Anatomy and Physiology II Exam II
Enteric Nervous System
"Gut brain" a division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system
Irritant Receptors (+ or -)
(+ or -) Irritants (chemicals can increase or decrease breathing)
Central Chemoreceptors
(+) (In the brain) Increase CO2 (via increase in H+) Detects H+ ions Brain will increase respiration to get rid of CO2 (H+) Carbonic anhydrase makes the process quick
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
(+) (In the carotid bodies and aortic bodies) Decrease O2, increase CO2 and increase in H+ Detects chemicals
Receptors in muscles or joints
(+) Increase O2 usage Increases CO2 production
Stretch receptors in lungs (-)
(-) Dilate back lungs if stretched too far -If lungs are over stretched, body does opposite and slows breathing rate -This will maintain normal pH level in blood
Small cell carcinoma
(15% of cases) Contains lymphocyte-like cells that originate in primary bronchi and subsequently metastasize
Squamous cell carcinoma
(20% of cases) Arises in bronchial epithelium -Mediastinum (starts producing hormones) -Creates berry like structures in mediastinum around the lungs -Berry like structures produce hormones which causes normal production of actual hormone to stop -Structures produce antidiuretic hormone but an insufficient and erratic amount
Alveolar Ventilation *Go over for exam
(Air flow, 4.2 L/min) Amount of air we breath in that reaches the alveoli -High PCO2 (hypercapnia) causes bronchodialation (more CO2 out) -Low PCO2 (hypercapnia) causes bronchoconstriction (Constricting certain alveolar capillaries) *Direct airflow to lobules with higher PCO2 *Control pH of blood through multiple measures
Long Perfusion *Go over for exam
(Blood flow, 5.5l/min, Q) Amount of blood traveling to/ through the alveolar capillaries Alveolar capillaries constrict when local PO2 is low -Tend to shunt blood to lobules with high PO2 *Constricting certain alveolar capillaries *Body is able to recognize where the PO2 is *Chemoreceptors can make this happen
Higher brain centers
(Cerebral cortex, + or -) -Voluntary control over breathing -Holding your breath under water or forced inspiration
Daltons law of partial pressures
(PO2, PC02) Total pressure exerted by mixture of gases is equal to sum of pressures exerted by each gas N2+O2+CO2+H2O= 760mmHg (All pressures will add up to around 760mmHg)
Acinar cells of pancreas
(exocrine) produce enzyme-rich juice for digestion *Zymogen granules and rough endoplasmic reticulum
Respiratory mucosa
(membrane) where the curled bones lie
Accessory Digestive Organs
(teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas)
Pharynx
(upper) Nasopharynx: Connects nose to throat (middle) Oropharynx: Connects mouth to throat (Lower) Laryngopharynx: Connects larynx to esophagus *Air goes down larynx
Dental Formula
*2-1-2-3 The numerical description of a species' teeth, listing the number, in one quadrant of the jaws, of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars -Each number corresponds to the number of teeth on each side of the mouth
Histology of the GI tract
*4 layers from the esophagus all the way to the end of the large intestine (not 100% correct for the entire GI tract) -There might be additional layers or different kinds of layers compared to the esophagus and the small intestine
How T cells find infected cells
*Class I and class II MHC cells are looking for abnormalities, it is showing a MHC abnormal protein so this is how it knows it was a cell that was infected with something *NK cells work similar to cytotoxic T cells, instead of looking for abnormalities MHC class proteins (I and II) it will look for a cell that lost their MHC proteins due to it being infected
CO₂+H₂O-------> (Fast) Carbonic anhydrase
*Going into the tissues CO₂+H₂O-------> H₂CO₃------->HCO₃- + H+ (Fast) Carbonic anhydrase *H+ will combine with the free Hb because the O₂ was freed from it entering the cell
Stellate macrophages in sinusoid capillary walls
*Large holes in sinusoid capillary allow macromolecules to be absorbed *You need the large capillaries in liver for nutrients to move in *Stellate macrophages prevent organisms from entering the large hole in the capillaries (hepatic macrophages)
Intrinsic Nerve plexuses
*Part of the Enteric Nervous System Intrinsic Nerve Plexuses: (Internal, located within the organ) myenteric nerve plexus: Stimulates the muscularis externa submucosal nerve plexus: Stimulates the submucosa
Transport and Exchange of CO2 and O2
*Same percents just in reverse because your dropping off the CO2 and picking up O2 Oxygen has 2 routes: 1). 1.5% O2 (dissolved in plasma) 2). 98.5% O2 bound to hemoglobin from the alveolus CO2 has 3 routes: 1). 7-10% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma 2). 20% of CO2 is detached from being chemically bound to hemoglobin 3) 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3) from the plasma into the RBC and out into the alveolus due to H+ combining with bicarbonate ions (HCO3) forming carbonic acid which is being spilt by carbonic anhydrase making CO2 leave the RBC
Extra notes for the transport of O2 and CO2 from the tissues to the plasma
*Too many negatives leaving could potentially turn the inside of a cell membrane positive, this can't happen, there has to be negative conditions *For every bicarbonate that leaves a chloride ion comes in *(-) negative leaves, (-) comes in which is called the chloride shift (Keeps ionic conditions stable)
Caudate lobe
*Upper middle back side portion of liver
Extra Notes for the Saturation of Hemoglobin
*When you have homeostatic imbalances not only did you start off with something that impacted you now there are factors contributing even more to that issue *Example of this can be during a fever where your body temperature rises
Physical (Mechanical) Digestion
- When bones, teeth, and muscles are used to mash up the food into physically smaller pieces so that chemical digestion can begin -Food is broken down (through mastication) into a soft mass called bolus
monoclonal antibodies
-A collection of identical antibodies that interact with a single antigen site -Very specific with its target -Engineer antibodies -Take antibodies from someone who already sick with something, extract a specific antibody and provide immune protection -Used in rapid tests for certain illnesses (even cancer cells)
Membrane attack complex (MAC)
-A molecular complex consisting of a set of complement proteins that forms a pore in the membrane of bacterial and transplanted cells, causing the cells to die by lysis. -Occurs only on the surface of a target cell -C3b, C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9.
cytotoxic T cell
-A type of lymphocyte responsible for eliminating substances the immune system identifies as harmful -Derives from a CD8 cell
Self-Antigens: MHC Proteins (Major Histo Compatibility antigens)
-All cells are covered with a variety of proteins located on surface that are not antigenic to self, but may be antigenic to others in transfusions or grafts -One important self-proteins are a group of glycoproteins called MHC proteins
Immediate hypersensitivity
-Also called acute (type 1) hypersensitivities, (allergies) *begin in seconds after contact with antigen (allergen) -Initial contact with allergen is asymptomatic but sensitizes person -Activated IgE against antigen binds to mast cells and basophils -Later encounter causes systemic response resulting in anaphylactic shock (when the allergen enters the blood stream)
Incomplete antigens (Haptens) *Ask what an example of a incomplete antigen would be
-Also called haptens, involve molecules too small to be seen so are not immunogenic by themselves -A hapten may combine with a protein in the body, this leads hypersensitivity -Does not elicit an immune response unless bound to a large molecule, usually a protein -Small molecules combines with a protein
Subacute hypersensitivities Cytotoxic (Type II) reactions
-Antibodies bind to antigens on specific body cells, stimulate phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis of cellular antigens Example: mismatched blood transfusion reaction
Subacute hypersensitivities Immune complex (type III) hypersensitivity
-Antigens widely distributed in body or blood -Insoluble antigen-antibody complexes form -Complexes can not be cleared from particular area of body -Intense inflammation, local cell lysis and cell killing by neutrophils -Example: systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE, Butterfly rash on face)
Immunoglobulins
-Any of a class of proteins present in serum and cells of the immune system, which function as antibodies
Extra notes on Partial Pressures
-Atmosphere composition is going to be different than alveolar composition -When we breath out we do not get everything out of the respiratory tree -This changes the amount of CO2 (greater amount of CO2) therefore changing the percent concentration and then pressure
Portal triad
-Bile duct -Branch of portal vein -Branch of hepatic artery
Neutralization
-Blocks sites on pathogen so it can not bind to receptors on target cells (masks parts of bacterial exotoxins; viruses -Need cross-linking to activate neutralization of antibodies -Enhances phagocytosis *Bacteria that have the ability to secrete toxins -These toxins will be blocked by neutralization Endotoxins=inside(release when they die) Exotoxins=outside
Central Nervous system
-Can stimulate the local (intrinsic) nerve plexus ("gut brain") through the extrinsic visceral (autonomic) efferents
Subacute hypersensitivities
-Caused by IgM and IgG transferred via blood plasma or serum -Slow onset (1-3 hours) and long duration (10-15 hours)
Benefits of Fever
-Causes liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc (needed by microorganisms) -Microbes utilize our existing supply of iron and zinc to reproduce and function at their normal metabolic rate -Increases metabolic rate, which increases rate of repair -Denature: Protein (enzyme) looses 3-D shape
Functions of saliva
-Cleanses mouth (contains defensins and lysozymes) *Removes whatever is in there -Dissolves food and chemicals for taste -Moistens food; compacts into bolus *Begins breakdown of starch with enzyme amylase (enzyme that breaks down startch) *Lingual lipase: Enzyme that breaks down fat -Includes antimicrobials and provides lubrication
Medullary Respiratory Centers
-Clustered neurons in 2 areas of medulla are most important since they regulate rate and depth of breathing Ventral respiratory group Dorsal Respiratory group
Innate (non-specific) defense system
-Constitutes first and second lines of defense First line of Defense: External body membrane (Skin and Mucosa) Second Line of Defense: Antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells (inhibit the spread of invaders; inflammation most important mechanism) -Anything that comes into the body that shouldn't be there -Skin is a dry environment and mucosa is a wet environment -Innate means that you are born with it
Other structures in the nasal cavity
-Cribriform plate -Sphenoidal sinus -Posterior nasal aperture -Hard palate and soft palate -Uvula
Extra notes for expiration
-Diaphragm moves superiorly as it relaxes -Ribs and sternum are depressed as external intercostal relaxes
Class II MHC proteins
-Displayed by APC's (dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells) -CD4 cells (become helper T cells or Regulatory T cells) APC=Antigens presenting cell
Class I MHC proteins
-Displayed by all cells except RBS's -CD8 cells (become cytotoxic T cells)
Antigen Presenting Cells (APC's) *Part of the adaptive immune system
-Do not response to specific antigens (Broad) -Play an essential role in immunity -Are the activators of the immune system -Engulf any cell, show the antigen to another cell so that it can seek and destroy it
Treatment for Lung Cancer
-Early detection is key to survival -If metastasis has not occurred: surgery to remove diseased lung tissue -If metastasis has occurred: radiation and chemotherapy -Several new therapies on horizon: T cell therapy
Curled bones in Nasal Cavity
-Form channels form which air comes into and forced into the channels down -Directs air to specific place provides air passage way -Air is swirling around heating and moistening the air -This prevents shocking of the lungs -Moistening prevents drying out the tissues -Drying out the tissues makes you more susceptible to infection
IgD (Monomer)
-Found on B cell surface -Functions as a B cell antigen receptor (as does IgM)
Porta hepatis allows passage of
-Hepatic portal vein -Hepatic artery proper -Common hepatic duct: Bile duct *Hole in the middle of the liver
IgA (Dimer)
-IgA is found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat, intestinal juice and milk (breast milk) -Secretory IgA helps stop pathogens from attaching to epithelial cell surfaces (including mucous membranes and the epidermis)
Events of inflammation: Slide 12 on powerpoint
-Innate defense-----> Internal Defenses -Hyperemia: Increased blood flow to area -Possible temporary impairment of function, hopefully causes quicker healing -Release of leukocytosis: cause an increase in WBC's -Phagocytosis: Neutrophils 1st, later monocytes, will become macrophages
Long Reflexes
-Involve the CNS -Located outside the gastrointestinal wall -Extrinsic plexuses
Paranasal Sinuses
-Lighten Skull -Warm and moisten air *Mucus drains directly into throat *Sinus infection=clogged sinuses Sinus Locations: -Frontal sinus -Ethmoidal sinus -Sphenoidal sinus -Maxillary sinus -Also sinuses in the ears
Staphylococcus aureus "Staph aureus"
-Lives on our skin -One of the only microbes that can survive that saline and acidic environment on the skin -Sits and takes up space so no other pathogens can
Potine Respiratory Centers *Go over before exam
-Manipulate breathing after receiving information from higher brain centers -Interact with the medullary respiratory centers to smooth the respiratory pattern
Antigenic immunogenicity
-Most antigens have serval different antigenic determinants -Multiple antibodies act on a single antigen (Accelerates immune response) -Certain parts that are immunogenic
Feces
-Mostly composed of water (75%), rest made up of solids (25%) -Electrolytes -Mucus -Bacteria (30% of solids) and epithelial cells that were sloughed off -Bile pigments metabolized by bacteria to alter color -Produce odor Ingestible materials
The Nasal Cavity
-Nasal conchae (superior, and inferior) -Nasal meatuses superior, middle and inferior) -Nasal vestibule -Nostril (Vibrissae, hair fibers, filters and captures anything that comes into the nasal cavity)
Characteristics of the large intestine
-No absorption (contain indigestible food stuff) *No absorption of macronutrients -Absorbs water -Lack villi -Contain numerous goblet cells: *Help to provide 1). movement and 2), lubrication *Mucus helps protect cells so when large intestine absorbs water they do not dry out -No digestible enzymes produced (no absorption) *Vitamins are absorbed
Compliance of lungs can be diminished by
-Non elastic scar tissue replacing lung tissue (pulmonary fibrosis) -Reduced production of surfactant (high alveolar surface tension), may be due to a viral or bacterial infection -Decreased flexibility of thoracic cage (example: fractured rib), when breathing in pain overides full volume of thoracic cavity
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
-Non-phagocytic, large granular lymphocytes that police blood and lymph -Can kill cancer cells and virus infected cells before adaptive immune system is activated -Attacks cells that lack "Self" cell-surface receptors -Kill by inducing apoptosis in cancer cell and virus-infected cells -Secrete potent chemicals that enhance inflammatory response
Short reflexes
-Occur within the gastrointestinal wall Enteric nerve plexuses (gut brain) respond to stimuli in GI tract -Intrinsic plexuses
Oropharynx
-Palatine tonsils: are a pair of soft tissue masses located at the rear of the throat (pharynx) -Isthmus of the fauces
Innate Defenses: Internal Defenses 2nd line of defense (non-specific)
-Phagocytes -Natural Killer Cells -Inflammation -Antimicrobial proteins -Fever
Nasopharynx
-Pharyngeal tonsil: it is a mass of lymphatic tissue located behind the nasal cavity, in the roof of the nasopharynx, where the nose blends into the throat. -Tubal tonsil: masses embedded in the lateral walls of the opening between the mouth and the pharynx -Opening of Pharyngotympanic tube: equalizes pressure in ears
Partial Pressure
-Pressure exerted by each gas in mixture -Directly proportional to its percentage in mixture Nitrogen makes up ~78.6% of air; therefore, partial pressure of nitrogen, PN2, can be calculated: 0.786 x 760 mm Hg = 597 mm Hg due to N2 O2= 20.9% 0.209x760= 158.84mmHg
Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG) *Go over before exam
-Receives information from peripheral sensory info and influences breathing through VRG -Integrates peripheral sensory input and modifies the rhythms generated by VRG
Extra notes for inspiration
-Ribs are elevated and sternum flares as external intercostal muscles contract -Diaphragm moves inferiorly during contraction
Effector cells
-Short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing that antigen -Can activate other T cells and activate some of the non-specific defenses (macrophages) and also activate B cells
Impact of Smoking
-Smoking inhibits and ultimately destroys cilia -Without ciliary activity, coughing is only way to prevent mucus from accumulating in lungs -When a person stops smoking, ciliary function usually recovers within a few weeks -Morning "smokers cough" will subside once ciliary function is restored -History of smoking in 80% of patients who have COPD (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) *1-9 months cilia will come back to normal state after someone stops smoking
IgE (Monomer)
-Stem end binds to mast cells or basophils. Antigens binding to its receptor end triggers these cells to release histamine and other chemicals that mediate inflammation and allergic reactions -Bind to mast cells or basophils and causes the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine
Nasal Meatuses
-Superior, middle, inferior -irregularly shaped pockets or air spaces in the nasal cavity -Drainage of paranasal sinuses
Nasal Conchae
-Superior, middle, inferior -two bones that help to complete the nasal cavity by forming the side and lower wall -Curled bones that are in nasal cavity that work to warm, moisten and direct air
Major functions of the respiratory system
-Supply blood with O2 for cellular respiration and dispose of C02, a waste product of cellular respiration *02 needed to generate ATP for cells -Assists in pH homeostasis -Respiratory and cardiovascular system are closely coupled -Also functions in olfaction and speech
Antigens
-Surface markers that help the immune system identify invaders -Substances that can mobilize adaptive defenses and provoke an immune response -A toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
Papillae (Taste Buds) can taste
-Sweet -Sour -Salty -Bitterness -Umani (delicious) "Japanese word"
T cell education (Adaptive Defenses---->Cellular Immunity)
-T cells are produced in the red bone marrow but mature in the thymus -During maturation lymphocytes develop immunocompetence and self-tolerance (occurs in the thymus) -Whole process takes around 2-3 days -Only about 2% of T cells that are produced in the bone marrow survive (98% of the T cells produced are rouge cells)
IgM (Pentamer)
-The first immunoglobulin class secreted by plasma cells during primary response -Readily activates complement -Also functions as a B cell surface receptor (As does IgD)
IgG (Monomer)
-The most abundant antibody in the plasma, accounting for 75-85% of circulating antibodies -The main antibody for both secondary and late primary responses -Readily activates complement
MERSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus)
-This organism can live with normal staph aureus -Methicillin is a very potent antibiotic
The Interferon Mechanism Against Viruses (Innate defense)
-Uses cell as host -Virus infected cell's release INFS's (interferons) to warn nearby cells -Nearby cells then produce antiviral proteins in case a virus tries to infect that nearby cell; can also degrade viral DNA
Stages of Inflammation: Step 2). Vasodilation and Increased Vascular Permeability
-Vasodilation causes hyperemia- congestion with blood which leads to redness and heat (positive feedback) *Brings WBC's chemicals (clotting factors), regulatory chemicals into one area -Increased capillary permeability causes exudate-fluid containing clotting factors and antibodies to leak into tissue so the fluid can be swept into lymphatic vessels to remove pathogens -Results in local swelling (edema) -Swelling also pushes on nerve endings resulting in pain -Pain can also result from release of toxins from bacteria or released prostaglandins in Kinins
CD8 cells become
-cytotoxic T cells also called effector cells
CD4 cells become
-helper T cells or regulatory T cells also called effector cells
760 mmHg=
1 atmospheric pressure
Mechanisms promoting secretion and release of bile and pancreatic juice
1) CCK (red dots) and secretin (yellow dots) are secreted by duodenal enteroendocrine cells -Cholecystokinin (CCK) release is stimulated by proteins and fats in chyme -Secretin release is stimulated by acidic chyme (2 stimuli is a good thing) -CCK and secretin enter the circulation and cause the following 4 events (2-5) In steps 2-5 *Chyme arriving in the small intestine, is going to cause the other digestive organs to. secrete their enzymes *Gastrointestinal tract is now causing the accessory digestive organs to release their contents 2). Pancreatic secretion -CCK promotes secretion by Acinar cells of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice -Secretin cause secretion by duct cells of HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) pancreatic juice -Vagus nerve weakly stimulates during cephalic and gastric phases (Shuts off the vagus nerve, decreases the secretions from the stomach) 3). Bile secretion by liver: -Bile salts returning from enterohepatic circulation are the most powerful stimulus for bile secretion (positive feedback mechanism) -secretin is a minor stimulus *Liver secreting bile but now gallbladder contraction can take place, so besides the bile coming out of the liver, the body can fire a more concentrated shot of bile 4). Gallbladder contraction (more concentrated shot of bile) -CCK causes smooth muscle in gallbladder to contract -Vagus nerve stimulates weak gallbladder contraction during cephalic and gastric phase *preventing things from moving through too quickly and being secreted when they are not needed 5). Hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxation: -CCK causes hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax, bile and pancreatic juice enter the duodem/are released -This causes digestion within the small intestine so the body can absorb nutrients *Food arrives to the small intestine *CCK and secretin are going to cause specific things to be released from the pancreas, they are also going to cause secretions from the liver (bile) and secretions from the gallbladder in the concentrated shot of bile *The body has just released everything into the small intestine
Functions of the nasal cavity
1). Air passage 2). Heat/moisten air 3). Filter 4). Resonating chamber for speech 5). Houses smell receptors
Steps of clonal selection
1). Antigen presentation -Dendritic cell engulfs an exogenous antigen processes it and displays its fragments on class II MHC protein (would be the same for CD8 cell except it would display a class I MHC protein Co-stimulatory molecule: something else besides bacterial antigen must be present in order for a immune response to take place 2). Double recognition 2a). CD4 cells recognizes antigen-MHC complex -Both TCR (T cell receptor) and CD4 proteins bind to antigen MHC complex 2b). Co-stimulatory molecules bind their receptors (the little arm that attached to the cell) 3). Clone formation -Activated CD4 T cells proliferate (clone) and become memory and effector cells *Look on slide 31 of powerpoint for a picture of the different steps
The enterohepatic circulation steps
1). Bile salts are secreted into duodenum (first part of the small intestine) 2). As bile salts travel through the small intestine, they allow lipid digestion and absorption to occur *Chylomicrons have the ability to coat the fats with bile salts which have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which eventually allows the fats to travel into tissues so they can be absorbed and the bile is recycled 3). 95% of bile salts are reabsorbed (recycled) by the ileum (last part of the small intestine) *whatever is not absorbed goes into the cecum, the first part of the large intestine 4). Reabsorbed bile salts travel via hepatic portal vein to the liver, where they are recycled. Only 5% of bile salts are newly synthesized *Hepatic portal vein absorbs nutrients, carries deoxygenated blood and reclaims the bile salts to bring back to the liver
Blood flow of Oxygen Transport
1). Blood flow (From body tissues) 2). Hemoglobin molecules 3). Diffusion of oxygen from alveolus (singular) to blood 4). Oxyhemoglobin molecule travels in the blood to arteriole circulation 5). Blood PO2=100mmHg 6). Tissue Cells (Tissue), PO2=40mmHg 7). Diffusion of oxygen 8). Blood PO2=40mmHg 9). Blood flows back to lungs *0.75 seconds= the amount of time oxygen has to bind to hemoglobin in a RBC as it crosses that respiratory membrane -It does not take the entire time for the O2 to bind to hemoglobin -It takes around 0.25 seconds for the O2 to load to the hemoglobin -After the first O2 bind it changes the affinity to O2 -When the 2nd O2 binds it makes the RBC suck up even more oxygen and so on until it reaches 4 (positive feedback, accelerating the process)
2 phases of deglutition
1). Buccal Phase (Cheeks): Voluntary contraction of the tongue (Have control, choose to initiate swallowing) 2). Pharyngeal-esophageal phase: Involuntary phase that primarly involves vagus nerve (no control)
Steps of Deglutition
1). Buccal Phase (Voluntary) -The upper esophageal sphincter is contracted (closed) -The tongue presses against the hard palate, forcing the food bolus into oropharynx 2). Pharyngeal-esophageal phase begins (Involuntary phase takes over) -The tongue blocks the mouth -The soft palate and its Uvula rise, closing off the nasopharynx -The larynx rises so that the epiglottis blocks the trachea (more specifically the larynx) -The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes; food enters the stomach 3). Pharyngeal-esophageal phase (continues, Steps 3-5) -The constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract, forcing food into the esophagus inferiorly -The upper esophageal sphincter contracts (closes) after food enters 4). Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach 5). The gastroesophageal sphincter surrounding the cardial orifice opens -After food enters the stomach, the sphincter closes preventing regurgitation -Gastroesophageal sphincter opens when a bolus is near
Mechanical Breakdown
1). Chewing: (mouth), when food mixes with saliva, soft mass of food is bolus 2). Churning (stomach pummeling) 3). Segmentation (small intestine): the breakdown of food into smaller pieces, thus increasing its surface area *Chyme: Once the bolus reaches the stomach and digestive enzymes interact with it
Pathways of Complement Activation
1). Classical pathway -Activated by antibodies coating target cell -Portions secreted by B cell (Adaptive) 2). Lectin Pathway -Activated by lectins binding to specific sugars on microorganisms surface 3). Alternate pathway -Activated spontaneously -Lack of inhibiters on microorganisms surface allows process to precede *All 3 pathways converge at C3 to initiate the final activation of complement (together with other complement proteins and factors) C3 is spilt into two active pieces C3a and C3b
Molecular O2 is carried in blood in 2 ways:
1). Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (O2 is not very soluble in blood plasma) 2). Loosely bound to each Fe (Iron) of hemoglobin (Hb) in RBC's (98.5%)
CO2 is transported in blood in 3 ways:
1). Dissolved in plasma (7 to 10%) as PCO2 (20x more soluble, number is a little higher because CO2 is more soluble in plasma 2). Chemically bound to hemoglobin (just over 20%) 3). As bicarbonates ions in plasma (About 70%)(HCO30) in plasma *10%, 20%, 30% *CO2 does not bind to the heme portion, it binds to the globulin portion
defecation reflex
1). Feces move into and distend the rectum, stimulating stretch receptors there. The receptors transmit signals along afferent fibers (travel towards the spinal cord) to the spinal cord neurons 2). A spinal reflex is initiated in which parasympathetic motor (efferent) fibers stimulate contraction of the rectum and sigmoid colon and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter 3). If it is convenient to defecate, voluntary motor neurons are inhibited, allowing the external anal sphincter to relax so feces may pass
2 main branches of the adaptive immune system
1). Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity -B Cells (bone marrow) -Proteins -Humoral means blood/body fluids 2).Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity -T Cells (Thymus) -Cells Antigens: Surface markers that help the immune system identify invaders
Stages of Inflammation (Innate defense---->Internal Defense)
1). Inflammatory chemical release 2). Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability 3). Phagocyte mobilization
Sequence of events of expiration
1). Inspiratory muscle relax (diaphragm rises; rib cages descends due to recoil of costal cartilages) 2). Thoracic cavity volume decreases 3). Elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases 4). Intrapulmonary pressure rises (to 11mmHg) 5). Air (gases) flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0.
Sequence of events of inspiration
1). Inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends, ribcage rises) 2). Thoracic cavity volume increases 3). Lungs are stretched intrapulmonary volume increases 4). Intrapulmonary pressure drops (to -1mmHg) 5). Air (gases) flows into the lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0 (equal to atmospheric pressure)
2 different types of Cytokins
1). Interleukins 2). Interferons
Stages of inflammation: Step 3). Phagocyte mobilization
1). Leukocytosis: Neutrophils enter blood from bone marrow, takes about 4-5 hours for production to ramp up 2). Margination: Neutrophils cling to capillary wall -CAM's (Cell adhesion molecule) that attract to allow neutrophils to stick to blood vessels walls 3). Diapedesis: Neutrophils flatten and squeeze out of capillaries -Neutrophil leaves blood vessel wall 4). Chemotaxis: Neutrophils follow chemical trail -Positive stimulus, chemicals that are being released are attracting those neutrophils to be in that area *Inflammatory chemicals diffusing from the inflamed site act as chemotactic agents
Goblet cells/mucus cells
1). Lubricity: Wetness 2). Protective barrier: Protection so the HCl doesn't eat through the stomach secrete mucus and also provides a protective barrier so that HCl (hydrochloric acid does not eat through the stomach)
Absorption
1). Lymph vessels/lymph nodes: Absorbs fats, lacteals located in the vili of small intestine (Finger like structures -By lacteals sucking the fats up through the lymphatic vessels, fat is slowly released back into the supply after it has sometime to break down, fats go a different route 2). Blood vessels: Absorb other macromolecules -Transport substances to the liver -The blood that travels from the small intestine to the liver is the nutrient rich but deoxygenated *Balance diet comes back to what the body breaks down *Liver is very involved in digestion
Microscopic structure of the esophagus
1). Mucosa (non-keratinized, moist) -Stratified squamous epithelium 2). Submucosa -Areolar connective tissue 3). Muscularis Externa -Circular layer -Longitudinal layer 4). Adventia -Fibrous connective tissue (Dense irregular connective tissue), criss crossing layer so it is very strong -No epithelium present (not the serosa because there is not epithelium present) *The difference between the esophagus and the other parts of the layers of the GI tract is that the esophagus has the adventia as its last layer instead of the Serosa
Phagocytosis (Innate Defenses----->Internal defenses)
1). Neutrophils: Killed within the process of phagocytosis 2). Macrophages
Flow of air: inspiration
1). Nose/Nasal cavity (Nasal hairs act as filters) 2). Pharynx 3). Larynx 4). Trachea 5). Primary bronchi 6). Secondary bronchi 7). Tertiary bronchi Bronchioles: 8). Terminal bronchi (Bronchial) 9). Respiratory bronchial 10). Alveolar ducts 11). Alveoli
Lymphocyte Development Maturation and Activation
1). Origin -Both B and T lymphocyte precursors originate in red bone marrow 2). Maturation -Lymphocyte precursors destined to become T cells migrate (in blood) to the Thymus and mature there, B cells mature in the red bone marrow -During maturation lymphocytes develop immunocompetence and self-tolerance 3). Seeding (populating an area) secondary lymphoid organs and circulation -Immunocompetent but still naive lymphocytes leave the Thymus and Bone Marrow -They "seed" the secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen) and circulate through blood or lymph 4). Antigen encounter and activation -When lymphocytes antigen receptor bind its antigen, that lymphocyte can be activated 5). Proliferation and differentiation -Activated lymphocytes proliferate (multiply) and then differentiate (specialize) into effector cells (Front line fighting) and memory cells (Make a copy of themselves for the future) -Memory cells and effector T cells circulate continuously in the blood and lymph and throughout the secondary lymphoid organs
Carbohydrate absorption in the small intestine
1). Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch (large carbohydrate) and glycogen which becomes disaccharides (2 sugars) and oligosaccharides, 2 sugars is too big to fit through a membrane 2). Brush boarder enzymes break disaccharides and oligosaccharides into monosaccharides (1 sugar) to fit through the membrane 3). Monosaccharides (glucose and galactose) are co-transported with Na+ across the apical membrane of the absorptive epithelial cell -Na+ coming into the cell drives the glucose in -Monosaccharides are inside the intestinal wall cell -This active transport uses the Na+ concentration gradient established by the sodium/potassium pump in the basolateral membrane -Na+/K+ pump is around the entire membrane -As the monosaccharides (glucose) travels through the intestinal cell it comes to the bottom to the monosaccharide carrier (facilitated diffusion) 4). Monosaccharides exit across the basolateral membrane by facilitated diffusion (membrane protein is involved so thats why its facilitated diffusion) and enter the capillary via the intracellular celfts
Steps of phagocytosis
1). Phagocyte adheres to pathogens or debris (using receptors ) 2), Phagocyte forms pseudopods ("false feet") that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome (vesicle) 3). Lysosome fuses with the phagocytic vesicle, forming a phagolysosome 4). Toxic compounds and lysosomal enzymes destroy pathogens, can reuse substances broken down and use it for later use as peptide or a protein 5). Sometimes exocytosis of the vesicle removes indigestible and residual material
Summary of 1). Positive selection and 2). Negative Selection *Go over this a little more
1). Positive selection -Cell is suppose to be recognizing self MHC proteins 2). Negative Selection -Cell is not suppose to be recognizing self MHC proteins because it testing the cells ability to recognize other cells such as cells within the body or organisms -It is suppose to know that the cell that is connected to it is not it self
T cell Education Positive Selection *Picture on slide 23
1). Positive selection (Test T cells to make sure they can recognize "self" MHC class proteins) -T cells must recognize self MHC proteins -Antigen presenting thymic cell shows self MHC or self antigen -If the developing T cell (immature fails to recognize self-antigen, results in apoptosis (death by cell suicide)
1). Effectors and 2). Response
1). Smooth muscle of glands 2). Change in contractile or secretory activity
Steps of Cytotoxic T Cell attacking Infected Cancerous Cells
1). Tc (Activated cytotoxic T cell) identifies foreign antigens on MHC I proteins and binds tightly to target cell 2). Tc releases perforin and granzyme molecules from its granules (produces granzymes which induces apoptosis) by exocytosis 3). Perforin molecules insert into target cell membrane, polymerize and form transmembrane pores (Cylindrical holes) similar to those produced by complement activation *Form a hole in the plasma membrane *Gramzymes are similar to enzymes *Perforin: A protein, released by killer cells of the immune system, which destroys target cells by creating lesions like pores in their membranes (punches a hole in the plasma membrane of the target cell) *Granule (Granzymes): Enters through that hole (pore) and induces apoptosis 4). Granzymes enter the target cell via the pores, once inside, the granzymes activate enzymes that trigger apoptosis 5). The Tc detaches and searches for another prey
Different types of hypersensitivities are distinguished by
1). Their time course 2). Whether antibodies or T cells are involved *Antibodies cause immediate and subacute hypersensitivities *T cells cause delayed hypersensitivity
Steps of the Interferon Mechanism Against Viruses
1). Viruses enters cell and replicates 2). Interferon genes switch on 3). Cell produces interferon molecules 4). Interferon stimulates cell to turn on genes for antiviral proteins 5). Antiviral proteins block viral reproduction *Interferons warn neighboring cells to make antiviral proteins and also activate cells that are going to kill virus infected cells *Although not 100% effective, it can reduce the possibility of getting sick
How many liters of intestinal juice is secreted daily in response to distension or irritation of mucosa
1-2L
Proteins
12-20% of total caloric intake 0.8g/kg body weight 1g/Lb complete and incomplete proteins
Composition of the pancreatic juice
1200-1500 ml/day is produced containing: Watery, alkaline solution (pH 8) to neutralize acidic chyme coming from stomach Electrolytes, primarily HCO3− (Bicarbonate ion) Digestive enzymes (secreted by acinar cells) Proteases: enzyme that breaks down proteins, secreted in inactive form to prevent self-digestion Amylase: enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates Lipases: enzyme that breaks down lipids, fats Nucleases: enzyme that breaks down nucleic acids
Stimulatory events of cephalic phase
1a. sight and thought of food, 1b. stimulation of taste and smell receptors Increases stomach secretary activity -The stomach can be stimulate before we eat something -In preparation of food potentially coming, the body can start with the secretory digesting enzymes
Micronutrients
2 other nutrients that are required, but only in small amounts Vitamins and minerals *Vitmins A/D/E/K=fat soluble *Vitamins B complex and C= water soluble
T cell Education Negative Selection *Picture on slide 23 of powerpoint
2). Negative Selection (Test T cells to make sure they can recognize "non-self") -T cells must not recognize self-antigens *must not recognize self -Recognizing self antigen results in apoptosis. This eliminates reactive T cells that could case autoimmune disease -Failure to recognize self-antigen results in survival and continued maturation
Food enters the small intestine after...
2-6 hours in the stomach depending on the contents of the bolus, whether it be more fatty or carbohydrates
stimulatory gastric phase
2.a Stomach distension activates stretch receptors 2b. Food chemicals (especially peptides and caffeine) and rising pH activate chemoreceptors 2a. Long reflexes (via medulla and vagus nerve) -Increases stomach secretory activity Short reflexes (gut brain, enteric nervous system) -increases secretory activity *Brain and the gut brain are being involved 2b. Stimulates G cells, gastrin released to blood and this increases stomach secretory activity
Lipids
20-35% of total caloric intake (RDA) Linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid): nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils Linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid): Fish oil, vegetable oils Cholestorol: organs meats
From start to finish the small intestine is around...
21 ft *Complete trip from the duodenum to illeum takes chyme 2 hours *Carbohydrates go through quicker in the GI tract *Fats go much slower through the GI tract
Inhibitory Gastric Phase
2c. pH lower than 2, stimulates G cells and then lowers gastrin release to blood 2d. emotional stress, sympathetic nervous system activation (overides parasympathetic controls)
Macronutrients
3 major nutrients that make up the bulk of ingested food carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
Permanent teeth or Secondary dentition
32 deep-lying teeth enlarge and develop while roots of milk teeth are reabsorbed from below, causing them to loosen and fall out *Occurs around 6-12 years
Carbohydrates
4 Calories/gram
Proteins
4 Calories/gram
Trachea is
4 inches
Carbohydrates
45-65% of total caloric intake (RDA) -most of the macronutrients you eat should be carbs complex carbohydrates (startches): bread, crackers, flour, pasta, rice and potatoes *takes time to break down simple carbohydrates (sugars): carbonated drinks, candy, fruit, ice cream, pudding, young (immature vegetables)
About ____ of bile is produced per day by a hepatocyte
900mL
Primary Response
= 1 week (circulating, new) -T cells are destroyed between 7-30 days -This is because T cells have the ability to produce other cells and can also cause inflammation or cell division (cancer)
Larnyx
=Air passage
The enterohepatic circulation
A continual recycling of compounds such as bile acids between the small intestine and the liver.
Enterokinase
A duodenal enzyme secreted by the brush boarder enzymes (microvilli) that activates trypsinogen (from the pancreas) to trypsin.
Mesentery *Go over this a little more before the exam and watch videos
A fold of the peritoneum which attaches the stomach, small intestine, pancreas, spleen, and other organs to the posterior wall of the abdomen. -Double layer of peritoneum layers are fused back to back -Peritoneum layers (visceral and parietal) layers where they are fused together (technically the whole thing majority/ majority of the area -In between the serous fluid
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A hormone secreted by the samll intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas,and reduces stomach motility. -It also inhibits gastric glands and relaxes hepatopancreaticsphincter *Cholecystokinin (CCK) release is stimulated by proteins and fats in chyme *shutting off the stomach so it doesn't force anything more forward, which allows the digestive process to take place in the small intestine and keep it there so the digestive enzymes have enough time to work on the chyme
Secretin
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas,and reduces stomach motility -A hormone which is secreted by cells in the duodenum and stimulates the release of bile into the intestine and the secretion of enzymes by the pancreas.
Mass movement
A large powerful wave that will move the feces 3 to 4 times/day pushing it towards the end
Gallbladder
A muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion -Fires a concentrated shot of bile *Mucosa with folds
Bile
A substance produced by the liver that acts a fat emulsifier *Allows fats and water to mix *Pancreatic lipase will break down fat after emulsification *Without bile the pancreatic lipase can not break down the fats
Bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva -What compacted food is called until it reaches the stomach
Bile duct
A tube that carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the intestine
Helper T cells
A type of immune cell that stimulates cytotoxic (killer) T cells, macrophages, and B cells to make immune responses. A helper T cell is a type of white blood cell and a type of lymphocyte. Also called CD4-positive T lymphocyte -Stems from CD4 cell
CD8 T cell
APC (dendritic cell) gives class I MHC protein displaying antigen to the CD8 T cell receptor -T cell then becomes activated -CD8 cell then proliferates into a CD8 memory cell and effector cells
CD4 T cell
APC (dendritic cell) gives class II MHC protein displaying antigen to the CD4 T cell receptor -T cell then becomes activated -CD4 cell then proliferates (rapidly divides) into a CD4 memory cell and effector cells
Extra notes about Oxygen transport
About a 1/4 of the way through if you have a ample supply of O2 in the alveolus, then you have a 100% saturated RBC -You have additional time (0.50 seconds) in case you are at a higher altitude where there is less available O2 for the additional O2 to bind to hemoglobin -We can increase the speed of the blood traveling through alveolus -The oxyhemoglobin molecule will travel in the blood and based on partial pressure will travel into the tissue
Actions of muscles during inspiration
Action of the diaphragm: Moves inferiorly and flattens out Action of intercostal muscles: Rib cages is lifted up and out (outward as it moves upward) ^^^^^ This leads to a a increase in volume of thoracic cavity
trypsinogen (inactive)
Activated by membrane-bound enteropeptidase (Enterokinase) to form trypsin
Active and Passive Humoral Immunity
Active 1). Naturally acquired: Infection; contact with pathogen *Have symptoms, come in contact with antigen, body then has a memory of that antigen 2). Artificially acquired: Vaccine; dead or attenuated (weakened) pathogens *Do not get full symptoms or any *This primes the immune system Passive 1). Naturally Acquired: Antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk *provide temporary immunity until baby starts producing antibodies 2). Artificially acquired: Injection of exogenous antibodies (gamma globulin) our immune system might take too long to respond *gamma globulins are a bunch of common antibodies to prevent infection *For passive, once they leave circulation, they are no longer protecting us , were passed on or administered transferred antibodies
Inspiration
Active process (uses energy) involving inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals and internal intercostals); results in increase in thoracic cavity volume -P pul is 1mmHg less than P atm (atmosphere)
major duodenal papilla
Actual hole in the small intestine where the secretions come out of Collects from common bile duct and main pancreatic duct and is a opening into the duodenum
Laryngeal prominence
Adam's apple
Division of Immature lymphocyte part of
Adaptive defenses----->Cellular immunity
Hypersensitivities
Adaptive defenses---->Humoral Immunity Immune responses to perceived (otherwise harmless) threat that cause tissue damage *Immune system overreacts
Adaptive Defenses (Adaptive immune system)
Adaptive immune system: -It is a specific defense system that eliminates almost any pathogen or abnormal cell in the body -It is specific; recognizes and targets antigens (Complete and incomplete) -It has memory: mounts an even stronger attack to "known" antigens (second and subsequent exposures) *First time in contact with something is the primary response *Secondary response is the next time you come in contact wit something
Pharynx
Air and food /beverage passage way leading to esophagus from the mouth
Organs of the digestive system fall into 2 groups:
Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract or gut) -Organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus *Deepest part of the alimentary canal is mucous membrane Accessory digestive organs -Teeth: Break down -Tongue: Compacts what you chew/ initiates swallowing -Gallbladder: Stores bile -Digestive glands: salivary glands (make saliva) , liver (filter nutrients) and pancreas (endocrine and exocrine functions)
Different types of interferons *Star this when you get to it
Alpha & Beta (B) -Activate Nk cells Gamma (Y) -Secreted by lymphocytes -Activated by macrophages
Forced expiration
An active process (requires energy) that uses oblique and transverse abdominal muscles (transverse abdomonis), as well as internal intercostal muscles *internal intercostal muscles relax -Forced expiration means that it is more than the typical amount should be -Oblique muscles transverse, transverse abdominis, internal intercostal muscles, and viscera of abdominal organs gets pushed up, pushing up the diaphragm decreasing the thoracic cavity even further over volume the quiet breathing
Pancreas
An organ in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels. *Spongy organ
Inferior labial frenulum
Anchors lips to bottom teeth
Superior labial frenulum
Anchors lips to top teeth
Cross-linking
Antigen has to bind to 2 receptors for a response to occur
Mechanisms of Antibody Action, B cells (Adaptive---->humoral immunity)
Antigen-antibody complex
Lipids
Approximately 9 Calories/gram
Only 2 things to be absorbed from the stomach...
Aspirin and Alcohol
External Respiration
At the lungs -Diffusion of gases between blood and lungs
Internal Respiration
At the tissues (Deep) -Diffusion of gases between blood and tissues
Helper T cells help in humoral immunity
B cell activation: 1). TH cell binds with self-nonself complexes of a B cell that has encountered its antigen and is displaying it on MHC II on its surface 2). TH cell releases interleukins as co-stimulatory signal to complete B cell activation, B cell is then being activated *An activated B cell can produce a specific antibody *IL-4 and other cytotoxins are released by TH cell *Helper T cell activates B cell which has already come in contact with the antigen, to then produce the specific antibody to kill pathogenic organism
2 types of lymphocytes
B lymphocytes (B cells): humoral immunity -Mature in bone marrow T lymphocytes (T cells): Cellular immunity -Mature in the thymus
Root
Base of the tooth under the neck and the crown
Both internal respiration and external respiration are subject to
Basic properties of gases Composition of alveolar gas
Inflammation: Tissue Response to Injury, Benefits of Inflammation -Second line of defense
Benefits of Inflammation: -Prevents spread of damaging agents (Keeps them in one area) -Disposes of cell debris and pathogens -Alerts adaptive immune system -Sets the stage for repair
Absorption in the small intestine via capillaries and lacteals
Blood vessels capillaries absorb: -Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids Lacteals absorb: -Fats and lipids
Digestion
Break down food 1). Chemical digestion: Uses enzymes 2). Physical Digestion: In the mouth
duodenum
C-shaped region right after the stomach *Around 10.0 inches long
Helper T cells help in Cellular Immunity
CD8 cytoxic T cell 1). TH cell binds to dendritic cell 2). TH cell stimulates dendritic cell to express co-stimulatory molecules 3). Dendritic cell can now activate CD8 cell with the help of a interleukin 2 (IL2) secreted by TH cell *CD8 T cell becomes Tc cell after activation *Becomes cytotoxic T cell (Tc), this can destroy virus infected and cancer cells
Extra notes for partial pressure gradients promoting gas movements in the body
CO2 is more soluble in the blood, this means that the concentration gradients don't have to be as vastly different because CO2 can move more easily in blood
Secondary Response (Adaptive defenses---->Humoral Immunity)
Can be years later -2nd time forward that the body is exposed to same antigen (came in contact with the exact same virus, same variant) *Immediate response -More than double the plasma cells to make antibodies faster -Subsequent challenge by the same antigen results in a larger, more rapid response
Forced (deep) inspirations
Can occur during vigorous exercise or in people with COPD -Can increase thoracic cavity volume even more Accessory muscles are also activated -Scalene's, sternocleidomastoid, and pectoralis minor (inside of pectoralis)
bile duct and sphincter *can also be called common bile duct
Carries bile from the liver and the gallbladder into the small intestine via the hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter and the major duodenal papilla
Low-Desnity Lipoprotein (LDL)
Carries cholesterol from liver to tissues so it can be stored; it can get stuck in arteries 45% cholesterol "Bad cholesterol"
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
Carries cholesterol from tissues to liver to be broken down *20% cholesterol "good cholesterol"
circular fold of small intestine
Cause chyme to slow down and to twist as it moves through the small intestine -Increases absorption and the amount of time for the absorption to take place -Peristaltic waves move the chyme through, twisting it
Plasma cells (Effector cells)/ Clonal cells
Cells that develop from B cells and produce antibodies
Internal Stimuli
Changes in GI tract stretch or in lumen pH, nutrients, or solute concentration -This stimulates the chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors or mechanoreceptors (osmoreceptors detect osmolarity) -This can stimulate the local (intrinsic) nerve plexus ("gut brain") or the central nervous system via the visceral afferents
2 premolars (bicuspids)
Chewing *4 total, 2 pairs on each side (First premolar, second premolar)
3 molars
Chewing *6 total, 3 on each side (First molar, second molar and third molar (wisdom teeth)
2 Incisors
Chizzel shaped that breaks off what you chew *4 total, 2 pairs on each side (central, lateral)
Bile salts
Cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification and absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins * "like dissolves like"
Aggultination
Clustering of cells into masses linked by antibodies -Cell bound antigens bound to cellular material -Enhances phagocytosis
Right and Left hepatic ducts
Collect bile from all bile ducts of liver lobes Unite to form common hepatic bile duct that leaves the liver
Extrinsic Nerve Plexus
Coming from outside the organ such as the nervous system being stimulated (CNS) *When we hear/see food that also starts the digestive process through the salivary glands, releasing digestive enzymes in GI tract thinking food is coming
Main pancreatic duct
Connects to the common hepatic bile duct, and drains pancreatic juices into the hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter and then the major duodenal papilla in the duodenum
trachealis
Consists of smooth muscle fibers that connect posterior parts of cartilage rings Contracts during coughing to expel mucus It is elastic enabling it to stretch during swallowing
Anabolism
Constructive metabolism; the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones. *Builds *Anabolic Steroids build
Clone formation is stimulated by
Cytokins
Tracheal cartilages
D or C shaped and are pieces of hyaline cartilage *Hyaline cartilage is very resistant
Factors that make the saturation of hemoglobin rise
Decrease in temperature will increase the saturation of hemoglobin Decrease in carbon dioxide (decrease in H+) will increase the saturation of hemoglobin molecule
Expiration
Decreasing thoracic cavity volume -Peaks at around 1mmHg
Layers of the the GI tract
Deepest 1). Mucosa (mucus membrane) *Additional layer of wetness that helps protect the body from microbes -Epithelium -Lamina propia -Musculares mucosae -Secrete digestive enzymes and hormones -Absorption (nutrients) and protection (mucus) take place 2). Submucosa -Made up of areolar connective tissue that connects to epithelium in mucosa -loose connective tissue allows nutrients to travel very rapidly to blood vessels -Holds the major blood vessels and lymphatic vessels 3). Muscularis Externa -Circular layer -Longitudinal layer *This forms criss-crossing muscular layer (basket weave pattern) -Where segmentation and peristalsis is generated -Criss-crossing helps aid in strength (prevents tearing) 4) Serosa (visceral peritoneum, outer covering) -Connective tissue (areolar connective tissue covered by simple squamous epithelium) -Epithelium (mesothelium) Superficial
Tissue Components of the Tracheal Wall *Picture on slide 12 on the powerpoint
Deepest Layer: 1). Mucosa -Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium -Lamina propria (connective tissue): attaches to epithelium -Secrete mucus with goblet cells 2). Submucosa: produce mucus -Seromucous gland in submucosa 3). Hyaline Cartilage: Keeps air passage way open and prevents from being crushed 4). Adventitia: made up of connective tissue Superficial most layer *Trachea is classified as an organ because it has multiple layers of connective tissue
Microscopic anatomy of the liver, blood flow
Deoxygenated blood moves from the liver, to the central vein out into the interlobular veins to the hepatic veins and eventually reaches the inferior vena cava and then gets back to the heart
Transpulmonary Pressure (Ppul-Pip) *Do both the transpulmonary pressure and the intrapleural pressure prevent the lungs from collapsing
Difference between (Ppul and Pip) Difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure *Keeps lungs from collapsing *Help keep air passage ways open 4mmHg ( the difference between 0mmHg and -4mmHg 0-(-4)=4mmHg
Dyspnea
Difficult/labored breathing Dys= Difficult
Cytotoxic T cells Attack Infected and Cancerous Cells
Directly attack infected and cancerous cells *Adaptive defenses--->Cellular Immunity
Lung Compliance is normally high because of
Distensibility of lung tissue (Transitional epithelium makes this possible) -Distensibility is when the lung stretches and recoils -Surfactant, which decreases alveolar surface tension (stays inflated) -Higher lung compliance means it is easier to expand lungs -This helps get air into the body
Volume of breath (How air is within this space)
During each breath, the pressure gradients move 0.5 liters of air into and out of the lungs
Ingestion
Eating, taking in food (most likely will be on exam)
Minerals
Elements found in food that are used by the body (Phosphorus and calcium)
Defecation
Eliminate indigestible food -Oatmeal and other food may be higher in fiber -Cellulose is a type of fiber -Cellulose is a component of the plant cell wall -Body cant break it down, it passes through us and sucks toxins (example: cholesterol) in large intestine
Pyloric sphincter (valve) at pylorus
End of the stomach near the duodenum -Block the chyme from moving into the small intestine long enough for digestion to take place
Different types of Antigen Presenting Cells
Engulf antigens and present fragments of antigens to T cells for recognition 1). Dendritic cells: Long spines; located in areas where there is a first line of defense; engulfs organism through phagocytosis then travels to a lymph node to show T cell the organism it captured, T cell then becomes activated 2). Macrophages: Macrophage captures organism -This activates T cells (*naive T cell) -T cell releases chemicals to change macrophage into activated macrophage -Activated macrophages then sets on a seek and destroy mission 3). B cells: B cell presents antigen to helper T cell -Helper T cell is then activated -Activated T cell releases chemicals which causes B cells to secrete antibodies
C3a and C5a
Enhances inflammation: -Stimulates histamine release, increases blood vessel permeability, attracts phagocytes by chemotaxis, ect.
Salivary Amylase
Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch -Is in the saliva of the mouth *Have the ability to start the digestive process *Head start on the process of digestion
Lingual lipase
Enzyme that breaks down fat, lipids -Is in the saliva of the mouth *Have the ability to start the digestive process *Head start on the process of digestion
Pepsin
Enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptide fragments in the stomach
Modifications of the layers of the stomach: -Muscularis externa has an...
Extra third layer, the oblique (diagonal) layer -Beats up what is in the stomach to mix with the digestive enzymes
Partial Pressure Gradients Promoting Gas Movements in The Body
FIX FORMATTING ON THIS TO MATCH YOUR MAKE SURE YOU KNOW THE QUESTIONS YOU WROTE DOWN ON THIS IN YOUR NOTES *Which letter is internal respiration D or E? *Is external respiration letter A? *Why does pressure go down from inspired air to alveoli of lungs? *High to low pressure (high to low concentration) (a). Inspired Air (b). Alveoli of lungs PO2 160 mmHg-----------------> PO2 104mmHg PCO2 0.3mmHg <---------------PCO2 40 mmHg (External Respiration) (c).Blood leaving lungs and entering tissue capillaries PO2 100mmHg PCO2 40mmHg (d). Tissues PO2 less than 40mmHg PCO2 greater than 45 mmHg (C02 moves outside because PCO2 is 40mmHg), high pressure to low pressure 100mmHg to less than 40mmHg (high pressure to low pressure) (e). Blood leaving tissues and entering lungs PO2 40mmHg PCO2 45 mmHg (Internal Respiration, veins)
5 major fold of the peritoneum
Falciform ligament: Located between the left and right lobes of the liver Lesser omentum: located between the lesser curvature of the stomach and the liver Greater omentum: yellow-flap like structure that covers 2/3 way down the small intestine A large apron-like fold of the visceral peritoneum that hangs down from the stomach Transverse mesocolon and sigmoid mesocolon: Anchor these regions of the small intestine to the posterior body wall *Specific regions of the large intestine, transverse and sigmoid areas/regions
Absorption of fats in small intestine
Fats get absorbed into the lacteals 1). Emulsification -Bile salts in the duodenum break large fat globules into smaller fat droplets -The bile silts will move up to the large piece of fat and start to surround part of it, clumping it off into a droplet -This increases the surface area available to lipase enzymes -Bile salts have a hydrophobic region which will stick up against the fat and the outer part is hydrophilic allowing it to be in the watery environment in the small intestine 2). Digestion -Pancreatic lipases hydrolyze triglycerides yielding monoglycerides and free fatty acids (FFA's) -Triglycerides (3) are broken down into monoglycerides (1) by the pancreatic lipases -Due to the pancreatic lipases, it changes the structure of the fat droplet forming micelle formations 3). Micelle formation -Micelles (consisting of fatty acids, monoglycerides and bile salts) ferry their contents to epithelial cells -Due to the pancreatic lipases -Micelles structure is allowed to pass through the membrane 4). Diffusion -Fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse from micelles into epithelial cells 5). Chylomicron Formation -Fatty acids and monoglycerides are recombined and packaged with other fatty substances and proteins to form chylomicrons (small yellow molecule) -Chylomicron is the yellow as it passes through the membrane -Chylomicron will move into the lumen of the villis 6). Chylomicron transport -Chylomicrons are extruded from the epithelial cells by exocytosis -Enter lacteals and are carried away from the intestine in lymph -Chylomicrons are able to be absorbed into the lacteals -The multiple dots (different/larger structure) makes it so the chylomicrons are not able to fit into the clefts of the blood vessels, they can only fit into lacteals *preventive measure so fats don't go into the blood and cause a clot *Once in the lymphatic system the fats will be slowly introduced into the cardiovascular system so it does not cause an issue
Villi
Finger like structures that contain blood vessels and lacteals -Each finger-like structure has the ability to absorb nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids (macromolecules) -Lacteals absorb fats
Cecum
First region of large intestine
Epiglottis
Flips down to cover the larynx
Epiglottis
Flips down to prevent food from entering *made up of elastic cartilage, repetitively bending
Uvula
Flips up to cover the nasopharynx
Uvula
Flips upward to block the nasopharynx so when you eat/drink, nothing goes into the nasal cavity
Uvula
Flips upward when you swallow so it seals off the nasal cavity from what you are trying to swallow *When liquid shoots out of the nose, the Uvula wasn't closed
Different types of taste buds
Foliate papillae Vallate papilla Fungiform papilla: look like microscopic mushrooms Filiform papilla: *All of these taste buds taste everything and do not have a specific taste
Mouth is where
Food is chewed and mixed with enzyme-containing salvia that begins the process of digestion, and swallowing process is initiated
Henrys Law
For gas mixtures in contact with liquids: -Each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure -If a gas has a higher partial pressure it will diffuse more quickly into that liquid Example of henrys law: hyperbaric chambers (100% oxygenated environment) *CO (carbon monoxide) has a 200% greater affinity to hemoglobin vs. the 02, carbon monoxide poisoning is why people would have to use a hyperbaric chamber
Hyperpnea
Forced/deep breathing Hyper=Above
Free vs. Fixed Phagocytes
Free: Wonder in and out of tissues Fixed: In one location -Stellate macrophages within the liver sinusoids -Participate in immunosurveillance in sinusoids because it is a highly susceptible area)
Transport and Exchange of CO2 and O2
From the tissues to the blood plasma Oxygen has 2 routes: 1). 1.5% O2 (dissolved in plasma) from RBC 2). 98.5% O2 dropped off to tissues from being bound to hemoglobin CO2 has 3 routes: 1). 7-10% of CO2 is dissolved in plasma 2). 20% of CO2 is chemically bound to hemoglobin 3) 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions in plasma (HCO3) *Carbonic anhydrase: speeds up chemical reaction *Slow means no enzyme *H2CO3 wants to break apart rapidly *Bicarbonate ion leaves RBC and is transported to lungs *HCO3 (Bicarbonate ion leaves and a chloride ion comes in to balance the positives and negatives *Hb (hemoglobin) combines with hydrogen ion which prevents the blood from being too acidic *Hb packages the ion *Free H+ ion would make blood acidic *When CO2 comes in O2 is freed from Hb traveling into tissues *O2 has to be free to enter tissues (dropped off)
Antibody Structure (Adaptive defenses---->Humoral Immunity) *Slide 27 on powerpoint
Gamma globulins Heavy chain: variable region and constant region Light Chain: Variable region and Constant region -Same between all antibodies Variable region -This is different between antibodies and allows them to respond to different pathogens (antigens) -Specific site (shape) to bind to an antigen Constant Region: -Same between all antibodies *4 chains: -2 heavy -2 light
Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG) *Go over before exam
Generate rhythm and integration center -Contains rhythm generator's whose output drives respiration -Located in the medulla -Influenced from the Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG) and either directly from the potine respiratory centers or indirectly from the Potine respiratory centers through the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) and back to ventral respiratory group (VRG)
Conducting Zone Passages
Getting Smaller By Each Structure 1). Trachea 2). R/L main (primary) bronchus 3). Lobar (secondary) bronchus 4). Segmental (tertiary) bronchus 5). Bronchial's 6). Terminal bronchiole: Smooth muscle surrounds this (involuntary) *During anaphylactic shock, epipen targets this 7). Respiratory bronchioles 8). Alveolar duct 9). Alveoli
Fats get converted to
Glycerol and fatty acids
Transverse colon
Goes across the abdominal area from right to left
Ascending colon
Goes up
Enamel
Hardest substance in the human body
Arytenoid cartilage has....
Has Arytenoid muscle
Tongue
Has intrinsic and Extrinsic Muscles Intrinsic Muscles (does not attach to bone) -Change shape of the tongue -Curling your tongue Extrinsic Muscles (Attach to bone) -Change position of tongue -Pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth
Complete antigen (protein, polysaccharide, bacterium)
Have 2 important functional properties: A). Immunogenicity (Immunogenic): ability to stimulate proliferation (rapid division) of specific lymphocytes (B and T cells) B). Reactivity: Ability to react with activated lymphocytes (B cells) and antibodies released by immunogenic reactions
Clonal Selection
Helper T cells, Regulatory T cells or Cytotoxic T cells -Process is the same for a CD8 cell -Adaptive defense---->cellular immunity
Stages of Inflammation: Step 1). Inflammatory chemical release
Histamine: -Source: Granules of Mast Cells (Located/clusters around blood vessels) and basophils -Physiological effects: makes blood vessels leaky, increases permeability of local capillaries, promoting formation of exudate (Fluid leaked out of blood vessels) *Exudate has clotting factors, antibodies and proteins Kinins (Bradykinin and others): -Source: A plasma protein, kininogen, is spilt by the enzyme, kallikrein, found in plasma, urine, saliva and in lysosomes of neutrophils -Physiological effects: Same as histamine, also induce chemotaxis Prostaglandins: A signaling molecule and is a specific type of eicosanoid -Source: Fatty acid molecules produced from arachidonic acid found in all cell membranes -Physiological Effects: Same as histamine, also induce neutrophil chemotaxis (signal), causes WBC's to move towards chemicals) Complement proteins: Punches holes in plasma membrane of cell that has been infected (causes lysis) Cytokines: Regulate the inflammatory process
Adaptive Defenses 3rd line of defense
Humoral Immunity -B cells (produce antibodies) Cellular Immunity -T cells (elicit immune response)
Primary and Secondary Humoral Responses
Humoral= B cells (antibodies) -Primary immune response (1st exposure) to antigen A occurs after a delay -Secondary immune response (Any exposure after the primary) to Antigen A is faster and larger; primary immune response to Antigen B is similar to that of a foreign substance *Lag time of 3-6 days for primary exposure (Body is asleep at the wheel) *IgA, then IgG Any exposure after primary: *2-3 days for large increased in circulating antibodies *Remains circulating in. blood 4-5 x longer than primary response
Major Types of T cells (Adaptive defense---->cellular immunity)
Immature lymphocyte either becomes a CD4 cell or a CD8 cell.
Effector Cells
Immediate Immune response; die after response -Fight off pathogen 1). Plasma cells 2). Helper T cells 3). Cytotoxic T cells
Immune System Homeostatic Imbalances
Immunodeficiency: Congenital or acquired conditions that impair function or production of immune cells or molecules (AIDS, Hodgkins Lymphoma (cancer of B cells) Autoimmune disease: Results when immune system loses ability to distinguish self from foreign (Rheumatoid arthritis, MA (myasthenia gravis: attack from the immune system at the neuromuscular junction), Type 1 diabetes SLE (Attacks tissues around the body) Autoimmunity: Production of autoantibodies and sensitized Tc cells that destroys body tissues
Factors that make the saturation of hemoglobin fall
Increase in temperature will decrease the saturation of hemoglobin Increase in carbon dioxide (Increase H+) will decrease the saturation of hemoglobin
Primary Response (Adaptive defenses--->Humoral Immunity)
Initial counter with antigen, first time body is sensitized -Antigen bind to a receptor on a specific B lymphocyte (clonal selection) B lymphocytes with non complementary receptors remain inactive -Cross-linking must occur in order to initiate/activate a B cell, Antigen is pulled in through phagocytosis -Activated B cells produce plasma cells/clonal cells and these plasma cells secrete antibodies -Memory B cell is primed to respond to same antigen *Plasma cells only live 4-5 days *Secrete about 2,000 antibodies per second
Fever
Innate defense---->second line of defense -Abnormally high body temperature that is systemic response to invading microorganisms -Leukocytes and macrophages exposed to foreign substances secrete pyrogens -Pyrogens act on body's thermostat in hypothalamus, raising body temperature
Intercostal nerves
Innervate the intercostal muscles
The first line of defense: Surface Membrane Barriers -Intact Skin Epidermis
Intact Skin epidermis: Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances into the body Acid Mantle of Skin: -Skin secretions (sweat and sebum) make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits bacterial growth, also contains various bacterial chemicals, makes the surface acidic & saline (salty) -May also contains dermcidin (an antimicrobial substance) lipid toxic to bacteria that can be in sebum Keratin: -Protein that provides resistance against acids, alkalis and bacterial enzymes
Short Reflexes
Intrinsic plexuses: Occur entirely within the gastrointestinal wall
Delayed hypersensitivity (type IV)
Is mostly impacted by T cells -Slow onset (1-3 days) -Mechanism depends on helper T cells -Cytokine-activated macrophages and cytotoxic T cells cause damage -Example: Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy) -Antigens act as haptens (Incomplete antibodies) -TB skin test depends on this reaction
Pyloric antrum
Larger space that leads into the pyloric canal
Lower Respirator Tract
Larynx to the smallest division in lungs Larynx: The area of the throat containing the vocal cords, and used for breathing, swallowing and talking, also called voice box -Trachea -Primary bronchus -R/L lungs -Alveoli -Tertiary bronchioles -Terminal Bronchial's -Alveolar ducts *Starting at the larynx and anything that is below that
Lung Cancer *Go over the different types of lung cancers before the exam
Leading cause of cancer deaths in North America 90% of all cases are result of smoking
Lesser and greater curvature of the stomach
Lesser curvature= smaller curve Greater curvature= larger curve
Circothyroid ligament
Lies just below the laryngeal prominence
Other receptors (Pain) and emotional stimuli acting through the hypothalamus (Pontine respiratory centers)
Limbic system dictating a change through hypothalamus very quick response
Parotid gland
Located anterior to the ear -Duct that drains near the 2nd upper molar (Parotid duct) -Almond-shaped
Retroperitoneal organs *Go over this before the exam and watch videos
Located outside, or posterior to the peritoneum -Parts of the visceral organs or entire organs that are behind the peritoneum -Cecum (part of the large intestine), appendix (structure off the large intestine) and rectum are all retroperitoneal -Colon (ascending and descending) is also retroperitoneal, except for its transverse and sigmoid parts -Pancreas and kidneys are included as well
Uses of lipids
Long term energy storage, insulation and hormones
Inhibitory cephalic phase
Loss of appetite, depression -Stimulates the cerebral cortex and then decreases the parasympathetic activity
Ileum
Lower aspect of the abdominon, inferior to the jejunum *12 ft long
Lung compliance
Lung stretch: -measure of change in lung volume that occurs given the change in transpulmonary pressure (difference between alveolar pressure and the intraplueral pressure in the pleural cavity) -measure of how much stretch the lung has (Lung compliance is typically high)
Clonal Selection
Lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate in response to a specific antigen is a process called clonal selection
Catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy *Break down *Cat= cut which means to break down
Microvilli
Microscopic villi on the villi which increase surface area and secrete digestive enzymes -Brush border: are made up of microvilli -Microvilli are all around the edge of the villi to increase the surface area and secrete the digestive enzymes -Increasing surface area increases absorption
Jejunum
Middle part of the abdominon *8 ft long
Palatoglossal arch
More anterior arch with mouth
Palatopharyngeal arch
More posterior arch where the palatine tonsils are
Organ Transplants and Rejections
Most common type of organ transplants is an allograft: transplant from the same species -Success depends on similarity of tissues -ABO, other blood antigens, and MHC antigens are matched as closely as possible After surgery -Patient is treated with immunosuppressive therapy (kills actively/rapidly dividing lymphocytes, both B and T cells) -Many of these therapies have severe side effects (more common for patients to get sick (opportunistic infections) -Best circumstances: rejection after 10 years in 50% of patients -Even with success on similarity of tissue matching, the body can recognize that the DNA is not its own (Scientists don't know why)
Lingual Tonsil
Most posterior roughness on the togue
Composition of saliva
Mostly water (97-99.5%), so hypo-osmotic (less solute in it than the surrounding enivornment) Slightly acidic (pH 6.75 to 7.00), kills bacteria and acts as a natural anti-microbe Electrolytes: Na+, K+, Cl−, PO42−, HCO3− (Bicarbonate ion), Balances electrolytes Salivary amylase and lingual lipase Proteins: mucin, lysozyme, and IgA (Antimicrobial proteins) Metabolic wastes: urea and uric acid (nitrogenous wastes) Lysozyme, IgA, defensins, and nitric oxide from nitrates in food protect against microorganisms *Balances electrolytes, electrolyte ions conduct charges and dissociate, spread apart in water rapidly
Mouth and Associated organs
Mouth is formed by: -Oral Cavity: Space within the mouth -Labia (Lips) -Buccae (Cheecks) -Hard palate -Soft Palate -Tongue Mouth contains the: -Salivary glands -Teeth
gastroesophageal sphincter
Muscle that connects the esophagus and stomach, and helps keep the stomach contents in the stomach
High pitch
Narrow glottis (Almost closed)
Peristalsis
Net movement -Waves of muscular contraction that moves bolus and chyme from esophagus towards anus -Waves of muscular contraction taking place in the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine -Adjacent segments of the alimentary canal organs alternately contract and relax (pinches right behind bolus/chyme) -Food is moved distally along the tract; primarily propulsive
Control of Respiration: Neural Regulation (Respiratory Center) *Ask professor about this, slide 41 on powerpoint
Neural controls have autonomic and voluntary controls
Segmentation
No net movement, start in stop in the same place -Mix food/beverage and digestive enzymes to break down food (no net movement) -Occurs mainly in the small intestine which shakes back and forth -Once the food arrives at the small intestine, the body needs to continuously mix enzymes -Nonadjacent segments of the alimentary canal organs contract and relax -Food is moved forward then backward -Primary mixes food and breaks it down mechanically
Quiet expiration (Normal Expiration)
Normally is a passive process, does not use energy (relies on elasticity of the lungs); results in decrease thoracic cavity volume
Upper Respirator tract
Nose to the larynx (DOES NOT INCLUDE THE LARYNX) -Nose -Nostril -Nasal Cavity -Oral Cavity -Pharynx: Hollow tube inside the neck that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (wind pipe) and esophagus
Steps of the Transport and Exchange of CO2 and O2 (At the tissues)
O2 leaves RBC (HBO2----->O2+Hb) H+ ions stays inside the cell and combines with the reduced hemoglobin (HHb) H+ would make blood normally acidic, but because its being packaged with Hb it doesn't make blood acidic (It neutralizes it) HCO3-(a negative ion) is an alkaline (weak base), it enters the blood and travels to the lungs, at the same time, chloride ion is coming in, 1(-) going out and 1(-) going in This provides no net change in the ionic conditions Cl- just hangs out in the red blood cell until you get back to the lungs
Steps of the Transport and Exchange of CO2 and O2 (At the lungs)
Once the RBC arrives at the lungs, oxygen is resupplied to the RBC from the alveolus When the O2 is resupplied to RBC, it is going to have a reaction with reduced hemoglobin O2+HHb--->HbO2 + H+ H+ is kicked off Hb because hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 than H+ ion Only with absent of O2, Hb will attach to H+ but when O2 is present, O2 will attach instead O2+HHb----->HbO2+H+ H+ will combine with HCO3- When HCO3- comes back into the cell, reverse chloride shift occurs and Cl- leaves the cell at the same time H+ combines with bicarbonate ion (HCO3) which goes into a process with the carbonic anhydrase enzyme to spilt into CO2 and H2O to leave the RBC, enter the alveolus to be exhaled Carbonic anhydrase can also work in a reverse direction CO2<------CO2+H2O<------H2CO3 CO2 and H20 travel out of RBC into lungs so you can exhale CO2 will also release from HB and go into Alveolus
Submandibular gland
Openings lateral to the lingual frenulum - 2 holes, left and right: opens at the floor of the mouth below the lower jaw
Opening of the submandibular duct
Opens on either side of the frenulum of the tongue
C3b complement activation
Opsonization: -Antibodies cause a clump of the pathogen which makes it easier for the macrophages to engulf it -Coats pathogen surfaces, which enhances phagocytosis -Inserts handles to make it easier for macrophages to engulf
Oxygen transport
Oxygen and carbon dioxide have limited solubility in blood plasma Below are temporary and reversible reactions
Olfactory Epithelium
Part of cranial nerve -Penetrates through the cribriform plates into this to create a sense of smell
Crown
Part of the tooth that is above the gum line
Neutralization, Agglutination and Perception all enhance
Phagocytosis
plasma cells
Plasma cells are terminally differentiated B cells that secrete antibodies
Intrapleural Pressure (Pip), Inside pleural cavity
Pleural cavity pressure becomes more negative as chest wall expands during inspiration. Returns to initial value as chest wall recoils
1 canine (eyetooth)
Pointed almost like fangs that hold and tear flesh *1 on each side, 2 total
stimulatory intestinal phase
Presence of partially digested foods in duodenum or distention of the duodenum when stomach begins to empty -Intestinal (enteric) gastrin release to blood, brief effect and then increases stomach secretory activity
Atmospheric Pressure (P Atm)
Pressure exerted by air surrounding the body 760mmHg at sea level= 1 atmosphere *Altitude will make pressure decrease *Below sea level (under the ocean) pressure increases *32 psi=32psi above atmosphere
Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)
Pressure exerted by air surrounding the body 760 mm Hg at sea level = 1 atmosphere *Zero pressure inside lungs--->760mmHg *Positive pressure (+4), 760+4=764mmHg *Negative Pressure (-1), 760-1=759mmHg
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)
Pressure in pleural cavity *Always approximately 4mmHg less than Ppul -4mmHg (756mmHg) -4mmHg prevents lungs from collapsing *-1 is okay but boarderline
Intrapulmonary Pressure (Ppul)
Pressure inside the alveoli Changes when we breathe in and out 0 mmHg (760 mmHg) *Ask professor why its 0mmHg but then 760mmhg
Intrapulmonary Pressure (inside the lungs)
Pressure inside the lungs decreases as lung volume increases during inspiration; pressure increases as lung volume decreases during expiration
Palatine tonsil
Preventing infection in the respiratory and digestive tracts by producing antibodies -MALT tissue: Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) is scattered along mucosal linings in the human body and constitutes the most extensive component of human lymphoid tissue. These surfaces protect the body from an enormous quantity and variety of antigens.
Protein absorption in the small intestine
Protein absorption=carbohydrate absorption 1). Pancreatic proteases break down proteins and protein fragments into smaller pieces and some individual amino acids 2). Brush boarder enzymes break protein fragments into Amino acids (AA) 3). Amino acids are co-transported with Na+ across the apical membrane of the absorptive epithelial cell *Na+ coming into the cell drives the amino acids in *The active transport uses the Na+ concentration gradient established by the sodium/potassium pump in the basolateral membrane *as the amino acids travels through the intestinal cell it comes to the bottom to the amino acid carrier (facilitated diffusion) 4). Amino acids exit across the basolateral membrane via facilitated diffusion and enter the capillary via the intercellular clefts
Mechanics of breathing
Pulmonary ventilation consists of 2 phases -Inspiration: gases flow into lungs -Expiration: gases exit the lungs Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
Tachypnea
Rapid breathing Tachy= rapid
Additional functions of the liver
Receives nutrient rich blood from the GI tract -Removes poisons; detoxifies blood (removes ammonia by converting it to urea) -Removes and stores irons and certain vitamins from the blood (Fat soluble vitamins: A/D/E/K body stores so it is possible to compound) -Stores glycogen (long term storage of glucose) -Produces plasma proteins -Regulates cholesterol by producing bile salts (making bile salts takes cholesterol out of circulation) -Recycles (breaks down) hemoglobin (bilirubin getting converted to stercobilin)
Regulatory T cells
Regulates immune response from the adaptive part of the immune system -Derives from CD4 cells
Boyles Law
Relationship between pressure and volume of gas -Gases always fill the container they are in -If the amount of gas is the same and container size is reduced, then pressure will increase -So pressure (p) varies inversely with volume (v) -Mathematically= P1V1=P2V2
Airway resistance
Relationships between flow (F), pressure (P), and resistance (R) F=ΔP/R ΔP pressure gradient between atmosphere and alveoli (2mmHg or less during normal quiet breathing)
Alveolar Surface Tension
Resists any force that tends to increase surface area of liquid -Water, which has very high surface tension, coats alveolar walls in a thin film -Tends to cause alveoli to shrink to smallest size
4 Processes of Respiration
Respiratory System 1. pulmonary ventilation (breathing) -Inspiration (into lungs) and expiration (out of lungs) 2. external respiration (at the lungs) -02 diffuses from the lungs to the blood -C02 diffuses from the blood to the lungs -exchange of 02 and C02 between lungs Circulatory System 3. transport of respiratory gases -circulatory system transports gases using blood as the transporting fluid -02 is transported from the lungs to the tissue cells of the body -C02 is transported from the tissue cells to the lungs 4. internal respiration (at the tissue level) -exchange of 02 and C02 between systemic blood vessels -02 diffuses from the blood to the tissue cells -C02 diffuses from the tissue cells to the blood *Cyclical process, happens repetitively
Memory Cells
Respond to future infection; do not die after response -Keep a record of the antigen for future defense 1). Memory B cells 2). Memory helper T cell 3). Memory cytotoxic T cells
Chemical Digestion
Salivary Amylase: Enzyme that breaks down starch Lingual Lipase: Enzyme that breaks down fats
Sublingual fold with openings of sublingual ducts
Salivary glands
Parietal Cells
Secrete: 1). Hydrochloric acid (HCl), pH 1.5-3.5 traditionally 3 2). Intrinsic factor, needs to be secreted, glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B 12 in small intestine *You need Vitamin B12 for blood cell production
Chief Cells
Secrete: 1). Pepsinogen: Inactive enzyme that is activated to pepsin (breaks down proteins) *Becomes pepsin in the presence of HCl 2). Lipases: breaks down fat
Serotinin
Secreted by the enteroendocrine cells that act as paracrine stimulated other cells -Increases contraction of stomach muscle
Histamine
Secreted by the enteroendocrine cells that act as paracrine stimulated other cells -Activates the parietal cells
Steps of Immediate hypersensitivity acute (type 1) hypersensitivities (allergies)
Sensitization Stage (First time contact) 1). Antigen (allergen) invades the body 2). Plasma cells produce large amounts of class IgE antibodies against allergen 3), IgE antibodies attach to mast cells in body tissues (and to circulating basophils) Subsequent (secondary) responses (second time of contact) 4). More of same antigen invades body 5). Antigen combines with IgE attached to mast cells (and basophils) which triggers degranulation and release of histamine (and other chemicals) 6). Histamine causes blood vessels to dilate and become leaky which promotes edema; stimulate secretion of large amounts of mucus and causes smooth muscle to contract (if respiratory system is site of antigen entry, asthma may ensue)
Oxygen hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
Shows how saturated hemoglobin becomes based on partial pressure of oxygen -The greater PO2 (mmHg) the more saturated of loaded hemoglobin will become -Living in a high altitude will reduce the PO2 (mmHg) -Based on the PO2 it will determine the saturation level of hemoglobin
External stimuli
Sight, smell, taste, thought of food -Stimulates the central nervous system -Central nervous system can then stimulate the local (intrinsic) nerve plexus ("gut brain") via the extrinsic visceral (autonomic) efferents
Innate defenses: Surface barriers 1st line of defense (non-specific)
Skin (4 to 5 layers) -Contains keratin, keratin resists weak acids and bases and resists bacteria as well as their toxins Mucous membrane -Found in respiratory, digestive reproductive and urinary system -Wetness prevents microbes from getting in
Bradypnea
Slow breathing Brady= Slow
Tenia Coli *Probably on the exam
Smooth muscle bands (gray in color) -3 bands of smooth muscle that form haustrum
Pontine respiratory group and DRG
Smooth out breathing rate
Dentia
Soft area, just inside the enamel
Percipitation
Soluble antigens (non cellular material) bind with antibodies -Enhances phagocytosis and inflammation
Laryngeal sinus
Space between false and true vocal cords
Oral Vestibule
Space in between the teeth and lips
Secretin
Stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate ions in pancreatic juice, and stimulates gallbladder to release bicarbonate-rich bile *In response to acidic chyme
Distention
Stretch *When things stretch in the GI tract it kicks start processes
Peritoneum means https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2-5tX_CMlQ ^ Good video on the peritoneum to watch
Stretched around -It is like a fist inside the balloon.
Lingual Frenulum
Structure anchoring the tongue
Metabolism
Sum of all biochemical reactions inside a cell involving nutrients *Metabolism=anabolism+catabolism
Constrictor muscles of the pharynx
Superior constrictor Middle constrictor Inferior constrictor
Branch of portal vein
Supply deoxygenated, nutrient rich blood *Oxygen poor, nutrient rich
Branch of hepatic artery
Supply oxygenated blood
The first line of defense: Surface Membrane Barriers -Intact mucous membranes
Surface mucous membranes: Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens -Mucus: Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tract -Nasal hairs: Filter and trap microorganisms in nasal passages -Cilia: Propel debris-laden mucus away from nasal cavity and lower respiratory passages (Ciliary Escalator) -Gastric Juice: Contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein digesting enzymes that destroy pathogens in stomach (Has a pH of around 3) -Acid Mantle of vagina: Inhibits growth of most bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract -Lacrimal Secretion (tears); Saliva: Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes (tears) and oral cavity (saliva), contains lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms, contains defensins , broad spectrum antimicrobial peptide -Urine: Normally acidic pH inhibits bacterial growth; cleanses the lower urinary tract as if it flushes from the body
MHC proteins continued
T lymphocytes can only recognize antigens that are presented on MHC proteins -Allows body to recognize self vs. non-self
Different types of helper T cells
TH 1: Inflammation, activating macrophages and cytotoxic T cells TH 2: Parasitic worm infections (Involved with Eosinophils) TH 17: Releases IL 17 (interleukin 17) which causes inflammation
TCR
The T cell receptor on the majority of T cells - it recognizes antigen-MHC complexes, that are presented by APC's (dendritic cell, macrophages or B cells)
Release of Oxygen
The amount of oxygen released from oxyhemoglobin increases as: 1). Blood temperature increases 2). Blood pH decreases, increase H+, acidic (Bohr effect) 3). PCO2 increases (Haldane effect) 4). Concentration of BPG increases: BPG rises when oxygen levels are chronically low *BPG (metabolic by product when a RBC metabolizes glucose) *All of these factors decrease affinity of Hb for O2, which increases unloading *When there is hypoxia (low oxygen levels) the amount of BPG rises, the increase in BPG, more than normal levels starts sticking to the RBC's which blocks oxygen binding sites
Alveolar Surface Tension Surface Tension
The attraction of liquid (water) molecules to one another at a gas-liquid interface
Ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) coupling/matching:
The blood supply and air for exchange must be balanced (Exercising and resting have different amounts of O2 that is needed and CO2 that is expelled)
Surfactant
The body's detergent-like lipid and protein complex that helps reduce surface tension of alveolar fluid -This prevents the alveoli from collapsing -Counteragent so water does not start accumulating in the alveoli -Prevents water molecules from sticking together -Correct surface area to volume ratio will make sure that we inhale enough 02 and exhale enough C02
Pepsinogen
The inactive form of pepsin that is first secreted by specialized (chief) cells located in gastric pits of the stomach. -Converted by HCl in the stomach to pepsin
Grinding in the stomach
The most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus -The pyloric end of the stomach acts a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into the duodenum -The pyloric end of the stomach can only fit around 30mL, when the pyloric valve slightly opens, only 3 mL of fluid can pass through
oblique layer
The muscularis externa of the stomach contains a third layer of smooth muscle not found elsewhere in the GI tract. The oblique layer is the innermost smooth muscle layer and this extra layer allows the stomach greater mobility than other GI regions that contain only circular and longitudinal layers Allow the pummeling of the contents of the stomach (physical pummeling), beats up whatever is inside the stomach to make sure its being mixed with the digestive enzymes
Isthmus of the fauces
The opening between the two arches of the soft palate -Opening to oral cavity
Retropulsion/Retropupulsion in the stomach
The peristaltic wave closes the pyloric valve, forcing most of the contents of the pylorus backward into the stomach
Cardial orifice
The point where the esophagus joins the stomach
rectum and anus
The rectum is a short tube that stores solid waste until it is eliminated from the body through the anus.
fundus of stomach
The upper left portion of the stomach, which has a curved, dome-shaped appearance.
Thyroid cartilage
The wing-shaped plate of cartilage that sits anterior to the larynx and forms the Adam's apple.
Trachealis
Thick band of smooth muscle that bridges the ends of each of the horshoe-shaped cartilage rings that helps stabilize the entire length of the windpipe
Adaptive (specific) defense system
Third Line of Defense: Attacks Particular foreign substances (Takes longer than innate) -Last line of defense -"It knows" the difference, "It knows" the pathogen -Acquired, our immune system learns due to exposure
Esophagus goes...
Through the diaphragm -The hole that the esophagus goes through is the esophagus hiatus
Alveoli
Tiny ball like structures where diffusion of respiratory gases takes place
Esophagus
Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach -The esophagus is around 10 inches -Takes around 3 seconds for food to reach the stomach and 1 second for liquid to reach the stomach -Collapsed tube that is very strong
Adenocarcinoma
Type of Lung Cancer (40%) of cases -Originates in peripheral lung areas (around the lungs) : develops from bronchial glands and alveolar cells
Structures in the epiglottis
Vestibular fold: (False vocal cord, plays no part in sound production) Vocal fold: (True vocal cord, plays a part in sound production) Thyroid Cartilage: Thyroid gland lies just below Cricoid cartilage: Cartilage mostly thats in the front: Just below the laryngeal prominence Thyroid gland: Epiglottis: Right above the hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane: connective tissue below the hyoid bone and above the laryngeal prominence circothyroid ligament: In-between laryngeal prominence and cricocartilage
Functions of large intestine
Water and electrolyte balance -Rids the body of indigestible wastes and feces Bacterial Flora: consist of 1000+ different types of bacteria Metabolic functions: Fermentation: Ferment indigestible carbohydrates and mucin -Release irritating acids and gases (500mL/day), depends on the diet Vitamin Synthesis -Synthesize B complex and some vitamin K needed by liver to produce clotting factors -Without bacterial flora this could not occur *Bacterial flora get rid of things we wouldn't normally be able to digest and we give them a place to live
Neck
Where the tooth goes right through the gum
Low Pitch
Wide glottis (Opened)
Peptidase
a digestive enzyme secreted by the brush boarder enzymes (microvilli) in the small intestine that breaks down peptides into amino acids
Diaphragm
a dome-shaped, muscular partition separating the thorax from the abdomen in mammals. It plays a major role in breathing, as its contraction increases the volume of the thorax cavity and so inflates the lungs.
cystic duct
a duct draining bile from the gallbladder; merges with the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct and sphincter
mesentery
a fused double layer of the parietal peritoneum that attaches parts of the intestine to the interior abdominal wall
Peritoneum *Go over this a little more before the exam
a multilayered membrane lines, protects, and holds the organs in place within the abdominal cavity -The serous membrane lining the cavity of the abdomen and covering the abdominal organs *Folds that anchor organs to one another and to the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity -If the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity are more towards the front and within the peritoneum they are called the inter-peritoneal organs
Corniculate cartilage
a pair of horn-like pieces of elastic cartilage located at the apex of each arytenoid cartilage
Bile
a yellow-green alkaline solution, bitter fluid important in the breakdown and absorption of fats
Liver is a...
accessory digestive organ that helps the GI tract and stores some vitamins and minerals -The digestion function is the production of bile
Secretin release is stimulated by
acidic chyme
CCK induces secretion by
acinar cells of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
Procarbooxypeptidase (inactive)
activated by trypsin to form carboxypeptidase
Chymotrypsinogen (inactive)
activated by trypsin to form chymotrypsin
Proteins get converted to
amino acids
Trypsin
an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine
Peritoneum and Mesentery
anchor organs in place
falcifrom ligament
attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm *Division line of the liver between the right and left parts
Respiratory Burst
bacterial killing by generating hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorous acid -When T Cells stimulate macrophages to produce additional enzymes (Chemicals/Free Radicals)
Duct cell in pancreas
bicarbonate secretion (HCO3-, biocarbonate ion) and H20, water *Creates the watery secretion in the pancreatic juice
The actual important component of bile that we need in order to break down those fats are called...
bile salts
Lipolysis
breakdown lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
Glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Expiration
breathing out (exhalation)
Chylomicrons
carries absorbs lipids from intestine to liver *2-7% cholesterol
complement activation
causes inflammation and cell lysis -stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes, and enhances phagocytosis -Activates inflammatory chemicals
Gallbladder
chief function is storage of bile *when the gallbladder is removed it can't release a concentrated solution of that bile when fats come through, the liver can possibly compensate but a low fat diet may need to be practiced
Process of expiration
compressing the lungs increases the pressure over atmosphere -Recruiting additional muscles increases the pressure of the lungs forcing air out -Have to create a higher pressure gradient vs. the atmosphere to get the air out
Alveolar Pores
connect adjacent alveoli, equalize air pressure throughout lung
Thyrohyoid membrane
connects thyroid cartilage to hyoid bone
Primary dentition
consists of 20 deciduous teeth, or milk or baby teeth, that erupt between 6 and 24 months
upper esophageal sphincter
controls the passage of food from the laryngopharynx into the esophagus
T cells cause
delayed hypersensitivity -Delayed hypersensitivities (type IV)
5% are...
disposed in feces (releases cholesterol from the body) -prevents build up of cholesterol
inhibitory intestinal phase
distension of duodenum; presence of fatty, acidic, or hypertonic chyme
The stomach is an organ that ...
doesn't want to keep food that long
Mesentery
double layer located in between the large intestine -Not only does it anchor the large intestine where its suppose to be, it is also going to allow arteries and veins to pass through and keep them in place so they don't flap/move around
Secretin causes secretion by
duct cell of HCO3- (Bicarbonate ion) rich pancreatic juice
CCK (cholecystokinin) and secretin are secreted by
duodenal enteroendocrine cells
Intestinal lipase
enzyme in the membrane of the mircrovilli that breaks fats down into fatty acids and glycerol
Sucrase, maltase, lactase (sugars)
enzymes secreted by the brush boarder (microvilli) that break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
Gastric glands
exocrine glands in the stomach wall that secrete gastric juice into the stomach
*When you eat more food the speed at which it travels through the stomach is.......
faster *When the GI tract stretches, it speeds things along
Disulfide Bond of antibody
fixes and stabilizes the tertiary structure of a protein -Disulfide bond structure has a significant impact on antibody structure, stability, and biological function
Glycogensis
formation of glycogen from glucose
Lipogenesis
forms lipids from acetyl CoA and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Cribiform plate of ethmoid
forms the roof of the nasal cavity and has many foramen through which olfactory nerves pass
Glucose
fuel most used by cells to make ATP
Enteroendocrine cell
gastric gland cell that releases hormones -Act as paracrine cells that act locally on adjacent cells (cells that are touching eachother)
Carbohydrates get converted to
glucose and sugars
Carbohydrate reactions
glycolysis: Converts glucose to pyruvic acid (breaks down sugar) glycogenesis: Polymerize glucose to form glycogen glycogenolysis: Hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose monomers gluconeogenesis: Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors
A larger meal will...
go through the GI tract quicker trying to pull out all of those nutrients
Descending colon
goes down on the left side of the abdomen
Alveolar sac
group or cluster of alveoli
Gastrin
hormone secreted in the stomach that stimulates secretion of HCl and increases gastric motility
gastrin and somatostatin
hormones that stimulate/inhibit acid secretion by stomach
gastrin and somatostatin *Ask professor if this is secreted by the small intestine
hormones that stimulate/inhibit acid secretion by stomach and is secreted by the small intestine -Gastrin: Stimulates acid secretion by stomach -Somatostatin: Inhibits acids secretion by stomach
Tonsils
https://www.google.com/search?q=palatine+tonsils&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS918US918&sxsrf=AOaemvKSsJnVE7sv5asYpidmXYg7l19YAQ:1636927747177&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjxhZKH75j0AhUqnuAKHVh-B_gQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1440&bih=821&dpr=2#imgrc=aDoF4QCsYRINZM
Antibodies cause
immediate and subacute hypersensitivities Immediate hypersensitivity -actue (type 1 hypersensitivity) Subacute hypersensitivity: -Cytotoxic (type II) reactions -Immune complex (type III) hypersensitivity
stellate macrophages
in liver sinusoids remove debris and old RBCs
somatostatin (stomach)
inhibits gastric secretion of all products influences digestive target organs (stomach, pancreas, small intestine) -Secreted by the enteroendocrine cells -inhibits gastric secretion of all products and promotes gastric secretion of those products
Phrenic nerve
innervates the diaphragm
gas flow changes _________ with resistance
inversely *Decrease in resistance=increases flow, *Increase resistance and decreases flow -Depends on the diameter of respiratory passageways *When you go from a larger diameter to a smaller diameter it keeps the pressure up
Sigmoid colon
involuntary
Internal anal sphincter
involuntary (smooth muscle)
Everything released from the pancreas is inactive because...
it prevents eating away the tissues as it comes through those ducts
common hepatic duct
large bile duct leading from liver; joins with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct
Liver
largest gland in the body that produces bile
Sigmoid colon
last part of large intestine leading into the rectum S-shaped
very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)
lipoproteins that transport triglycerides and other lipids from the liver to adipose tissues in the body *10-15% cholesterol
Glycogen is stored
liver and muscles
Inspiration
lowest point is -1mmHg -Thoracic cavity volume increases so pressure goes down -As long as intrapleural pressure stays negative, the lung wont collapse
Gas exchange occurs between
lungs and blood as well as blood and tissues
Respiratory membrane
made up from simple squamous epithelium -Made up of capillaries and alveolar walls -blood air barrier that consists of alveolar capillary walls -Very thin (0.5um): allows for gas exchange across membrane by simple diffusion. -allow for simple diffusion -Typically has a very high surface area *Emphysema of COPOD means that the surface area lowers dramatically
Sublingual gland
major salivary glands at the base of the mouth -Ducts that open at the floor of the mouth *10 total-5 on each side, *20 total-10 on each side
Hepatocytes
make bile
Tongue
manipulates food for chewing and swallowing; a taste organ
Inspiration and expiration is a
mechanical process (movement), depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity -volume changes leads to pressure changes -Pressure changes lead to flow of gases to equalize pressure -manipulating the volume in the thoracic cavity
Substances move through the GI tract, waves of muscular contraction would....,.
move the organs if the peritoneum and mesentery where not there, make sure organs stay where they are, anchor organs in place
Chloride shift
movement of chloride ions from the blood plasma into red blood cells as bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the red blood cells into the plasma *No net change due to chloride shift (Cl- comes into the cell)
Propulsion
movement of food through the alimentary canal 1). Swallowing: (oropharynx, laryngopharynx) 2). Peristalsis: (esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine, due to smooth muscle
Issue with the parietal cells
not only do you have no intrinsic factor and HCl being secreted now you are disrupting the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin through HCL in the chief cells as well. The conversion can not occur
Essential nutrients
nutrients necessary for normal body functioning that must be obtained from food *Certain fatty acids, amino acid, vitamins
posterior nasal aperture
open passageway at the end of the nasal cavity leading into the pharynx
glottis
opening between vocal cords -Fold vibrate to prdouce sound as air rushes up fro lungs Speech: intermittent release of expired air during opening and closing of glottis -High pitch: Narrow glottis -Low pitch: Wide glottis *vocal cords become longer and wider in the glottis during puberty in males to deepen voice
retroperitoneal organs *Make sure this is correct
organs outside the peritoneum -Lesser omentum: Smaller mesentery -Transverse mesocolon/sigmoid mesocolon: Connects the transverse and sigmoid colon to the posterior wall of the abdomen -Greater omentum: is a large apron-like fold of visceral peritoneum that hangs down from the stomach. -Visceral peritoneum: The layers of tissue that cover the outer surface of most organs in the abdomen, including the intestines. -Parietal peritoneum: portion that lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Those cavities are also known as the peritoneal cavity.
Oxygen loosely bound to each Fe of hemoglobin (Hb) forms
oxyhemoglobin which delivers oxygen to body tissues
Involuntary motor nerve
parasympathetic division
Propulsion in the stomach
peristaltic waves move from the fundus toward the pylorus *Movement
Alveolar macrophages *Ask if alveolar macrophages are type II alveolar cells
phagocytose small particles in alveoli -Keeps a clean and sterile surface -Coughing can help expel dead macrophages (macrophages die when eating)
Billirubin
pigment release in bile by liver, produced from hemoglobin destruction *Pigment formed from heme *Bacteria break down billirubin in large intestine to form stercobilin that gives brown color to feces *The breakdown of erythrocytes can produce bilirubin *Cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids and electrolytes
Interleukins: (A cytokin)
play multiple roles in the immune system, including directing B and T cells to divide and proliferate IL 1 (Interleukins): released by macrophages near a T cell *causes a T cell to release IL 2 -Interleukin 1 is responsible for the production of inflammation, as well as the promotion of fever and sepsis. IL 2(Interleukins): Released by T cell When IL 2 is released it is a positive feedback mechanism to produce more T cells more rapidly -Interleukin-2 is made by a type of T lymphocyte. It increases the growth and activity of other T lymphocytes *Speeds up the production of T cell formation
Mucous cells
produce mucus *Sublingual glands are made up mostly of this cell type
Serous Cells
produce watery secretion, enzymes, ions, but of mucin -Parotid/submandibular glands are made up mostly of this cell type *Mucin: enzyme that when added to water produce mucous
CCK (cholecystokinin) release is stimulated by
proteins and fats in chyme
Glucose becomes
pyruvic acid
Eupnea
quiet (resting) breathing *Eup=Good
95% are...
recycled through enterohepatic circulation
Neurons and RBC's
rely entirely on glucose
G cells
responsible for the synthesis and secretion of gastrin. -primarily found in the pyloric antrum but can also be found in the duodenum and pancreas -Secrete gastrin when stimulated directly by vagal efferent neurons as well as GRP (Gastrin releasing peptide) neurons
Type II alveolar cells
secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins -Detergent like substance -Reduces surface tension -Slippery
gastric pits
shallow depressions that open onto the gastric surface
Type I alveolar cells
simple squamous cells where gas exchange occurs -Allows for rapid diffusion of gases
Epiploic Appendages *Probably on the exam
small fat filled pouches of the visceral peritoneum -we don't know there actual function
Haustrum *Probably on the exam
small pouches caused by sacculation, which give the colon its segmented appearance -Pouch like sacs -Contractions take place here to move feces -Around 1 contraction every 30 minutes
Nasal vestibule
space contained within the flexible tissues of the nose -Superior to the nostrils
Cytokins
stimulate cell division -Cytokines are cell signaling molecules that aid cell to cell communication in immune responses and stimulate the movement of cells towards sites of inflammation, infection and trauma. -Part of the cell cycle, you need cytokins for cell division -If you have circulating cytokins that are being secreted neighboring cells can also divide
Complement Activation (MAC)
stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes, enhances phagocytosis and causes cell lysis -Neutralization, Agglutination and Precipitation trigger complement activation -Punches a hole, making the cell burst and the cellular contents to spill out -Antibodies involved means that it is the classical pathway -Alternative pathway means we don't know what activated it (Spontaneous event) -Lectin pathway involves sugar protein, lecitn
HCl (hydrochloric acid)
strong acid that can break down proteins, some plant cell wall and kill bacteria
Nutrient
substance in food needed for growth (enlarging), maintenance (cells get worn out and need to be replaced), repair (damaged cells)
Disaccharide's
sucrose, lactose, maltose
Apnea
suspension of breathing A=no, none, without
cotransported with Na+
symporter
Readily activates complement
terminate in opsonization and lysis of the pathogen as well as in the generation of the classical inflammatory response through the production of potent pro= inflammatory molecules
Deglutition
the act of swallowing -Involves the tongue, soft palate, pharynx and esophagus -Pharynx and the esophagus are conduits to pass food from mouth to stomach
Antigen-antibody complex
the complex formed when an antibody binds to an antigen.
Rugae
the folds in the mucosa lining the stomach -Dotted with gastric pits, which lead into gastric glands which produce gastric juice
Quadrate lobe
the medial segment of the left lobe *lower middle backside portion of liver
pylorus
the narrow passage that connects the stomach with the small intestine -Funnel shaped region of the stomach as the food comes down -Distal region of the stomach
Persistalsis
the progressive wave of contraction and relaxation of a tubular muscular system, especially the alimentary canal, by which the contents are forced through the system.
Chyme
the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food -When the bolus hits the stomach
When the contents of the stomach are more than normal meaning more food...
the stomach will try and empty it quicker, the stomach is an organ that doesn't want to keep food that much, trying to participate in digestion but then get the food to the small intestine so the body can absorb what the stomach breaks down
laryngopharynx
the third division of the pharynx, is shared by both the respiratory and digestive systems, connecting to the esophagus and the larynx
Blood goes
towards the center, bile moves out
Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter
volcano shaped structure that lets bile be secreted into small intestine -Receives bile from the (common) bile duct and sphincter
External anal sphincter
voluntary (skeletal muscle)
cardia of stomach
where the esophagus leads into the stomach near the medial portion of the stomach itself -located near the heart
Pyloric canal
where the pyloric antrum constricts even more
