Anatomy and Physiology - Test 1

Ionic Bond

- atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other - anion or cation - ex: table salt (NaCl)

Bases

- bitter taste, feel slippery, and are proton acceptors - hydroxyl ions are created when a base is dissolved in water

nucleic acids

- carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus - DNA, RNA

Oxidation-Reduction reaction

- decomposition reactions in that they are the basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy - electrons are exchanged between reactants

non-polar molecules

- electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule for the most part - does not have separate +/- poles of charge

Endergonic Reaction

- energy-absorbing - contain more potential energy in their chemical bonds than did the reactants - typically anabolic reactions

Exchange reactions

- involved both synthesis and decomposition - parts of the reactant molecules change partners, producing different molecules - AB + C --> AC + B AND AB + CD --> AD + CB

DNA vs RNA: RNA

- located in cytoplasm - function: carries out the genetic instructions for protein synthesis - structure: single strand, straight or folded - sugar: ribose - bases: A, G, C, U

DNA vs RNA: DNA

- located in nucleus - function: genetical material, directs protein synthesis, replicates itself before cell division - double strand coiled into a double helix - sugar: deoxyribose - bases: A, G , C, T

RNA

- located outside of nucleus - carries out the orders for protein synthesis issues by DNA - messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA

Consequences of protein denaturation

- loss of biological activity - heat/pH is a key factor in the breaking of bonds

Exergonic reaction

- reaction that releases energy - yield products with less energy than the initial reactants, along with energy that can be harvested for other uses

Acids

- sour taste, can dissolve with many metal, or "burn" a hole in a rug - substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts - proton donor

activation energy

- the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction - needed to alter the bonds of the reactants so that they can be rearranged to become a product

Levels of structural organization of the human body

1. chemical level: atoms combine to form molecules 2. molecular level 3. cellular level: cells are made up of molecules 4. tissue level: consist of similar types of cells 5. organ level: organs are made up of different types of tissue 6. organ system level: organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely 7. organismal level: the human organism is made up of many organ systems

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. - two fundamental roles: reproduces itself before a cell divides; basic instructions for building every protein in the body

Inorganic compounds

A compound that does not contain the element carbon or contains carbon bound to elements other than hydrogen.

Unsaturated fats

A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.

Saturated fats

A fat that is solid at room temperature and found in animal fats, lards, and dairy products.

Polymer

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

Phospholipids

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

Monomer

A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers (building blocks)

Steroids

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached. - most important molecule is cholesterol

5 nitrogen-containing base

Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

Nitrogen bases in DNA

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

Radioactive isotope

An isotope whose nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.

cofactor

Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.

Chemical formula of amino acid

R-CH(NH2)-COOH

messenger RNA

RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell

Peptide bond

The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid

active site

The part of an enzyme or antibody where the chemical reaction occurs.

Synthesis reaction

a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound A + B --> AB

Homeostasis

ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously

structure of ATP

adenine, ribose, 3 phosphate groups

Building blocks of proteins

amino acids

Define and explain anatomy and physiology

anatomy: study the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another physiology: function of the body - how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities

Matter

anything that occupies space and has mass

Atomic Weight

average of weights (mass numbers) of all the isotopes of an element

Proteins

basic structural material of the body - enzymes, hemoglobin of the blood, contractile proteins of muscle

Examples of homeostasis

blood pH, body temperature, O2 levels, hormones, sweating, shivering

Examples of negative feedback

body temperature, blood pressure, glucose regulation

Catabolic reactions

break down large chemicals and release energy

Anabolic reactions

build up large chemicals and require energy

Four major types of organic molecules in the body

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Organic compounds

carbon-based molecules

Nucleus

center of an atom that contains protons and neutrons

Fatty acids

chains of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms, building blocks of lipids

Describe how positive feedback system acts to regulate some body property (contraction of the muscle in the wall of the uterus during birth)

change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change "cascades" that amplify the original stimulus.

Mixture

combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined

Disaccharide

double sugar, is formed when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis - sucrose (glucose + fructose) - lactose (glucose + galactose) -maltose (glucose+glucose)

Covalent Bond

electron sharing produces molecules in which the shared electron occupies a single orbital common to both atoms

Atom

elements are composed of tiny "building blocks". give each element its own unique physical and chemical properties

Isotope

elements with the same number of protons and electrons, but neutrons differ

Colloid

emulsions, heterogeneous mixtures, which means their composition is dissimilar in different areas of the mixture often appear translucent or milky

Atomic Number

equal to the number of protons in its nucleus and is written as a subscript to the left of its atomic symbol

ATP as energy currency

facilitates exchange of energy between different molecules/forms

Hydrogen Bond

form when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom - common between dipoles - slightly negative oxygen atoms of one molecule attract the slightly positive hydrogen atoms of other molecules

Neutral lipids

found in cells as energy-storage molecules, have no charged groups (nonpolar)

Describe the principle of complementarity of structure and function

function is dependent on structure, the form of a structure relates to its function

Molecule

group of atoms bonded together

carbohydrates

group of molecules that includes sugars and starches - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide

Tertiary structure

helices, sheets are folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds

Suspension

heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out. - example would be a mixture of sand and water

Temperature influence rate of chemical reaction

higher temperatures increase kinetic energy of particles and the force of their collisions, increasing the rate of chemical reactions

Solution

homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. mixture has exactly the same composition or makeup throughout

lipids

insoluble in water but dissolve readily in other lipids - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen - contain triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Nucleic acid

macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus

pH scale

measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14

varieties of RNA

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Physical properties of water

most abundant and important inorganic compound in living material 60-80% of the volume of most living cells

Functional differences between negative feedback mechanism and a positive feedback mechanism

negative feedback is working to reduce the outcome and bring a system back to a "normal" state positive feedback is working to increase a sensation, speeding up a reaction to amplify and complete quicker

Electrons

negatively charged particles that orbit around the nucleus of an atom

Anion

net negative charge an atom that gains one or more electrons is an electron acceptor

Cation

net positive charge atom that loses electrons is the electron donor

Neutron

neutrally charged particle located within the nucleus

Decomposition reaction

occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules AB --> A + B

Describe how a negative feedback system acts to regulate some body property

output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. Negative feedback works to change a variable in the opposite direction of the initial change, returning to the "ideal" value

Most common elements of human body

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

Polysaccharides

polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis - most important to body: starch and glycogen

Proton

positively charged particles located in the nucleus may be identified as the atomic number on the periodic table

Difference of potential and kinetic energy

potential energy: stored energy, capable of doing work but is not presently doing so kinetic energy: energy in action. the constant movement of the tiniest particle of matter

structural levels of a protein

primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

enzyme

protein that act as biological catalyst - regulate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions

Oxidized

reactant losing the electrons is an electron donor

Reduced

reactant taking up the transferred electrons is the electron acceptor

reactants and products in chemical reactions

reactants: the number and kinds of the interacting substances products: the chemical composition of the result of the reaction

Three components involved in all control mechanisms involved in homeostasis

receptor: a sensor that monitors the environment control center: determines the set-point at which a variable is to be maintained effector: carries out the control center's response to the stimulus

Primary structure

sequence of amino acids forms the polypeptide chain

Monosaccharides

simple sugars

Planetary model of atomic structure

simplified model of atomic structure

States of Matter/ Examples in the body

solid, liquid, gas solid: bones/teeth liquid: blood plasma gas: air

starch

storage carbohydrate formed by plants - digested for its glucose units to be absorbed

glycogen

storage carbohydrate of animal tissue, stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells - skeletal muscles use glycogen for themselves - liver cells use their stored glycogen to maintain blood sugar

Compound

substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds

Solvent

substance present in the greatest amount (the dissolving medium) solvents are more commonly liquids - water is the body's chief solvent

Catalyst influence rate of chemical reaction

substance that increases the rate of chemical reactions without becoming chemically changed or part of the product

Solute

substances dissolved within a solution

Molecular weight

sum of the atomic weights in grams

Mole

the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance - equal to atomic weight

Secondary structure

the primary chain forms spirals (alpha helices) and sheets (beta sheets)

Half-life

time required for a radioisotope to lose one-half of its activity

General structure of double helix

two nucleotides; nucleotides are linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases - A/T, G/C

Quaternary structure

two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a function protein

Dipeptide

two united amino acids

transfer RNA

type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

ribosomal RNA

type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes

polar molecules

unequal electron pair sharing; usually caused by the molecule's shape, especially by non-symmetrical molecules containing atoms with different electron-attracting abilities