys​ ​ Semi-restrictive cultures:​ - Prohibitions not strongly enforced and easily evaded​ - If pregnancy results from premarital sex, adolescents often forced to marry​ ​ Permissive cultures:​ - Encourage and expect adolescent sexuality​ - Sexual behavior encouraged even in childhood​

Secure Attachment: Adolescence & Emerging Adulthood​

Secure attachment to parents in adolescence is related to a variety of favorable outcomes Effects on Adolescents​: - Higher self-esteem and well-being​ - Better psychological and physical health​ - Closer relationships with friends and romantic partners​ - More autonomous and self-reliant​ Effects on Emerging Adults​ - Higher educational and occupational attainment​ - Lower psychological problems​ - Lower drug use​ ​

Chapter Overview​ (Chapter 9)

Sexual activity and sexuality in adolescence and emerging adulthood​ Sternberg's theory of love and adolescents​ ​ Cultural standards with regard to sex before marriage​ ​ Sexual scripts for males and females​ ​ Sexuality among gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents​ ​ Problems in adolescence (e.g. contraception, pregnancy, abortion, parenthood) ​ ​ Sexually-transmitted infections and treatment​ ​ Sex education programs​

Sexual Abuse​ (In Adolescents)

Sexually Abused Adolescents​ - Have difficulty trusting others and forming intimate relationships​ - Experience depression, high anxiety, and social withdrawal​ - May become either highly avoidant of sexual contact or highly promiscuous​ - Higher risk for psychological disorders, substance abuse, suicidal thoughts and behaviors​ ​ Sexual Abusers​: - Feel inadequate in their relationships with adults​ - Prefer to seek sexual satisfaction from children, who are easier to control​​

Why do adolescents become friends?​

Similarity in: ​ - Age​ - Gender​ - Educational orientation​ - Media and leisure preferences​ - Participation in risk behavior​ - Ethnicity ​

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Stage 1: Same-sex cliques Stage 2: Boys' and girls' cliques spend some time together Stage 3: Gender cliques break down as clique leaders form romantic relationships Stage 4: Other clique members follow suit Stage 5: Males and females pair off in more serious relationships

Choosing a Marriage Partner​

The Study: 10,000 young people in 37 countries from all over the world (Africa, Asia, Eastern and Western Europe, & North and South America)​ ​ The Findings:​ Highest Ranking​ - Mutual attraction ​​ - Dependable character​ - Emotional stability & Maturity​ - Pleasing disposition​ Lowest Ranking:​ - Religious & political backgrounds​ -Good financial prospects​ - Having a lot of money​ The sharpest cross-cultural division was on the issue of chastity​

Changing Functions of the Family

The family in our time has mainly emotional or affective functions:​ To provide love, nurturance, and affection

In Traditional Cultures...

There is often only one adolescent peer crowd in the community​ ​ The peer crowd is less strictly age-graded (variety of ages in the crowd)​ ​ Dormitory Life: adolescents sleep and spend leisure time in a separate dwelling, and typically work and eat meals with parents during the day​ ​ Men's House Life: male adolescents live together with widowed or divorced men in a multi-age dormitory arrangement​ ​

Contraceptive Use and Non-use​

Two types of countries have low rates of teenage pregnancy:​ 1. Those that are permissive about adolescent sex​ 2. Those that adamantly forbid adolescent sex​ Permissive Countries​: ​ - Denmark​ - Sweden​ - Netherlands​ ​ - They have explicit safe sex campaigns​ ​ - Adolescents have easy access to contraception Restrictive Countries​: ​ - Japan​ - South Korea​ - Morocco​ ​ - Adolescents are strongly discouraged from even dating​ ​ - It is rare for boys and girls to spend time alone together​​

Emerging Adults - Breaking Up (Hill, Rubin, & Peplau, 1979)​

Two year study of 200 college couples: ​ 45% of the couples had broken up​ Those who had broken up ​ reported lower levels of intimacy and love​ were less likely to be similar on characteristics such as age, SAT scores, and physical attractiveness​ were less balanced (one partner indicated substantially more commitment to the relationship than the other)​ Women were more likely to end the relationship​ Rejected men tended to be lonelier, unhappier, and more depressed than rejected women​ Rejected men found it harder than rejected women to accept the end of the relationship and to stay friends​ ​​

Effects of Divorce

Young people whose parents have divorced are at higher risk for a wide variety of negative outcomes:​ ​ - Behavior problems​ - Psychological distress​ - Lower academic achievement​ - Higher rates of drug and alcohol use​ - Initiation of sexual intercourse at an earlier age​ - Depression and withdrawal​ - Anxiety​ - More likely to receive mental health treatment​ - Less likely to attend college​ In emerging adulthood, the effects of parental divorce are evident in:​​ - Greater problems in forming close romantic relationships​ - Wariness of entering marriage ​ - Their determination to avoid divorce​ ...Interesting Footnote ...​ The risk of divorce is higher for young ​ people from divorced families​

Sexuality in Emerging Adulthood

• Sex is viewed as a "normal part of life" by emerging adults • Parents are less opposed to sex among emerging adults than adolescents • Few expect to get married before their mid-20s • There is a great deal of diversity among emerging adults in terms of sexual behavior - The most common pattern among American 18-24 year olds is to have had one partner in the past year​ ​ - About one-third of the same group reported two or more partners in the past year​ ​ - At 18, about half of Americans have had intercourse at least once​ ​ - Sexual behavior commonly takes place in a close romantic relationship​ ​ - Emerging adults today are more likely than other adults to engage in recreational sex​ ​