Adv ABA

Describe the guidelines to be followed when implementing shaping.

• Select the terminal behavior • Determine the criterion for success • Analyze the response class • Identify the first behavior to reinforce • Eliminate interfering or extraneous stimuli • Proceed in gradual stages • Limit the number of approximations at each level • Continue to reinforce when the terminal behavior is achieved

Functional Communication Training

an antecedent intervention in which an appropriate communicative behavior is taught as a replacement behavior for problem behavior usually evoked by an EO; involves DRA

What is a token?

an object that is awarded contingent on appropriate behavior and that serves as the medium of exchange for backup reinforcers.

Describe the rules for implementing DRO and given an original example.

-Recognize the Limitations of DRO ii. With momentary DRO, reinforcement its delivered contingent on the problem behavior not occurring at the end of each interval, even though the inappropriate behavior might have occurred throughout most of an interval. -Set initial DRO intervals that assure frequent reinforcement -Do not inadvertently reinforce other undesirable behaviors • When using a DRO you must be careful not to strengthen inadvertently other undesirable behaviors. -Gradually increase the DRO interval -Extend the application of DRO to other settings and times of day -Combine DRO with other procedures

What is a group contingency?

A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the behavior of i. A person within the group ii. Select group of members within the larger group or iii. Each member of the group meeting a performance contingency

What is an independent group contingency?

A contingency in which reinforcement for each member of a group is dependent on that person's meeting a performance criterion that is in effect for all members of the group.

What is the hero procedure?

Another term for a dependent group contingency (i.e. a person earns a reward for the group)

Discriminate an effective response cost procedure from an ineffective one.

Effective Response cost examples: • Fines: direct fining of a person a specific amount of positive reinforcers. i. A child must pay three tickets for hitting, thus reducing opportunity for positive reinforcers. • Bonus response cost: practitioners can make additional reinforcers available noncontingently to the participant, specifically for removal with a response cost contingency. i. The children in the classroom are offered 3 extra tickets to finish an assignment, though can be used for response cost. • Combining with positive reinforcement: response cost can be combined with positive reinforcement. i. Tickets can be awarded to a child for positive reinforcement, though they may have to pay if instances of inappropriate behavior occur.

What is a self contract?

contingency contract that a person makes with himself, incorporating a self-selected task and reward as well as personal monitoring of task completions and self delivery of reward.

What is the technical definition for "punishment"?

Punishment occurs when stimulus change immediately follows a response and decreases the future frequency of that type of behavior in similar conditions.

Describe guidelines offered by Deitz and Repp (1983) for effective use of DRI and DRA.

Select Incompatible/ Alternative Behavior The incompatible/ alternative behavior that is going to be reinforced should: Select Reinforcers That Are Powerful and Can Be Delivered Consistently Reinforcing Incompatible/Alternative Behavior Immediately and Consistently (CRF) Withhold Reinforcement for the problem behavior Combine DRI/DRA with other procedures

Irrelevant

developers of a plan should identify those situations (stimulus conditions) that set the occasion for problem behaviors and organize the environment to reduce the likelihood that these conditions are encountered. For instance, features that were aversive are no longer present. o Example: A child who finds recess aversive due to the unstructured nature, providing structure to recess would eliminate the aversive element.

Contrast shaping within and across response topographies. Give an example of each. What are some dimensions along which we can shape within a response topography?

p. 424-425

What is a backup reinforcer?

tangible objects, activities or privileges that serve as reinforcer and that can be purchased with tokens

Ineffective

the behavior support plan should make problem behaviors ineffective ways of obtaining reinforcers. This should extinguish the problem behavior. Example: the problem behavior should not produce reinforcement to prevent access to reinforcement and extinguish behaviors.

Inefficient

the support plan should define an alternative, socially appropriate and more efficient way for the person to achieve the same reward. o The physical effort required for a person to perform the behavior. o The number of times the person must perform the behavior before he or she is reinforced (schedule of reinforcement). o Time delay between the first problem behavior and reinforcement. o Example: A child who screams curse words to gain attention can be taught how to call his teacher for attention and help.

Name the four procedures of non-exclusionary time out. Define each, compare and contrast it with the others, and describe the procedure. If given an example, be able to label it the type of non-exclusionary time out it represents.

• Planned Ignoring: occurs when social reinforcers, attention, physical and verbal are removed for a brief period, contingent on the occurrence of an inappropriate behavior. • Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer: Specific positive reinforcers are removed contingent on the inappropriate behavior. • Contingent observation: person is repositioned within an existing setting such that observation of ongoing activity remains, but access to reinforcement is lost. • Time out ribbon: a band is placed on a child's wrist for reinforcement time and removed as a time out.

List the steps in developing a contract

• 1. Hold a Meeting: the contract should be discussed to for instance discussing the behavior-exchange process shared not just something adults are imposing on a child. • 2. Fill out list a: Each member fills out three lists to specifically identify tasks that can be performed and tasks already being done to look at this situation positively. • 3. Fill out list b: Each group member fills out tasks that can be useful and tasks that are already occurring that are helpful. This can help identify areas where disagreement exists. • 4. Fill out list c: Each group members identifies potential rewards he would like to earn by completing contracted tasks. This includes regular favorites and special favorite items/activities • 5. Write Contracts: Choose tasks for each person's first contract. Which task is most important to begin with.

Give the Baer, Wolf, and Risely (1968) definition of "generality of behavior change."

• A behavior change may be said to have generality if it proves durable over time, if it appears in a wide variety of possible environments or if it spreads to a wide variety of related behaviors.

Describe a characteristic of a behavior that might be amenable to shaping.

• A behavior whose topography, frequency, latency, duration or magnitude,that is not at criterion, level.

Describe some legal and ethical issues surrounding the use of time out, and how you would use time out in a legal and ethical way.

• A person has a right to treatment and be free from unnecessary and restrictive isolation. The program must be closely monitored and supervised, in order to protect the individual and or others from bodily harm. Brief time out must be used. Locking a person in a room is considered illegal unless it can be demonstrated that the seclusion is part of an overall treatment plan and being monitored.

1. Give laboratory and applied examples of an SD.

• A rat presses a lever for food. Then a buzzer sounds occasionally and the rat only receives food when pressing the lever when the buzzer is sounding. The buzzer sound preceding the lever press is the sd. • A child asks, "Chocolate" whenever the chocolate is in view. The teacher begins to put up a cue card with a picture of chocolate along with putting the chocolate in view. The child begins to ask "chocolate" as soon as just the picture begins to be put up.

Define general case analysis and give an example.

• A systematic method for selecting teaching examples that represent the full range of stimulus variations and response requirements in the generalized setting. • Example: analyzing whether true generalization occurred in a teaching lesson by probes and general case training.

Explain why a token is viewed as a conditioned reinforcer

• A token is an example of a generalized conditioned reinforcer because it can be exchanged for a wide variety of backup reinforcers. Generalized conditioned reinforcers are independent of specific states of motivation because they are associated with a wide variety of backup reinforcers.

10. What are the criteria to follow when deciding upon the first response to reinforce?

• A. The behavior should already occur at some minimum frequency • B. The behavior should be a member of the targeted response class.

State at least one advantage and at least two disadvantages of the shaping procedure.

• Advantage: Shaping uses a positive approach to teach a new behavior. • Disadvantages: Time consuming due to many approximations required before the target behavior. Also, harmful behavior can be shaped.

Describe advantages and disadvantages of a time out room.

• Advantages include: opportunity to acquire reinforcer during time out is eliminated due to the set up of the environment, minimizing reinforcement. The room begins to be an aversive stimulus after several visits. The risk of a student hurting another during time out is reduced. • Disadvantages include: resistance can occur when the child is escorted to the room. Emotional outburst. Missed instruction time. The person may engage in behaviors that need to be stopped but have gone undetected. Public opinion.

Clearly explain the difference between time out, extinction, and response cost. If given an illustration, be able to state whether it represents time out.

• All of these procedures reduce the future frequency of behavior, though by different means. Extinction and time out are very similar, though during time out the person is left alone instead of having a person present. Response cost requires the reinforcer to be removed and not given to the person as a reinforcer.

Give examples of conditioned and unconditioned aversive stimulus, and be able to describe how you can condition a neutral stimulus to be a conditioned aversive stimulus.

• An unconditioned punisher: Pain that caused physical trauma, odors, tastes, physical restraint, loss of body support and extreme muscular effort. • Stimulus pairing conditions a neutral stimulus to be a conditioned aversive stimulus or punisher. • For instance: when a parent arriving home is paired with bed time (which is aversive for the child), the child then can view a parent arriving home as a conditioned aversive stimulus.

Describe the difference between antecedent control in respondent and operant conditioning.

• Antecedent control in respondent conditioning is similar to operant, however the response is a result of respondent conditioning (salivation). Whereas in operant conditioning, the antecedent control has a response of a learned behavior (pressing a lever).

State the technical definition of aversive stimulus

• Aversive stimulus-an unpleasant or noxious stimulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition that functions: i. To evoke a behavior that has terminated it in the past ii. As a punisher when presented following behavior iii. As a reinforcer when withdrawn following behavior

Describe how we know when stimulus control is present.

• Behavior that occurs more often in the presence of an Sd than its absence is under stimulus control

6. Describe how CMOs are different from UMOs. How do these MOs become conditioned in the first place? Do they have the same behavior-influencing power as the UMOs?

• CMOs are conditioned motivating operations, therefore learned operations. They do alter the momentary frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced by those other events, like UMOs. • The MOs become conditioned by first being motivationally neutral stimuli prior to encountering those variables and induce us to try to obtain what we now want. • Three kinds of CMOs: surrogate, reflexive or transitive.

List the ethical and legal considerations.

• Client's right to safe and humane treatment • The professional's responsibility to use least restrictive procedures • Client's right to effective treatment

Define what is meant by "concept formation".

• Concept formation is a behavioral outcome of stimulus generalization and discrimination. • It is a complex example of stimulus control that requires both stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli and discrimination between classes of stimuli. • IE: Teaching concept of red requires discriminating between colors (similar stimulus class) and non similar like shapes and size.

Describe a behavioral trap and give an example from real life.

• Contingencies of reinforcement are especially powerful, producing substantial and long-lasting behavior changes. • Only a relatively simple response is necessary to enter the trap, yet once entered the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavioral change. i. For example: A student who is interested in only discussing robots. The teacher then begins using robots in daily lessons, and the student begins to excel in class. Robots then sparked a new social group for the student.

Clearly explain how contingency contracting can be used in a classroom for both academic and management concerns.

• Contracting can be utilized in academic concerns, such as providing praise for increased correct responses on math assignments. Additionally, management can be addressed by providing a reinforcer for student's goals in a contract to decrease problem behaviors for instance in an emotionally disturbed classroom.

Define differential reinforcement as it applies to shaping.

• DR is a procedure in which reinforcement is provided for responses that share a predetermined dimension or quality, and in which reinforcement is withheld for responses that do not demonstrate that quality. • For example, a child signing "more" at first simply places their hands together then receive reinforcement. Later, the teacher would not reinforce putting hands together, only putting fingers together to a closer approximation to signing "more".

1. For DRI and DRA, define, describe, differentiate between, and give examples of each. If given an example, be able to accurately label it as illustrating either DRI or DRA.

• DRI: Reinforces a behavior that cannot occur simultaneously with the problem behavior and withholds reinforcement following instances of the problem behavior. i. Example: a child is reinforced for keeping their hands in their pocket, which is incompatible with the problem behavior of waving hands in front of their face. • DRA: Reinforce occurrences of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to the problem behavior but not necessarily incompatible. (Students that argue are directed to work together, reinforcing cooperation) i. Example: a child is taught a behavior such as stringing beads, and reinforced for it, as an alternative to being reinforced for screaming.

Why is it important to define the terminal behavior precisely?

• Defining the terminal behavior allows the behavior analyst to determine when the behavior is achieved as well as what does not constitute the behavior-an important discrimination if shaping is to be conducted efficiently. • Also it requires the specificity on how accurate, fast, intense or durable the behavior must be before it can be considered shaped.

Define, describe, and give examples of DRO. If given an example, be able to accurately state whether or not it represents a DRO procedure.

• Delivers a reinforcer whenever the problem behavior has not occurred during or at specific times. • Example: When a child has done any other behavior, besides the problem behavior they are reinforced. For instance, when a child has gone an entire interval without kicking another person, they are reinforced; which is not contingent on any of the behavior they were doing during the interval, only the absence of the problem behavior.

2. Describe the parts of every contract, and give examples of each part.

• Description of the task: i. Who is the person who will perform the task and receive the reward ii. What is the task or behavior the person must perform iii. When the task must be completed iv. How well the task should be completed • Description of the reward: i. Who is the person who will judge task completion and control delivery of the reward ii. What is the reward iii. When the reward can be received (after successful task completion) iv. How much of the reward can be earned (and extra rewards) • Task Record: i. This allows the contract to be reviewed regularly ii. Keeps track of how many correct/incorrect for reward

13. Describe the procedural steps for effectively implementing response cost strategies.

• Determining the immediacy of the fines • Response cost or bonus response cost • Ensuring reinforcement reserve • Recognizing the potential for unplanned or unexpected outcomes • Avoiding the overuse of response cost • Keeping records

Describe the difference between motivation and discriminative relations.

• Discriminative stimuli are related to the differential availability of a currently effective form of reinforcement for a particular type of behavior; motivation variables (MO's) are related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of a particular type of environmental event.

Clearly describe the positive aspects of time out procedures.

• Ease of application: time out can be easily applied, even when removing a student from the current setting. i. A teacher can easily tell a student to go to a time out room. • Acceptability: practitioners regard time out as appropriate. i. It appears many individuals already use time out procedures. • Rapid suppression of behavior: the target behavior usually quickly decreases. i. A child may quickly learn hitting others removes him from reinforcement, thus decreasing his rate of hitting. • Combined applications: time out combined with other procedures increases its usability. i. By using time out and shaping, behaviors can quickly change.

State the reasons for the effectiveness of token economies.

• Effectiveness depends to a large extent on the extensiveness of the backup reinforcers. Tokens exchangeable for a wide variety of backup reinforcers have considerable utility where it is difficult for personnel to control the deprivation states of their clients.

List the possible side effects of using punishment.

• Emotional and aggressive reactions: When painful stimulus is used as a punisher, a child may respond by hitting the person administering the painful stimulus. • Escape and avoidance: After punishment procedures have began, a child may avoid situations (such as school) where the procedures occur. • Behavioral contrast: When a child is told not to hit their brother, the child stops hitting in the presence of the parent. Once the parent is gone, the child hits their brother harder or even more.

Describe the factors that affect the development of stimulus control.

• Preattending Skills: Looking at materials, looking at teacher when response is modeled, listing to oral instructions, sitting for short periods. • Stimulus Salience: Prominence of the stimulus in the environment like room color, specific therapist. Some stimuli present faster outcomes. Some stimuli have more salience than others depending on sensory capabilities of the individuals past history. • Masking and Overshadowing: Masking-one stimulus has acquired control over a behavior; a competing stimulus can block function (student can answer teacher's questions but won't in front of peers). Overshadowing- the presence of one stimulus condition interferes with the acquisition of stimulus control by another stimulus (looking out window may distract from stimuli presented in class.

2. Describe time out from a procedural, conceptual, and functional perspective.

• Procedural: period of time when the person is either removed from reinforcing environment or loses access to reinforcers with an environment. • Conceptually: the distinction between the time-in and time-out environment is of paramount importance. The more reinforcing the time in setting is, the more effective time out is likely to be a punisher. • Functional: the time out involves the reduced frequency of the future occurrence of the behavior. Without a reduction in frequency of future behavior, time out is not effective, even if the person is procedurally removed from the setting or loses access to reinforcers.

Describe how the concept of stimulus generalization is applicable to the strategy of "program common stimuli".

• Programming the common stimuli: programs stimuli by using a "mock" setting of a restaurant for instance. This can teach the skills necessary when it is impossible to use the actual stimulus for generalization. Additionally it can add examples that may not be present all during stimulus generalization training, in a safer environment.

What is the definition of a "prompt"

• Prompt: supplementary antecedent stimuli used to occasion a correct response in the presence of an Sd that will eventually control the behavior.

Define "generalization across subjects" and give a specific example.

• Refers to changes in the behavior of people not directly treated by an intervention as a function of treatment contingencies applied to other people. • A child who sits near a student with direct intervention in which praise and attention are administered for the usage of mands and tacts. The child sitting near then increases their usage of mands and tacts is an example of generalization across subjects.

8. List the ways to use time out most effectively. If given an example, be able to identify what procedural aspects of effective implementation are or are not present in the example.

• Reinforcing and enriching the time-in environment • Defining behaviors leading to time-out • Defining procedures for the duration of time-out • Defining exit criteria • Deciding on nonexclusion of exclusion time-out • Explaining the time-out rules • Obtaining permission • Applying time-out consistently • Evaluating effectiveness • Considering other options • Legal and ethical time-out issues

Describe the difference between response and stimulus prompts,

• Response prompt: operate directly on the response. (Verbal instruction, modeling, physical guidance) • Stimulus prompts: operate directly on the antecedent task stimuli to cue a correct response in conjunction with the critical Sd. (Movement, gestural cues).

Differentiate between fixed and variable DRO. If given an example, be able to identify which DRO it represents.

• FI-DRO (fixed interval): Delivers reinforcement at the end of the time interval if the problem did not occur. Problem behavior results in time starting over. • FM-DRO (fixed-momentary): Reinforcement is delivered at the end of the time interval if the problem behavior doesn't occur at the end of the interval. • Full-session DRL: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of an instructional or treatment session if during the entire session the target behavior occurred a number equal to or below predetermined criteria. • VI-DRO (variable interval): When reinforcement is delivered contingent on the absence of the targeted problem behavior during intervals of varying and unpredictable durations. • VM-DRO (variable momentary): Schedules are the same procedures as interval DRO except that reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior onl when each interval ends, rather than throughout the entire interval as with the whole-interval DRO.

Define, describe, and give an example of DRL, including full-session, interval, and spaced-responding. If given an example, be able to state whether or not it illustrates a DRL procedure, and, if so, what kind.

• Full Session DRL: reinforcement is delivered at the end of an instructional or treatment session if during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a number equal to or below a predetermined criterion. • Interval DRL: session divided into equal intervals of time. Reinforcement delivered at end of each interval in which the number of occurrences of the problem behavior during that interval is equal to or below criterion limit. • Spaced-responding DRL: reinforcer is delivered following an occurrence of a response that is separated by at least a minimum amount of time from the previous response.

Describe the relationships among generalized condition reinforcement, deprivation, and back-up rewards.

• Generalized conditioned reinforcement is a relative concept: effectiveness depends to a large extent on the extensiveness of the backup reinforcers. Tokens exchangeable for a wide variety of backup reinforcers have considerable utility where it is difficult for personnel to control the deprivation states of their clients.

Define and give an example of rule governed behavior and how this concept might explain the effectiveness of contracts.

• Rule-governed behavior: behavior controlled by a rule (i.e. a verbal statement of an antecedent behavior consequence contingency); enables human behavior to come under the indirect control of temporarily remote or improbable but potentially significant consequences (avoiding injury in an auto accident). Often used in contrast to contingency shaped behavior a term used to indicate behavior selected and maintained by controlled temporally close consequences. i. For example: A rule or law such as "Stop at a red light" can affect some people's behavior to stop at a red light.

3. Explain how motivating operations influence behavior. Pay particular concern to what part of the A-B-C paradigm they influence.

• Sd's and Mo's are components of an existing repertoire; they are antecedent variables that have behavior-altering effects. Antecedent events can evoke or abate responses but their simple occurrence does not alter the organism's operant repertoire of functional relations. (They alter current frequency but reinforcers alter future frequency).

Describe factors that influence the level of effectiveness of punishment procedures.

• Immediacy: Maximum suppressive effects are obtained when the onset of the punisher occurs as soon as possible after the occurrence of a target response. • Intensity/magnitude: A positive correlation between the intensity of the punishing stimulus and response suppression. Recovery from punishment is negatively correlated with intensity of the punishing stimulus. A high intensity stimulus may be ineffective as punishment if the stimulus used as punishment was initially of low intensity and gradually increased. • Schedule: the suppressive effects of a punisher are maximized by a continuous schedule of punishment in which each occurrence of behavior is followed by a punishing consequence. • Reinforcement for target behavior: The effectiveness of punishment is modulated by the reinforcement contingencies maintaining the problem behavior (reducing/eliminating reinforcement can make punishment more effective.

Describe and explain the guidelines for using DRL most effectively.

• Initial DRL criterion limit be set at or above the average or mean number of responses emitted during baseline • Gradual decrease of DRL limit • Establish decision rule for changing DRL limit

What is level system?

a component of some token economy systems in which participants advance up or down through a succession of levels contingent on their behavior at the current level. The performance criteria and sophistication or difficulty of the behaviors required at each level are higher than those of preceding levels; as participants advance to higher levels, they gain access to more desirable reinforcers, increased privileges and greater independence.

What is an interdependent group contingency?

a contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on each member of the group meeting a performance criterion that is in effect for all remembers of the group.

What is a dependent group contingency?

a contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the behavior of one member of the group or the behavior of a select group of members within the larger group.

What is behavioral contract/contingency contract?

a mutually agreed upon document between parties (parent/child) that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of specified behavior(s) and access to specified reinforcer(s).

What is a token economy?

a system whereby participants can earn generalized reinforcers as an immediate consequence for specific behaviors; participants accumulate tokens and exchange them for items and activities from a menu of backup reinforcers.

Define maintenance and give examples. Cite the difference between stimulus generalization and maintenance.

• Maintenance: behavior changes that persist after an intervention has been withdrawn or terminated is also the most common name for a condition in which treatment has been discontinued or partially withdrawn. • Stimulus generalization refers to the phenomenon in which a response that has been reinforced in the presence of a given stimulus occurs with an increased frequency in the presence of different but similar stimuli under extinction conditions. It is a behavioral process.

List the desirable aspects of response cost.

• Moderate to rapid decrease in behavior, convenient and combination with other procedures.

Describe the procedural characteristics of the three different ways of developing stimulus control with differential reinforcement.

• One behavior and two antecedent stimulus conditions. Responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition, the Sd, but responses are not reinforced in the presence of the other stimulus, SΔ • Example: Teacher had two cans of cookies, one with a warning label. Asked student, which do you eat out of. If she answered the can without the label she was given a cookie out of it. If she answered the can with the label she would not receive reinforcement.

Discriminate examples of a token economy, specifying in each the three characteristics that make up a complete token economy.

• One child was given tokens to exchange for baseball cards, comics and toys for every half hour he did not engage in noncompliance. • One child earned check marks in exchange for free time after each minute if an alternative behavior was being emitted instead of the behaviors targeted for reduction.

Define and describe the UMOs for Punishment. Give examples of each, and describe how they are different from the other UMOs discussed earlier.

• Oxygen deprivation: the sudden inability to breathe decreases the future frequency of the type of behavior that preceded that instance of being unable to breathe. • Becoming too cold: decreases the future frequency of te type of behavior that preceded that instance of being too cold. • Becoming too warm: decreases the future frequency of behavior that preceded being too warm. • Increase in painful stimulation: decreases future frequency of the behavior that preceded pain.

Thoroughly describe each guideline for using punishment effectively.

• Select effective and appropriate punishers. (Use punishers sufficient quality and magnitude/ Use varied punishers) • Deliver the punisher at the beginning of a behavioral sequence • Punish each instance of the behavior initially • Gradually shift to an intermittent schedule of punishment • Use mediation with a response to punishment delay • Supplement punishment with complementary interventions • Be prepared for negative side effects

In detail, describe the procedure for implementing a token economy.

• Select tokens that will serve as a medium of exchange (e.g., points, stickers, plastic chips): they should be durable, easy to carry and readily accessible. • Identify target behaviors and rules: i. Selecting only measurable and observable behaviors ii. Specifying criteria for successful task completion iii. Starting with a small number of behaviors including some that are easy for the individual to accomplish iv. Being sure the individual possesses the prerequisite skills for any targeted behaviors • Select a menu of backup reinforcers: These can be naturally occurring activities and events. It should be in accordance with ethical and legal issues and basic rights. • Establish a ratio of exchange: i. Keep initial ratios low ii. As token earning behaviors and income increase, increase the cost of backup items, devalue tokens, and increase the number of backup items. iii. With increased earnings, increases the number of luxury backup items. iv. Increase the prices of necessary backup items more than those of luxury items • Write procedures to specify when and how tokens will be dispensed and exchanged and what will happen if the requirements to earn a token are not met. Will the system include a response cost procedure?: i. Having a container for storage of the tokens, for younger learners tokens can be chained to form a necklace or bracelet. ii. Have a menu of how much things cost and how often exchange occurs • Field-test the system before full-scale implementation. i. For 3-5 days token delivery is tallied exactly as if tokens were being earned but no tokens are awarded. Data is used to assess whether learners actually deficient in the targeted skills or are some learners demonstrating mastery of behavior behaviors targeted for intervention. Etc.

Define stimulus and response generalization and give examples of each.

• Setting/situation (stimulus) generalization: the extent to which a learner emits the target behavior in a setting or stimulus situation that is different from the instructional setting. i. Example: A child learns how to pot a flower at school. Then when at home begins to pot flowers without extra teaching. • Response generalization: the extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behavior. i. Example: A student is taught how to print their name on the top of their assignments. The child begins to sign their name in cursive at the top of their paper even without that teaching.

1. Define shaping.

• Shaping: Using differential reinforcement to produce a series of gradually changing response classes; each response class is a successive approximation toward a terminal behavior. Members of an existing response class are selected for differential reinforcement because they more closely resemble the terminal behavior.

Be sure to understand what successive approximation means, and be able to state accurately whether a specific example illustrates or does not illustrate this concept.

• Successive approximations are new response classes, each one closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces.

Define, describe, and give examples of the strategies for promoting the generality of behavior change.

• Teach the full range of relevant stimulus conditions and response requirements: For example: whether a student can perform previously learned tasks with a different teacher present i. Teach sufficient stimulus examples ii. Teach sufficient response examples • Make the instructional setting similar to the generalization setting: For example: Instead of working in a cubicle, perhaps moving instruction to a setting such as the classroom. i. Program common stimuli ii. Teach loosely • Maximize the target behavior's contact with reinforcement in the generalization setting: i. Teach the target behavior to levels of performance required by naturally existing contingencies of reinforcement ii. Program indiscriminable contingencies iii. Set behavior traps iv. Ask people in the generalization setting to reinforce the target behavior v. Teach the learner to recruit reinforcement • Mediate generalization: for example: arrange some thing or person to act as a medium that ensures the transfer of the target behavior from the instructional setting i. Contrive a mediating stimulus ii. Teach self management skills • Train to generalize i. Reinforce response variability ii. Instruct the learner to generalize

1. List the three important aspects implicit in the definition of time out.

• The discrepancy between the "time-in" and the time out environment. • The response-contingent loss of access to reinforcement. • A resultant decrease in the future frequency of the behavior.

What is the importance for analyzing the response class prior to beginning shaping, and describe ways of conducting such an analysis.

• The importance is to attempt to identify the approximations that might be emitted in the shaping sequence. It is easier for the practitioner to then record data on when it is emitted.

What are the reasons why we need to establish generalization of behaviors we teach?

• The most socially significant behavior changes are those that last over time, are used by the learner in all relevant settings and situations and are accompanied by changes in other relevant responses.

10. Cite the difference between the procedure and the functional effect of response cost.

• The procedure involves the period of time when the person is either removed or loses access to reinforcers within an environment. If the rate of future behavior decreases, this address the functional effect of response cost.

Describe the different ways of evaluating the effectiveness of a contract and its components. Also be able to describe the better way(s) of evaluating a contract's effectiveness.

• The simplest way to evaluate a contract is to record the occurrence of task completion. If the task is being completed according to the data of task completion though parties involved are not happy it is vital to see whether the wrong behavior for the task was addressed in the contract. It is also important to consider the participant's reactions to the contract (not causing maladaptive or emotional responses).

Describe problems with attempting to explain natural communities of reinforcement.

• The staff or adults sought to implement natural communities of reinforcement may not be engaging in it.

2. Describe value-altering effect and how it relates to motivating operations.

• The value-altering effect is either an increase or decrease in the reinforcers effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event in which case the MO is an establishing operation or an abolishing operation.

1. Be able to define, give examples of, and differentiate between establishing operation (EO), abolishing operation (AO), and motivating operation (MO). If given an example, be able to label it correctly.

• There are two types of MO's: EO and AO. EO increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer/increases the behavior previously reinforced with that reinforcer. AO decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer and decreases the behavior related to that reinforcer. i. Examples: 1. EO: Deprivation of toys/food item 2. AO: food consumption/playing with toy all day

Describe the considerations for selecting what will be used as a token.

• They should be durable, easy to carry and readily accessible.

State the Stokes and Baer definition of generalization.

• Three facets of generalized behavior change include across time, settings and behaviors. • Generalization is the occurrence of relevant behavior under different, non-training conditions (i.e. across subjects, settings, people behaviors and or time) without the scheduling of the same events in those conditions. Thus, generalization may be claimed when no extratraining manipulations are needed for extratraining changes; or may be claimed when some extra manipulations are necessary, but their cost is clearly less than that of direct intervention. Generalization will not be claimed when similar events are necessary for similar effects across conditions.

5. Name the three procedures of exclusionary time out. Define each, compare and contrast it with the others, and describe the procedure. If given an example, be able to label it the type of exclusionary time out it represents.

• Time out room: a confined, safe space outside the person's normal educational or treatment environment that has no reinforcers. • Partition time-out: the person is restricted to the setting by a partition/wall/cubicle, though in the same environment. • Hallway time-out: the child must sit in the hallway and leave the classroom.

Define token economy and describe the three characteristics, or aspects, that make up a token economy.

• Token Economy: a system whereby participants can earn generalized reinforcers as an immediate consequence for specific behaviors; participants accumulate tokens and exchange them for items and activities from a menu of backup reinforcers. The system consists of: i. Specified list of target behaviors ii. Tokens or points that participants receive for emitting the target behaviors iii. A menu of backup reinforcer items-preferred items, activities or privileges that participants obtain by exchanging tokens they have earned.

Describe what is meant by topographically incompatible and given an original example.

• Topographically incompatible relates to the physical nature of a behavior. Physically, it is impossible to emit two behaviors at the same time that are topographically incompatible. For instance, it is impossible for a student to be seated versus standing in a classroom.

List the four parts of the "task" component of a contract.

• Who is the person who will perform the task and receive the reward • What is the task or behavior the person must perform • When the task must be completed • How well the task should be completed