Amendments 13-27

Amendment 16

-Income tax begins. -Ratified February 3, 1913

Amendment 15

-U.S. citizens of all races can vote -Ratified February 3, 1870

Which amendment is the only one to be ratified by a state ratifying convention?

21st

Which amendment has there never been a Supreme Court case about?

3rd

Lame Duck

A politician who is still in office after having lost a reelection bid

Amendment 13

Abolish slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime; Ratified December 6, 1865

What was the reason for the withdrawal of the right of women to vote in New Jersey in 1807, and what was the alleged incident that prompted the change? Was there any recorded opposition to this act of disfranchisement at the time?

After a few hotly contested elections in which rampant voter fraud was alleged, there were calls to tighten voter qualifications. In 1807, amid allegations that men dressed as women had been going to the polls to cast a second ballot, the right of women to vote in New Jersey was withdrawn. If there was much opposition to this act of disfranchisement, history has failed to record it.

What is unique about the Twenty-First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in terms of its relationship to a previous amendment, and what distinctive feature does it have regarding the ratification process, deviating from the usual method outlined in Article V?

Although the Constitution has been formally amended 27 times, the Twenty-First Amendment is the only one that repeals a previous amendment, namely, the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited "the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors. In addition, it is the only amendment which was ratified, not by the legislatures of the states, but by state ratifying conventions, as called for by the Amendment's third section. The Constitution, in Article V, allows for ratification by either method.

18th Amendment

Bans the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol in the United States; Ratified January 16th, 1919

What were the changes made to voting laws in the former Confederate States beginning in Florida in 1889, and how did these changes impact voter turnout and registration, particularly among eligible Black voters?

Beginning in Florida in 1889, all the former Confederate States, and a few others, instituted a suite of changes to voting laws as a part of this effort. They introduced literacy tests and disqualified convicted felons from voting. They also resurrected poll taxes. The historical record is filled with racially derogatory statements from delegates at State constitutional conventions who believed poll taxes and other devices would suppress Black voter registration and turnout; Together, these changes resulted in significant declines in voter turnout and registration, particularly among eligible Black voters, but poll taxes would burden many poor white voters, too, creating a significant economically disparate impact. Even though the poll taxes were usually nominal, often just $1 or $2, that was a measurable sum for poorer voters of that era—the equivalent of $20 to $40 today.

How was the 27th amendment passed and what does the Amendment specifically address?

Congress passed the Twenty-Seventh Amendment by a two-thirds vote of both Houses, in 1789, along with eleven other proposed constitutional amendments (the last ten of which were ratified by the states in 1791, becoming the Bill of Rights); The Amendment provides that: "No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of representatives shall have intervened."

23rd Amendment

DC gets 3 electoral votes; ratified March 29th, 1961

The 24th Amendment extended to which type of elections?

Federal

What was the Framers' concern about people going into public office to make money, and how did they attempt to prevent this issue?

Franklin's comments caused the Framers at the Philadelphia Convention to focus on the problem of making sure that people did not go into public office to make a lot of money. In England, at the time, the biggest problem of English democracy was the phenomenon known as "placemen." Placemen were members of Parliament who the King simultaneously appointed to lucrative executive branch offices to buy their loyalty on votes in Parliament. The King had built up his power by corrupting these office holders, giving them easy and well-paid civil office jobs so that they would support him in Parliament --To prevent this problem, the Framers added Article I, Section 6's Incompatibility Clause, which says that "no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office." The Framers described the Incompatibility Clause as being "The Cornerstone of the Constitution." But as to salaries for congressmen themselves, the Constitution simply said those salaries should be provided for by law—in other words, that Congress would set its own pay. This did not sit well with the general public, or with James Madison—it seemed like a big opening for Congress to pay itself too much

19th Amendment

Gives women right to vote; Ratified August 18, 1920

Amendment 14

Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and guarantees them equal protection under the law; Ratified July 9, 1868

What happens if the President-elect were to die before taking office, or if neither a President-elect nor Vice President-elect qualified for office, who would act as President in such a scenario as specified in the Constitution?

If the President-elect were to die before taking office, then the Vice President-elect would become the President. If, for some reason, a President had not been chosen by the time their term was supposed to begin, or if the President-elect failed to meet the qualifications for office, then the Vice President-elect would act as President until a President could be properly chosen; In the event that neither a President-elect nor Vice President-elect qualified for office, then Congress would be authorized to pass a law declaring who would act as President, or how that person would be selected, and that person would serve as President until a President or Vice President could be properly qualified.

What happens if there is a vacancy for the VP? And what does Gerald Ford have to do with this?

If there is a vacancy for vice president (they die, quit, get removed, or ascend to the presidency), the president nominates a new vice president to be confirmed by a majority vote in the House and the Senate; In 1973, Gerald Ford became Vice President after Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned. When Ford took over the presidency the following year, he promptly invoked Section 2 to nominate Nelson Rockefeller to fill the resulting vice-presidential vacancy.

What was the original intention behind the amendment proposed by Madison in 1789 that eventually became the Twenty-Seventh Amendment, and why did Madison propose that an intervening election of members of Congress be required before congressional pay increases could take effect?

In 1789, Madison proposed twelve amendments to the federal Constitution, the first ten of which were ratified in 1791 and became the federal Bill of Rights. One of the proposed amendments, which was not ratified at that time, was an amendment that became the Twenty-Seventh Amendment and which forbade congressional pay increases from taking effect until there had been an intervening election of members of Congress. --Madison did not want Congress to have power over its own pay without limitation, but he also did not want the President to control congressional salaries, since that would give the President too much power over Congress. Instead, he proposed that an election had to happen before any pay raise could take effect. If the public opposed an overly generous congressional pay raise, the public could throw the offending congressmen out of office when they ran for re-election.

What was the significance of the Supreme Court's decision in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections in 1966?

In 1966, in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, the Supreme Court would find that poll taxes in all state and local elections were prohibited under the Equal Protection Clause.

Who pushed for the 27th amendment's ratification?

In the 1980s, a college student named Gregory Watson wrote a paper arguing that the amendment could still be ratified, as there was no deadline specified in the text of the amendment

What were the Voting Rights Act and what did they accomplish?

It was a landmark piece of legislation passed by Congress in 1965. The VRA aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; The Voting Rights Act has been credited with greatly increasing the number of African Americans and other minorities who are able to participate in the political process. Prior to the VRA, many states used a variety of tactics to prevent minorities from voting, including poll taxes, literacy tests, and violence. Since the VRA was passed, there has been a significant increase in voter registration and turnout among minorities.

What led to the ratification of the 18th Amendment?

It was the result of a long-standing temperance movement that believed alcohol was responsible for social problems like poverty, crime, and domestic violence, as well as health issues. The amendment was also influenced by the Progressive Era reforms and World War I, with many believing prohibition was necessary for public health and national pride.

Suspect Classifications

Legal classifications, such as race and national origin, that have invidious discrimination as their purpose and therefore are unconstitutional.

How have courts interpreted the scope of state authority under the second section of the Twenty-First Amendment and to what extent has the power of Congress to regulate commerce among the several states been affected? Additionally, what is the usual focus of litigations involving Twenty-First Amendment issues, and how much narrower has the power of Congress been established to be with respect to displacing state regulatory policies on alcohol compared to other goods and services?

Litigation of Twenty-First Amendment issues has nearly always concerned the meaning of the Amendment's second section, and usually the scope of state authority under it. Often questions arise concerning the impact of the second section of the Twenty-First Amendment on the power of Congress "to regulate commerce . . . among the several states . . . ." under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution. The courts have held that the Amendment means that the power of Congress to displace state regulatory policies is narrower with respect to alcohol than it is to other goods and services; but precisely how much narrower has not been fully established.

What is the misconception surrounding the Emancipation Proclamation and how did it impact the freedom of slaves in the border states during the Civil War?

Many think that slavery ended with the Emancipation Proclamation but it actually it only applied to slaves held in the eleven Confederate states that had seceded from the Union during the Civil War. This meant that slaves in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union, such as Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri, were not immediately freed by the Proclamation.

What was the concern among some members of Congress regarding Wyoming's decision to grant women the right to vote, and how did this fear play out in the movement towards the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment? When did the Nineteenth Amendment pass the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate, and how did the language of the amendment compare to that of the Fifteenth Amendment? How many states had granted full voting rights to women by the time the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, and how many still barred women from voting entirely?

Members of Congress who worried Wyoming's example would be difficult for other states to resist were right; After a number of false starts, the Nineteenth Amendment, with language modeled after the Fifteenth Amendment, passed the U.S. House of Representatives on May 21, 1919, and the Senate two weeks later; By then, fifteen states provided full voting rights to women, including New York and Michigan. Another group gave them partial voting rights (such as the right to vote in municipal elections or primaries). Only seven states barred women from voting entirely (Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Alabama)

How did the recognition of the right to vote as a fundamental constitutional right develop in American constitutional law, and which amendments have been used to protect this right?

Most Americans probably believe the "right to vote" is one of their most fundamental constitutional rights. It will come as a surprise, therefore, to learn that neither the original Constitution nor the Bill of Rights nor any other provision of the Constitution expressly guarantees the right to vote. Only in the 1960s, when the Supreme Court began to conclude that the Fourteenth Amendment implicitly protected the right to vote, did American constitutional doctrine begin to treat the right to vote as a fundamental constitutional right. Once the Court recognized the right to vote, decisions of the Supreme Court helped revolutionize the way voting was treated under American constitutional law. Most of the law concerning "the right to vote" developed under the Fourteenth Amendment, though important Court decisions also have relied at times on the Fifteenth Amendment.

22nd Amendment

No one can be elected as President more than twice. No one who has been President or acted as President for more than two years of someone else's term can be elected as President more than once. The 22nd Amendment does not apply to anyone who was President when it was proposed and does not prevent anyone who is currently President from finishing their current term, even if it means they will have served more than two terms as President; ratified February 27, 1951,

Prior to the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, what were the historical issues surrounding the Vice Presidency, and why did it become more concerning when the Vice Presidency grew into its modern form as a sort of deputy presidency? How did the 1947 Presidential Succession Act contribute to these concerns?

Prior to the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, one Vice President resigned, seven died in office, and eight took over for Presidents who died in office: all in all, the vice presidency was unoccupied more than 20 percent of the time. This was less of a problem when the office was held in low regard, which it mostly was until the mid-twentieth century. But as the vice presidency began to grow into its modern form—a sort of deputy presidency—it became more worrisome for the office to be vacant; These worries were sharpened by Congress's design of the 1947 Presidential Succession Act, which places the Speaker of the House and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate immediately behind the Vice President in line for the presidency, even when they do not belong to the President's political party.

20th Amendment

Ratified January 23, 1933, sets the terms of the Pres and VP and establishes procedures in the event that the President-elect dies before taking office.

21st Amendment

Repeals Abolition; Ratified December 5, 1933

Based on the 25th Amendment, who is next in line behind the Vice President for the presidency?

Speaker of the House

What were the key provisions of the constitutional amendment starting from 1920?

Starting a year from ratification (in 1920), you couldn't make, sell, or transport alcohol anywhere in the U.S. for the purpose of drinking. You also couldn't import alcohol from, or export it to, other countries for drinking purposes

What was the role of Tennessee in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, and how close was the vote in the state's House of Representatives? Who ultimately cast the decisive vote, and what was his initial position on the issue? What influenced his decision to ultimately vote in favor of ratification, and how did this decision impact the ultimate outcome of the ratification process?

Tennessee was the state that put the Amendment over the top in a 49-47 nail-biter vote in the Tennessee House of Representatives; The decisive vote was cast by 24-year old Harry Burn, who had intended to vote against it; he received a letter from his mother urging him to "be a good boy" and vote for ratification.

What argument did Susan B. Anthony make regarding the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause and its relation to women's suffrage? How did her attempt to vote in the 1872 Presidential election result in her arrest, and what was the outcome of her subsequent trial? Additionally, how did Virginia Minor's case in Missouri challenge the denial of women's suffrage, and what was the Supreme Court's ruling in Minor v. Happersett regarding women's right to vote under the Fourteenth Amendment?

That the recently-ratified Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause gave all women the right to vote. Women had always been citizens, but when the Fourteenth Amendment made it clear that no citizen should be denied the privileges and immunities of citizenship, that conferred on women the right to vote, she argued; When Anthony tried to vote, to her surprise, she was permitted to do so. Her victory was, however, short-lived. Two weeks after the election she was arrested for illegal voting. Despite her argument about the significance of the Fourteenth Amendment, she was convicted. Meanwhile, in Missouri, Virginia Minor had also attempted to register to vote, but had been refused. She launched her own lawsuit also citing the Fourteenth Amendment; In Minor v. Happersett, (1875), the Supreme Court rejected the argument, holding that while women were citizens within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment, citizenship alone did not confer the right to vote.

Pollock v. The Farmers' Loan and Trust Co (1894)

The 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act imposed a federal income tax on incomes over $4,000, including income from dividends and municipal bonds. Charles Pollock, a shareholder earning income from municipal bonds, challenged the tax as a direct tax violating the Constitution's apportionment requirement. The Supreme Court agreed in a 5-4 decision, striking down the income tax provision. This decision led to the 16th Amendment, granting Congress the power to tax income without apportionment among the states.

What is the provision granted by the Congress in the event of the death of a person from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President or the Senate may choose a Vice President when their right of choice has devolved upon them?

The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

When is the requirement for Congress to assemble and meet at least once every year?

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3rd day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

Which political party supported the abolition of slavery?

The Republican Party

What was the Supreme Court's stance on the constitutionality of poll taxes, and when did most states abandon the use of poll taxes?

The Supreme Court repeatedly affirmed the constitutionality of poll taxes. In its 1937 opinion in Breedlove v. Suttles, the Supreme Court unanimously rejected a claim from a white Georgia voter that the poll tax violated the Equal Protection Clause. In 1951, it rejected a similar claim challenging Virginia's poll tax in Butler v. Thompson; By 1962, most states had abandoned poll taxes, but they remained in effect in five: Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia. Even there, the states had eased the rules somewhat, such as limiting the cumulative effect of poll taxes. But that year, as the Civil Rights Movement gained traction, President John F. Kennedy endorsed eliminating both poll taxes and literacy tests in his State of the Union address.

What is the significance of the Taxing Clause in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, and how does it impact the way direct taxes are apportioned among the states based on population? Additionally, how does this requirement make direct taxation cumbersome and often impossible?

The Taxing Clause in Article I, Section 8, grants Congress the broad power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises," but Article I also provides (twice) that a "direct" tax must be apportioned among the states on the basis of population. This means that if a tax is a "direct" tax, a state with one-tenth of the national population must bear one-tenth of the total liability. It doesn't matter whether one state has lots of whatever is being taxed (such as valuable land) and another state has very little—the states have to bear the burden according to population. That requirement makes direct taxation cumbersome, and often impossible.

What is the significance of the second section of the Twenty-First Amendment and how has it impacted the regulation of alcoholic beverages in the United States?

The Twenty-First Amendment did not, however, restore the status quo ante. Had its first section stood alone, that would have been the result. But its second section has been interpreted by the courts and others as giving broad authority over the regulation of alcoholic beverages to the states and limiting the power of the national government to intrude upon state alcohol beverage control policies. States, in turn, can and in many cases have delegated authority to counties and localities. As a result, the availability of alcoholic beverages, their prices, and the terms and conditions under which they can be obtained (for example, whether a county is "dry," or whether a state itself exercises a monopoly on the sale of wines and spirits) have varied substantially across the country.

24th Amendment

The United States and the individual states can't deny or diminish a U.S citizen's right to vote in a primary—or in any other election—for president and vice president, for presidential and vice presidential electors, or for U.S. representatives or U.S. senators, because of that citizen's failure to pay a poll tax (or any other tax); ratified January 23rd, 1964

What led to the creation of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, and how quickly was it ratified? Specifically, who was responsible for its proposal and ratification?

The assassination of JFK brought renewed attention to these questions. Led by Senator Birch Bayh, Congress gave them focused consideration and, in July of 1965, sent the Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the states for ratification. Less than two years later, the necessary thirty-eighth state legislature ratified it

Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)

The case involved a group of African American students in Topeka, Kansas, who were denied admission to white-only public schools. The students argued that segregated schools were inherently unequal and violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, as it denied African American students equal protection under the law. The Court held that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal, and that segregation had a detrimental effect on African American students, depriving them of equal opportunities for education and personal development. --The Brown v. Board of Education decision was a major milestone in the Civil Rights Movement, and helped to bring an end to legal segregation in the United States. The decision paved the way for further legal challenges to segregation in other areas of public life, and helped to inspire a new wave of activism and protest in the African American community. Although the decision was met with resistance and defiance in some parts of the country, it helped to establish the principle of equal protection under the law, and played a significant role in the broader struggle for civil rights in the United States.

What is the history of the ratification process of the congressional pay amendment, and why did it take so long for it to be ratified by enough states to become part of the Constitution?

The congressional pay amendment was only ratified by 6 states initially, but the First Congress, which had passed the Amendment in 1789, had not attached a time limit within which the Amendment had to be ratified by the states (some subsequent constitutional amendments have provided for such time limits.) In the nineteenth century, one state joined this small group, and others in the twentieth, but no one thought it was going anywhere—or thought about it much at all.

Why is the right to vote not expressly protected in the original Constitution and the Bill of Rights, and where is voting directly recognized in the original Constitution? Additionally, how have constitutional amendments since the Civil War addressed voting issues?

The reason the original Constitution and the Bill of Rights do not expressly protect the right to vote is that doing so would have been too controversial and divisive at the time. Different states had different rules for who could vote (many states had property-holding requirements and differed on the amount; some states permitted women and free black men to vote, others did not). To create a uniform standard across the country would have required resolving these major differences. The only place where voting is directly recognized in the original Constitution is for choosing members of the House of Representatives; Article I, Section 2 provides that the people eligible to vote for members of the U.S. House will be determined by whom the States let vote for their own house of representatives; Since the Civil War, many constitutional amendments address voting issues, but these amendments are written to prohibit certain bases for denying the vote to some people once the vote is extended to others

When is the end of the terms of the President and Vice President and for Senators and Representatives

The terms of the President and the Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3rd day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified

Why did those who proposed the Twenty-First Amendment take the unprecedented step of calling for ratification by convention delegates rather than by legislators?

Though prohibition of alcohol had lost a great deal of popular support by the early 1930s, the political power of the temperance lobby remained intact in a great many states. Many state legislators and legislative leaders were likely to be unwilling to risk the lobby's wrath.

Volstead Act

To define the prohibitory terms of the Amendment, Congress passed the Volstead Act, on October 28, 1919. The Volstead Act charged the U.S. Treasury Department with enforcement of the new restrictions, and defined which "intoxicating liquours" were forbidden and which were excluded from Prohibition (for example, alcoholic beverages used for medical and religious purposes). President Woodrow Wilson vetoed the bill, but the House of Representatives overrode the veto, and the Senate did so as well the next day. The Volstead Act set the starting date for nationwide prohibition for January 17, 1920, which was the earliest day allowed by the Eighteenth Amendment.

What was the traditional voting age requirement in the United States, and when and why was it lowered to 18? How did the Vietnam Conflict and the drafting of men between 18 and 20 influence the decision to lower the voting age, and what specific legislation was enacted to implement the change?

Traditionally, Americans had to be at least 21 years old to vote (Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment, enacted after the Civil War, protects the right to vote for the "male inhabitants of [each] state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States"). States were permitted to lower the voting age, but not required to do so; By the time of the Vietnam Conflict, most states still limited the franchise to people 21 and older. Because so many men between 18 and 20 were being drafted to fight in Vietnam, Congress came under substantial pressure to expand the franchise to them. Congress consequently enacted the Voting Rights Act of 1970, which lowered the voting age to 18 for all federal, state, and local elections.

26th Amendment

Voting Is 18+ and U.S. citizens age 18 or older can't have their right to vote denied or diminished by the United States, or by any individual state, because of their age; ratified July 1, 1971

What was the process of ratifying the United States Constitution in article VII and when did it take effect? How many delegates were present and who were the delegates that refused to sign? Which states were the first to ratify the Constitution? Lastly, which states followed suit and ratified the Constitution afterwards?

When the nine states ratified, which was finished writing and editing on Sept. 17th, 1787, it will take effect; Forty-one delegates were present and three refused to sign (Elbridge Gerry, George Mason and Edmond Randolph). The nine states that ratified: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, and South Carolina. New Hampshire Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island followed

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

a Louisiana law that required separate railroad cars for white and black passengers. Homer Plessy, who was of mixed race and appeared to be white, refused to sit in a "colored" car and was arrested and convicted for violating the law. In a 7-1 decision, the Supreme Court upheld the Louisiana law, ruling that segregation was constitutional as long as the separate facilities were "equal" in quality. This became known as the "separate but equal" doctrine. The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause did not require social equality, only political and legal equality. --Plessy v. Ferguson is widely regarded as one of the worst decisions in the history of the Supreme Court, as it allowed for the continuation of racial segregation and discrimination for many decades. It stands as a reminder of the struggle for civil rights and the ongoing need for vigilance in protecting the rights of all individuals.

What is the Supremacy Clause? How does it require state judges to adhere to the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties? What type of test does it prohibit as a requirement for holding federal office? And to what extent does it apply to all states, territories, and properties within the jurisdiction of the United States?

it establishes the U.S. Constitution, federal laws, and treaties as the supreme law of the land. The clause specifies that federal law takes priority over state law in cases of conflict between the two; It also requires all state judges to adhere to the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties, even if state law conflicts with them. Furthermore, it prohibits any religious test as a requirement for holding federal office; The Supremacy Clause applies to all states, territories, and properties within the jurisdiction of the United States.

Black Codes/Jim Crow

laws enacted by Southern states in the United States after the Civil War, between 1865 and 1866, that were aimed at restricting the civil rights and freedoms of African Americans. These codes were a response to the end of slavery and the Reconstruction era, during which the federal government sought to rebuild the Southern states and protect the rights of newly freed slaves. ---The Black Codes varied from state to state, but they typically included provisions that restricted the right to vote, regulated labor (The codes imposed strict rules on workers, especially African Americans, to ensure a steady labor supply for agriculture and industry, and to prevent them from owning farms or businesses. They also restricted movement in which the codes restricted the ability of African Americans to move around freely, requiring them to carry special identification papers and imposing curfews. Lastly, limited access to education was what the codes often denied African Americans access to public schools or required them to attend separate, inferior schools.

Due Process Clause

no state may deprive a person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law

25th Amendment

outlines the process of presidential succession and vice presidential vacancies; Ratified February 10, 1967

27th Amendment

prohibits Congress from giving itself a pay raise during the current session. If Congress approves a pay raise for its members, the pay raise will not take effect until the next session of Congress begins; Originally proposed September 25, 1789. Ratified May 5th, 1992

The Equal Protection Clause

prohibits states from denying equal protection under the law, and has been used to combat discrimination

Privileges and Immunities Clause

prohibits states from discriminating against citizens of other states. Specifically, it states that "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States." This means that states cannot treat citizens of other states differently or deny them basic rights and protections that are afforded to their own citizens. The clause is aimed at promoting equality and preventing discrimination across state lines.

What were the five distinct groups that made up the political coalition identified by Daniel Okrent in his study of the Eighteenth Amendment and its repeal?

racists, progressives, suffragists, populists, and nativists

17th Amendment

ratified in 1913, established the direct election of United States senators by popular vote. Prior to the amendment, senators were chosen by state legislatures. The amendment was intended to make the Senate more democratic and responsive to the people. It has since remained a cornerstone of the American electoral system.

Lochner v. New York (1905)

struck down a state law regulating the working hours of bakers. The court ruled that the law violated the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause, which protects the liberty of individuals to enter into contracts without undue interference from the government. The decision was controversial at the time, with critics arguing that it favored business interests over the health and safety of workers. The case has been widely criticized and is often cited as an example of judicial activism and the Supreme Court's improper interference in economic policy-making.

How does the denial of voting rights to male U.S. citizens in a state affect the basis for that state's U.S. representatives?

the basis for that state's U.S. representatives is decreased by the number of 21-and-up guys it won't let vote

What happens if the President writes to the Senate President pro tempore and Speaker of the House to say they are unable to perform the duties of the presidency, and until the President informs them that they are able to resume the presidency, who acts as President?

the vice president acts as president

Citizenship Clause

grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction. This means that anyone born on American soil, regardless of their parents' citizenship or immigration status, is automatically a US citizen. The clause was added to the Constitution after the Civil War to ensure that all persons born in the United States, including former slaves, were recognized as citizens with equal rights and protections under the law.

What was the Supreme Court's ruling in the case of Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), and how did it impact the voting age for federal versus state and local elections? What was the response from Congress, and what did they do to address the issue? How quickly was the proposed amendment to lower the voting age to 18 for all elections ratified, and what is its significance in U.S. history?

hyIn Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), a deeply divided Supreme Court held that Congress had authority to lower the voting age in federal elections, but lacked power to do so for state and local elections. Thus, states were statutorily required to allow people between 18 and 20 to vote for President, U.S. Senate, and the U.S. House of Representatives, but retained discretion to limit state and local elections to voters who were at least 21.; In response to Oregon, Congress proposed the Twenty-Sixth Amendment to lower the voting age to 18 for all elections; The Amendment was ratified in less than four months—the shortest ratification period of any constitutional amendment.

Who was and who was not granted the right to vote?

-The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution granted the right to vote to African American men who had been previously enslaved and denied the right to vote under state and federal law. Specifically, the 15th Amendment prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." -However, it is important to note that the 15th Amendment did not immediately grant full voting rights to all African American men. Despite the legal protections provided by the 15th Amendment, many states implemented discriminatory practices to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote. It was not until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that many of these practices were effectively ended and African Americans were able to fully exercise their right to vote. -It is also important to note that the 15th Amendment did not grant voting rights to other groups, such as women, Native Americans, and non-citizens. These groups would have to continue their own struggles for suffrage and voting rights through the passage of separate laws and constitutional amendments.

Obergefell v. Hodges

-Obergefell v. Hodges was a landmark United States Supreme Court case decided in 2015. The case involved a challenge to state laws that prohibited same-sex couples from marrying and refused to recognize same-sex marriages legally performed in other states. The plaintiffs argued that these laws violated their rights to equal protection and due process under the Fourteenth Amendment. - In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that state laws banning same-sex marriage and refusing to recognize same-sex marriages from other states were unconstitutional. The Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees the right to marry as a fundamental right, and that this right extends to same-sex couples. The Court also held that denying same-sex couples the right to marry violates the principles of equal protection and due process under the law. -The Obergefell v. Hodges decision was a major milestone in the struggle for LGBT rights and represented a significant victory for advocates of marriage equality. The decision legalized same-sex marriage across the United States, and provided legal recognition and protection for millions of same-sex couples and their families. -Although the decision was met with opposition and controversy in some parts of the country, it helped to establish the principle of equal protection under the law for all individuals, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity. The Obergefell v. Hodges decision continues to have significant legal and social implications, and is considered one of the most important Supreme Court decisions of the 21st century.

What conditions cannot be used against your right to vote in the U.S.?

-Race, color or ethnicity -Gender -Disability -Language

Slaughterhouse Cases

-a series of U.S. Supreme Court cases decided in 1873 that dealt with the meaning and scope of the Fourteenth Amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause. The cases arose in the aftermath of the Civil War, during a period of significant political and social change in the United States. -The cases arose from a dispute over a Louisiana law that granted a monopoly on the butchering of animals in New Orleans to a single company, the Crescent City Live-Stock Landing and Slaughter-House Company. Other local butchers argued that the law violated their constitutional rights by depriving them of their livelihoods and creating a monopoly. They argued that the Privileges and Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment protected their right to work and earn a living. -In its decision, the Supreme Court rejected this argument and narrowly interpreted the Privileges or Immunities Clause. The Court held that the Clause only protected a limited set of federal rights, such as the right to travel, the right to petition the government, and the right to access federal courts. The Court also held that most rights were protected by the individual states, rather than the federal government. -The Slaughterhouse Cases were controversial at the time and remain so today. Critics argue that the Court's narrow interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause undermined the purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment and limited its protections for individual rights. Others argue that the decision was necessary to preserve the balance of power between the federal government and the states, and to protect states' rights.

Griswold v. Connecticut

-case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1965 which involved a Connecticut law that made it illegal for anyone, including married couples, to use contraceptives or to give information or advice about contraceptives to others. The law had been in place since 1879 and was one of the most restrictive in the country. -The plaintiffs in the case were Estelle Griswold, the executive director of the Planned Parenthood League of Connecticut, and Lee Buxton, a physician and professor at Yale Medical School. They were arrested and convicted for providing information and contraceptives to married couples. -In a 7-2 decision, the Supreme Court struck down the Connecticut law as unconstitutional, finding that it violated the right to privacy. The Court held that the Constitution protects a "zone of privacy" that includes the decision to use contraception and that this right is derived from various provisions of the Bill of Rights, including the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Ninth Amendments. -The Court's decision in Griswold was a significant landmark in the development of privacy rights in the United States. It established a constitutional right to privacy that would later be extended to other areas, such as abortion rights and same-sex marriage. The decision was also important in establishing the principle of "substantive due process," which means that certain fundamental rights are protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, even if they are not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution.

The Senate Report accompanying the Twenty-Sixth Amendment explained that it was proposed for three main reasons.

1. younger citizens are fully mature enough to vote 2. 18-year-olds bear all or most of an adult's responsibilities 3. younger voters should be given the chance to influence our society in a peaceful and constructive manner

Hylton v. United States

a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1796, shortly after the ratification of the United States Constitution. The case dealt with the constitutionality of a federal tax on carriages, which was enacted by Congress in 1794 in order to raise revenue to pay off debts from the Revolutionary War. In the case, a carriage owner named John Hylton argued that the tax was unconstitutional because it violated the principle of apportionment, which required taxes to be levied in proportion to the population of each state. Hylton claimed that the carriage tax was a direct tax, and that it should have been apportioned among the states based on population. --The Supreme Court, in a unanimous decision, rejected Hylton's argument and upheld the constitutionality of the carriage tax. Chief Justice John Jay wrote the Court's opinion, in which he held that the tax was an indirect tax that did not need to be apportioned among the states. Jay reasoned that the tax was a "duty," or a tax on an activity, rather than a tax on property, and that it was therefore permissible under the Constitution without being apportioned among the states. Hylton v. United States was significant because it was one of the earliest cases to interpret the meaning of the Constitution's taxation clauses, and it established the principle that some taxes could be imposed without being apportioned among the states based on population. The decision also reflected the Court's early willingness to uphold federal laws and to interpret the Constitution in a way that supported the authority of the federal government.

What was the Seneca Falls Convention, and who were the key organizers? What were some of the main goals and objectives of the convention, particularly in terms of securing legal rights for women, and what were some of the successes that the women's rights movement had already achieved prior to the convention? Additionally, what was Elizabeth Cady Stanton's view on the importance of securing the power to make laws, and how did this shape the goals of the women's rights movement going forward?

a women's rights convention held on July 19-20, 1848, in Seneca Falls, NY. Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott; Reformers focused on securing for married women the right to own and control property independently of their husbands, to enter into contracts and to sue and be sued—precious rights single women already had; Stanton introduced her resolution at Seneca Falls, and it passed . "I persisted, for I saw clearly that the power to make laws was the right through which all other rights could be secured."

Barron v. Baltimore (1833)

case involved a dispute between a private citizen, John Barron, and the city of Baltimore over the city's construction of a wharf that allegedly caused damage to Barron's property. Barron argued that the city's actions violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits the taking of private property for public use without just compensation. However, the Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment did not apply to the states or their subdivisions, such as the city of Baltimore. The Court ruled that the Bill of Rights only limited the powers of the federal government, not those of the state governments. The decision was controversial at the time, and has since been criticized for its narrow interpretation of the Bill of Rights and for its failure to provide adequate protection for individual rights at the state level. The case is often cited as an example of the doctrine of "dual sovereignty," which holds that the federal government and the states are separate and distinct entities with their own respective spheres of authority.