Animal Test 3

Runaway Mechanisms? ex of this? Fisher's runaway process causes a dramatic increase in?

- (aka; Fisher Mechanisms), Ronald Fisher proposed the idea that the male trait is correlated with the female preference for that trait, : It starts when a female evolves a preference for a specific trait, female will mate with a male that has that trait and the trait will be passed on to her sons, Her daughter will also inherit the preference for that trait. : The sons who are more attractive, have a better developed trait, will acquire more mates and produce more offspring increasing the genetic frequency for that trait in the population: At the same time the increase in the genetic frequency for females to prefer this trait is also based on through his offspring and will increase in the population. - enlarged antlers of the Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) could be a runaway mechanism - both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, until practical, physical constraints halt further exaggeration. : A positive feedback loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex and the female preference for the trait may be passed on genetically : The offspring of both sexes will inherit both sets of genes, with females expressing their genetic preference for the trait, and males showing off the trait.

to increase the overall fitness benefit gained by holding a territory is to reduce the costs inherent in maintaining the territory. can be done by? Benefits of Group Living? mechanism of improved foraging: cooperative foraging? Reef-associated roving coral groupers? Cooperative foraging is also seen in? mechanism of improved foraging: information sharing? informational centers.? Decreased Predation Risk? extra mechanisms of this are?

- 1) Banding together to share a territory 2) Choosing a territory that is easier to defend 3) By being alert to warnings from neighboring territories. 4) Using well marked/defined territories - improved foraging, decreasing predation risk, conserving heat and water, conserving energy used in movement. - coordinated foraging efforts among predators, Ex; The Harris Hawk: adaptation all the hawks spread around the prey and one individual flushes it. - invitation to hunt is initiated by head-shaking - nonhunting species- turkeys and cooperative caterpillar species - observing the behavior of group members (social and non social species) - communal roosts/colonies where animals observe foraging success of conspecifics and follow successful ones to food sites. - employ a greater array of predator defense mechanisms than can a solitary animal - 1. Increased surveillance- more individuals looking for predators and some use alarm signals 2. When group attacked by predator an individual within group less likely captured than being alone=dilution effect and they can use confusion effect (group flees in different directions) 3. group defense- can have mobbing behaviors, or banding together

Why should the helper delay its dispersal and assist kin in rearing the young? Example: Cooperative Breeding in Meerkats? Eusociality? most familiar examples of eusocial insects? E. O. Wilson defined eusociality to include those organisms that had certain features? narrower definition of this? the broader one? 2 taxa of eusociality? naked mole rats with this?

- 1) Habitat saturation where a species requires a habitat that is of limited distribution and all available habitats are already occupied. 2] Lack of mates may be another reason to delay dispersal - alpha pair that reserve right to mate and will kill any young that is not their own, alpha female is away from the group, females that have never reproduced lactate and hunt in order to feed the pups - highest level of social organization in a hierarchical classification. rare in nature - ants, bees, wasps, and termites- all with reproductive queens and more or less sterile workers and/or soldiers: - 1] Reproductive division of labor (with or without sterile castes) 2] Cooperative care of young 3] Overlapping generations - the requirement for irreversibly distinct behavioral groups or castes - allows for any temporary division of labor/non-random distribution of reproductive success to constitute eusociality. - 1] Isopterans; the termites 2] Hymenopterans; bees, wasps, and ants - Only one female (the queen) and 1-3 males reproduce, while rest of members of colony function as workers (sterile)

The Evolution of Eusociality most likely involved a combination of the following:? supersisters? Most eusocial species rely on?

- 1) Haplodiploidy -According to inclusive fitness theory, eusociality may be easier for species like ants to evolve, due to their haplodiploidy, which facilitates the operation of kin selection. 2) Sharing a Defensible Resource - may have also played a role in the development of eusociality. 3) Extended Parental Care and Long Lasting Sibling Associations - may have been a precursor to eusociality. : Long-lasting associations between offspring and parents will allow for kin selection and improved inclusive fitness. : Long-lasting associations between offspring and parents allow parents to have more time to manipulate their offspring into taking subservient roles. - W. D. Hamilton first termed, 75 percent of their genes shared, Sterile workers are more closely related to their supersisters than to any offspring they might have - defensible resource (ex; burrow, nest, sponge).

Even without specialized features body form will influence message design how? The physical and temporal characteristics of an environment will influence? visual signals with this? A visually complicated environment such as a rainforest will decrease? Since pheromones can be species specific, pheromonal communication works well in? what will play a role in shaping a behavior?

- 1) Hard to see species will not be visible over great distances so choose other sensory modalities for signaling (true for smaller species and cryptically colored species) 2) Body size may influence the evolution of physical characteristics that serve to enhance a visual signal. (Ex; enormous antlers on Irish elk couldn't been supported by smaller species) 3) Body size will influence acoustic signaling. (especially invertebrates, ex; mice produce ultrasonic calls and elephants produce infrasonic calls) 4) Body size will often correlate with agility; smaller bodies being more agile than larger typically; and this will influence visual displays used in communication. - what types of signals are more effective. - not as effective at night and so is less common, heightened by: 1] bioluminescence 2] pale colored areas used for signaling 3] timed for early evening or predawn when there is some illumination - the efficiency of visual signaling, Many rainforest species use auditory signaling - environment where there are a number of potential predators. - 1. of the intended recipient, if it is a conspecific, that receiver-bias mechanisms 2. Unintended receivers- Predators may also be able to detect the message and use it to the detriment of the sender (Ex; the male mouse ultrasonic mating song harder to hear by many predators)

Avian interspecific brood-parasites? what advantage does this give to parasitic nestling? when host nestlings are significantly smaller than the parasite nestling? Some brood parasites will eliminate all their nest mates shortly after hatching by? mating system? Monogamy? Polygamy? polygyny? polyyandry? polygynandry? Promiscuity? The mating system employed by a species is based on a number of?

- 1. parasites are specialists that will only parasitize a single host species or a small group of closely related host species. 2] Most avian brood parasites have evolved eggs that mimic the eggs of the host species. 3] Most avian brood parasites have very short egg incubation periods and rapid nestling growth. - a head start on growth over its nest mates, allowing it to outcompete them. - host nestlings will often starve to death. - either by ejecting them from the nest or killing them with sharp mandible hooks which fall off their bill after a few days. - in which a group is structured in relation to sexual behavior. - One male and one female have an exclusive mating relationship. - mating system with more than one partner. Three types are recognized: polygyny, polyyandry, polygynandry - One male has an exclusive relationship with two or more females, most common - One female has an exclusive relationship with two or more males - a slight variation of the other two, where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females - member of one sex within the social group mates with any member of the opposite sex. - ecological factors such as predation, resource distribution and quality, availability of eligible mates, the ability of males to monopolize females, and the ability of females to choose among prospective males.

k selection? Robert Trivers' theory of parental investment? The female's greater investment to her offspring (typically) results in? female's greater investment to her offspring results in what 2 things?

- Animals that are able to defend their young from predators will benefit from parental investment in defense and rearing, investment is weighted so much in parental care that adequate resources are not made available to the prenatal young so that it is self-sufficient at birth. : Ex; many songbirds and mammalian carnivores - predicts that the sex making the largest investment in activities such as lactation, nurturing, and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in mating; and that the sex that invests less in offspring will compete for access to the higher-investing sex. : saw with batemans principle that Sex differences in parental effort are important in determining the strength of sexual selection. - female being less available for other mating opportunities, males have a lower investment and are available for more mating opportunities. - Operational Sex Ratio is the ratio of potentially mating males to fertilize females to females (reproductive point of view: males are more abundant and so would be the sex to compete for the limiting resource of females), potential reproductive rate becomes greater for males than for females. : Potential Reproductive Rate is the max number of offspring that each parent can produce per unit time. : Taken together this means that the greater investment of females in parental care results in males competing with each other for access to the females and the females determining who mates with them.

gender differences vs. energetics: differential investment in the offspring? Ex; Sea Horses (Hippocampus sp.)?

- By R. Trivers, The gender that provides more parental investment becomes limiting resource while the other gender will compete for that resource. : Typically the gender that invests more is the female. - seem to disprove this hypothesis. : Although the males brood the young they compete to mate with the females. : Males compete by tail wrestling and head snapping. : Energetic studies have shown that females expend more energy producing their highly nutritive eggs than the males do in incubation. 1} So the hypothesis is not disproved in this case, this idea has not been shown to hold true in all cases.

how do electric fish send electric signal? Multimodal Communication? repetitive messages? Nonrepetitive messages? benefits of these? costs? Communication that evolved for species recognition will tend to show? Selection will favor what for signaling?

- By modulating the frequency, discharge, and timing pattern of this electric field: for courting mates, identifying themselves, antagonistic displays of dominance and submission,aggression displays, and finding mates. - Many times they will employ two or more modes to communicate- Ex; an angry dog use visual communication (bared teeth, raised crest) and auditory communication (snarls, barks). - produce the same response in the recipient each time it is received. - produce a different response in the recipient since different messages are being received. - Nonrepetitive messages- more info per unit time. can inc complexity/efficacy of communication. : Repetitive messages ensure message is received by recipient and inc the chance of understanding. - Using more than one mode require more energy from the sender and recipient to receive and process the signal. - the greatest complexity in related species that are signaling in the same general area. : Ex; In early spring toads and frogs calling for mates in same ponds they can easily be distinguished by their calls by the females. - distinguishing specific recognition signaling especially in regard to mating.

Sexual selection was a concept introduced by? what was sexual selection a huge element on? The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex? Darwin felt that sexual selection can occur by what two mechanisms?

- Charles Darwin in his 1859 book on the Origin of Species. - his theory on natural selection - Darwin greatly expands his initial three-page treatment of Sexual Selection - 1) Intrasexual Selection where members of the same gender are competing to mate with the opposite gender. males competing with males to gain reproductive access to females or females competing with females for choice of mates 2) Intersexual Selection where members of the opposite gender influence the characteristics of the other gender through sexual selection. a] This is selection through selective mate choice. b] gender in demand for mating (typically the female) will choose mates with preferred characteristics.

sneak spawning and reptiles? why is it a stable strategy? Alternate Reproductive Strategies: Satellite male? Ex; bluegill sunfish?

- Ex; Side-blotched lizards, some of the most abundant in the deserts of western North America, males normally being the larger sex. Males often have bright throat colors. (1) Orange-throated males establish large territories and accommodate multiple females. (2) Yellow stripe throated males (sneakers) stay on the fringe of orange-throated lizard territories and mate with their females while the orange-throat is absent as the territory to defend is large. (3) Blue-throated males defend a small territory large enough for one female (fend off the yellow stripe throated males but can't withstand attacks by orange-throated males - evolutionarily stable strategy for reproduction, bc it's favored by natural selection just like the "standard" strategy of large males. - In fishes sneaker males that becomes too large to hide effectively become satellite males. - satellite males mimic the behavior and coloration of the females, hover over a nest containing a pair of courting sunfish, and gradually descend to reach the pair just as they spawn : strategy is nevertheless a successful one (giving them high fitness). : Since these smaller males do not have to spend any energy on parental care, they can spawn at a much younger age than the parental males. : Parental males may be 6 or 7 years old before they are large enough to compete successfully for the best nest sites, but the sneaker and satellite males may be only 2 or 3 years old.

Social Grooming (or Allogrooming?) what can be used as an assurance of nonaggression? alarm? what can they signal? vervet monkeys? on ground vs trees?

- In many primates grooming is often used to maintain social bonds: animals who live in proximity may bond and reinforce social structures, family links, and build relationships. : also used as a form of reconciliation and means of conflict resolution in some species. - greetings with group members, Ex; greeting lions will head butt and rub cheeks - antipredator adaptation referring to various signals emitted by social animals in response to danger: this can be visual, auditory, or olfactory - warn of potentional dangers, signal conspecific to flee a threat, join conspecific to defend resources or a member - alarm calls with a semantic capacity in non-human animals: three distinct calls for leopards, snakes, and eagles, - 1} to the eagle alarm call by looking up and running to cover, 2} to leopard alarm calls primarily by looking up and running into a tree, 3} and to the snake alarm call primarily by looking down. - 1} to the eagle alarm call by looking up and down and running out of trees, 2} to the leopard alarm call by running higher in the tree and looking both up and down, 3} and to the snake alarm call by looking primarily down.

Offensive Tactics? Increased Production of Sperm? primates with this? Increased Sperm Motility?

- Increased Production of Sperm, Increased Sperm Motility, Mechanisms to Displace or Inactivate Competing Sperm, Sexual Interference (not sure) - strategy based on the idea that a male has a better chance of fathering offspring with the more sperm he inseminates a female with. it takes energy to produce sperm so an inc in the number of sperm produced per ejaculate may also result in a decrease in the size of individual cells; termed anisogamy. : Selection to produce more sperm can also select for the evolution of larger testes. : Relationships across species between the frequency of multiple matings by females and male testis size are well documented across many groups of animals. - female gorillas are relatively monogamous, so gorillas have smaller testes than the highly promiscuous bonobos. - adaptation where males may evolve faster sperm to enable their sperm to reach and fertilize the ovum first

Factors That Will Influence the Allocation of Resources By Parents? explain life history? reproductive value model? The residual reproductive value? cost-of-reproduction hypothesis? 2009 study on beetles?

- Life History, Certainty of Paternity, The Gender of the Offspring - how much parental investment would be put into a brood is whether or not the parents are likely to breed again: : Short lived species- likely to reproduce only once would be expected to invest heavily in their single brood : Long lived species- reproduce multiple times expected to spend more of their resources on their own continued survival. : the greater the chance that it will reproduce only once the greater is the amount of parental investment. : reproductive value model - models the tradeoffs between reproduction, growth, and survivorship, organism's reproductive value (RV) is defined as its expected contribution to the population through both current and future reproduction: RV = Current Reproduction + Residual Reproductive Value - organism's future reproduction through its investment in growth and survivorship. - predicts that higher investment in current reproduction hinders growth and survivorship and reduces future reproduction, while investments in growth will pay off with higher fecundity (number of offspring produced) and reproductive episodes in the future. - beetles that had allocated too many resources to current reproduction also had the shortest lifespans, had the fewest reproductive events and offspring, reflecting how over-investment in current reproduction lowers residual reproductive value

Explanations for Gender Related Differences in Reproductive Behavior? explain the first? spermatogenesis production may be more energetically expensive than originally expected explains? Female Behavior and Reproductive Success with bateman?

- Male Mating Costs and Selectivity and males compete for mates and the females select their mate. - generally cheaper to make sperm than it is to make eggs per cell, males produce a much greater number of sperm cells typically, An ejaculate has a cost of thousands or millions of sperm cells plus seminal fluid or spermatophores. - why males are not totally nondiscriminating in their mate selection. - he assumed that the females were passive in reproduction and that males initiated all copulatory encounters, female reproductive success does not improve with an increase in the number of mates. : However studies have shown that females of a number of species can be active participants in reproductive activities. : Studies of fruit flies showed that the females can approach and pursue males for mating and show receptivity to mating to get the male's attention.

amphibians and the satellite strategy? are there other strategies for nondominant males? Sperm competition? can occur when? what pressure does sperm competition put on males? results in?

- Males will pick a spot near a body of water and begin to call out for females. : Smaller males will be satellite males, hiding near the calling males. : When female approaches a calling male the satellite male will sneak in and attempt to mate with her. - will also look for opportunities to mate with females, These don't always neatly fit into streaking or satellite, Many stay on the periphery of a harem and try to mate with females as they travel in and out of the area. - to refer to the competitive process between spermatozoa of two or more different males to fertilize an egg, of a lone female. - when females have multiple potential mating partners, : Greater choice and variety of mates increases a female's chance to produce more viable offspring. : but, multiple mates for a female means an individual male has decreased changes of producing offspring. - pressure on males, and led to development of adaptations to inc males' chance of reproductive success. - in a sexual conflict of interest between males and females. 1] Males have evolved several defensive tactics including: mate-guarding, mating plugs, and releasing toxic seminal substances to reduce female re-mating tendencies to cope with sperm competition. 2] Offensive tactics of sperm competition involve direct interference by one male on the reproductive success of another male, for instance by physically removing another male's sperm prior to mating with a female.

Alternate Reproductive Strategies: Sneak Spawning or Streak Spawning? courtship behavior? A spawning rush occurs when?

- Nondominant males of many species use alternate reproductive strategies: Sneak Spawning occurs in many fish species, including parrotfishes and wrasses on tropical reefs, tuna in open sea waters, and the bluegill sunfish in fresh water, sneak spawner is a male that rushes in to join the spawning rush of a spawning pair. - Sneaking males do not take part in courtship, In salmon and trout, for example, jack males are common. : jack males: small silvery males that migrate upstream along with the standard, large, hook-nosed males and that spawn by sneaking into reeds to release sperm simultaneously with a mated pair. - a fish makes a burst of speed, usually on a near vertical incline, releasing gametes at the apex, followed by a rapid return to the lake or sea floor or fish aggregation.

So whether or not two animals engage in a conflict will depend on costs vs. benefits. Some factors will include:? dominance hierarchy? Dominance? Subordinate/ Submissive? dominance determiend by? how can animals improve social status?

- Relative Fighting Ability: 1. Two potential combatants will assess the physical characteristics of their opponent, 2. If there is an asymmetry than one will back off, 3. If they are relatively closely matched then the two typically will engage in threat displays to assess their opponent further. 4] If they are still relatively closely matched, or neither will back down, then display can lead to conflict. : Relative Experience 1. been in conflict event previously whether they won or lost can influence outcome of subsequent conflict events. (those who win will win in future) : Relative Value of the Disputed Resource to the Two Opponents- opponent who needs the resource more will fight harder for it, will find it to be worth a higher cost, fight harder for its own territory - organization of individuals in a group that occurs when competition for resources leads to aggression - the ability of one animal to assert itself over others in acquiring access to limited resources. - animal that's dominated by another animal. - relative fighting ability and relative experience - associating with higher ranked members or can be inherited, shown in rhesus monkeys- females have a linear dominance hierarchy that has been shown to be inheritable.

Certainty of Paternity? Bluegill? Sex Allocation? how is it accomplished? what kind of parental care do fishes, amphibians, and reptiles show? what is parental care found in? when can care by provided?

- Since parents invest resources into their offsprings' survival parents don't want to waste those resources on an individual that does not share their genes. : female can be certain of her genetic relationship to the offspring the male cannot (especially true for the male of a species practicing external fertilization) - show that males who are guarding eggs will vary their behavior based on exposure to sneaker males. : Those exposed to sneaker males were less aggressive in defending their eggs than where those who were not. : male bluegills that had been exposed to sneaker males were less certain of the paternity of the eggs. - way in which parents invest resources between male versus female offspring, restricted to dioecious species (individuals are either male or female for their entire lifetime) - 1. increased production of young of one gender (more parental resources are going into producing more offspring through increased productivity) 2. providing more or better resources to offspring of one gender over the other (more parental energy is going into providing resources for a select gender increasing the chances that offspring of that gender survive) - no parental care at all while most birds and mammals show some degree of parental care - ectothermic (invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles), and endothermic (birds and mammals) species. - at any stage of the offspring's life: pre-natal care including behaviors such as egg guarding, preparation of nest, brood carrying, incubation, and placental nourishment in mammals; and post-natal care including food provisioning and protection of offspring.

Criteria Used By Females To Select Males: sperm production? : Ex; Stone crab with this? Criteria Used By Females To Select Males: Ability to Provide Resources?

- Since sperm can be a limited resources the females of some species select for males who can produce good amounts of sperm. - females select from sperm production, They prefer larger males which can produce more sperm, unmated males. : The more often a male mates, the less sperm that he can produce on his next mating. : Females produce a large quantity of eggs so need a lot of sperm to fertilize all of them. : Females use chemical cues to detect the mating status of prospective males. - 1) Females of many species select mates based on their ability to supply useful resources: female can receive immediate gains from courting gifts or can receive long term gains through access to good nest sites or good territories that are established by males. 2) Providing Immediate Gains: Nuptial Gifts are food items or inedible tokens that are transferred to females by males during courtship or copulation. : In many species of animals, including birds, insects and spiders, this takes the form of a food item that is transferred by a male to a female just prior to copulation. This is a behavior known as courtship feeding.

Mechanisms to Displace or Inactivate Competing Sperm? Male dunnocks? arthopods? damselfly males? Sperm Heteromorphism? eusperm and parasperm?

- Some males simply remove another males ejaculate. : Ex; The "penis" of some damselflies removed sperm from the female's reproductive tract as well as delivering his sperm, proposed that the repetitive thrusting of the intromittent organ in many animals helps to clear the female tract of rival sperm prior to ejaculation. - peck at the female's cloaca, removing sperm of previous mates. - have sperm storage chambers within the female reproductive tract. This allows for the female to store sperm from multiple males. : Male spider crabs will push rival ejaculates to the top of the female's sperm storage reservoir and seal that partition off while placing their own sperm closer to the oviduct. - male will stimulate the female to eject the sperm from other males from her body, males stimulate the female's sensory system that controls egg laying causing her to release sperm from her body. - not all of the sperm released in an ejaculation serve to fertilize the egg: two forms are eusperm and parasperm. - Eusperm will fertilize eggs. - Parasperm will displace or inactivate rival sperm. a} Some may form a barrier to later entering sperm. b} Some may attack and kill competing spermatozoa. c} Some may help the eusperm to be more effective.

odor mosaics? Many tetrapods use ___ to detect pheromones? Flehman response? Pheromones serve a variety of purposes: aggregation? Male-produced sex attractants have been called? pheromes serving variety of purposes: alarm? pheromes serving variety of purposes: Releaser? Primer?

- Some olfactory signals can be a complex mixture of chemicals that can specify the signaler (at least to conspecifics): Ex; The Common marmoset produces scent marks composed of urine, feces, and secretions form the genitalia, sebaceous glands, and apocrine glands. - vomeronasal organs- Vomeronasal sensory info goes to portions of the brain separate from olfactory areas (Snakes/lizards convey chemical cues to these in their tongues) (Mammals convey chemical cues with this by licking or touching their nose to the chemical signal) - facial movement that conveys the chemicals to the receptors - function in defense against predators, mate selection, and overcoming host resistance by mass attack, group of individuals at one location= aggregation (no matter one sex or both sexes) : Some messages will cause conspecifics to join together, Ex; aggregation pheromones will cause a number of insect species to aggregate such as bug nymphs of tree roots in Florida. - aggregation pheromones, bc result in arrival of both sexes at a calling site, and inc the density of conspecifics surrounding the pheromone source. - release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator, notifying conspecifics, which can trigger flight or aggression. - Pheromones that cause an alteration in the behavior of recipient: ex. some organisms use powerful attractant molecules to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more. usually elicits a rapid response, but is quickly degraded. - that trigger a change of developmental events (instead of a change in behavior). slower onset and a longer duration . ex-rabbit (mothers) release mammary pheromones that trigger immediate nursing behavior by their babies

can signals be fake? Some signals are tightly linked to a trait? Amotz Zahahvi? what can be the costs of a signal? ) The Sender of a Dishonest Signal Can Be Identified? mismatch between signal and behavior resulted in? Signals Are Likely Dishonest When:?

- Some signals represent the overall health of an individual and can't be faked. Ex; Male blue tits are chromatically more yellow than females. : obtained by the ingestion of insect larvae, contain large amounts of carotenoids, positive correlation between the color of tail and breast feathers and body condition. - of the sender and can not be faked, Great White Sharks have a size dependent hierarchy when aggregating at a whale carcass. In this species size relates to strength. - hypothesized that reliable signals will be favored in a population when the signal is costly to the sender (the Handicap Principle of mate selection) (horn size in male beetle) - 1] metabolic cost to the signaler 2] cost of the receiver's response to the signal (sender careful not to present himself as a stronger than he may end up in a fight that he cannot handle.) - signal will begin to be ignored by rest of social group. Ex; wasps to see if false signal of fighting ability and agonistic behavior was subject to social punishment - in social punishment, in particular inc aggression - The Sender and Receiver Have Differing Goals, The Signal Is Costly To Challenge Or To Assess By The Receiver

degree of flexibility in the mating systems? Mating relationships may or may not be associated with social relationships seen in? polyandrous systems? In polygynous systems where the number of females paired with each male is low, the male will? In polygynandry? If all adults help rear all the young, the system is more usually called? ) In highly polygynous systems, and in promiscuous systems? In all of these mating systems, even monogamy, the relationships are rarely? Monogamy? benefit of monogamy to the male: There are three hypotheses?

- Some species show different mating systems in different circumstances, for example in different parts of their geographical range, or under different conditions of food availability. - monogamy called pair bonding - males and the female stay together to rear the young. - often stay with one female to help rear the young, while the other females rear their young on their own. - each of the males may assist one female. - communal breeding - paternal care of young is rare, or there may be no parental care at all. - rarely exclusive for all individuals in a species. - when a female and male have only one mating partner for a breeding season. 1) When biparental care is necessary, or very important, to the survival of the offspring then monogamy would be selectively favored (male's participation will improve significantly on the survival rate of the offspring then that would in turn increase the reproductive fitness of the male) 2) Circumstances that make it difficult for a male to monopolize multiple females will favor monogamy over polygamy (where the females are widely dispersed, relatively low in number, or difficult to access), ensures that the male will have the opportunity to mate that season even if it is only with one female. 3) Monogamy can evolve in mate guarding systems because a male can successfully guard only one female.

Mate Attraction? Signals to attract a mate must be able to? If the benefits of perception to one sex or the other are different then? when do Differences in the olfactory, visual, and auditory systems of various organisms arise? Once individuals are close enough to interact? Communication used in mating allows for:? Identifying a Conspecific of the Opposite Gender with recognition signaling? fireflies? female Photuris fireflies?

- Species recognition for mate attraction is essential for successful reproduction - to travel long distances and make it easy to locate the signaler (so many use chemical and auditory) - sex differences in sensory systems can arise: ex. female production of signals used to attract mates can put selective pressure on males to improve their ability to detect those signals= only males of this species will evolve specialized mechanisms to aid in detection of the female signal. - when it benefits one sex and not the other to have enhanced perception of certain external stimuli. - they will court before mating so as to size up the prospective reproductive partner. - 1] identification of an appropriate partner by establishing that it is a conspecific and of the opposite sex, 2] assessment of the prospective mate for reproductive quality, 3] coordination of the two animal's behaviors and physiology to inc the efficacy of mating, 4] and establishment and maintenance of pair bonds in those species that utilize them. - allow conspecifics to locate and recognize each other (might convey gender and sexual receptivity) - use bioluminescence to identify their species and gender. - are known for mimicking mating flashes of other "lightning bugs" for purpose of predation.

explain how the Bonobos (Pan paniscus) show female dominance? what did bateman feel about inc number of mates with males vs females? what are some explanations with the fruit flies?

- The tribe is matriarchal and females will initiate matings with males. - female reproductive success does not improve with an increase in the number of mates but males would (exceptions thought especially with insects) - 1. Many male insects produce spermatophores, a packet of spermatozoa and proteins. : Females can get nutrients from the spermatophores either through eating it or through absorption of a spermatophore nutrients within their body : males will produce a nutrient rich spermatophores as a gift to the female to aid in mating. 2. An increase in matings can give a female an increase in free nutrients from spermatophores. : This increase in nutrition can help the female with the energetics of egg production and result in an increase of reproductive success.

benefits to infanticide? If a male kills a female's young then? infanticide seen in? Ex; In giant water bugs?

- This behavior not only reduces intraspecific competition between the incumbent's offspring and those of other males and increases the parental investment afforded to their own young. : allows females to become sexually receptive sooner bc females of this species, and many other mammals, do not ovulate during the period in which they lactate, then becomes easier to see how this behavior could have evolved. - she stops lactating and is able to become pregnant again, As males are in a constant struggle to protect their group, those that express infanticidal behavior will contribute a larger portion to future gene pools. - in many mammal species, some bird species, and some insects, Ex; lions, baboons, leopards, mice, and gerbils : Although usually males conduct sexual infanticide in cases where males play similar roles to females in parental care the victim and perpetrator may be reversed. - is a large and nocturnal predatory insect found in still waters near vegetation. : a} In this species the males take care of masses of eggs by keeping them hydrated with water from their bodies. b} Without a male caring for the eggs like this, they become desiccated and will not hatch. c} In this species, males are a scarce resource that females must sometimes compete for. d} Those that cannot find a free male often stab the eggs of a brooding one. e} The male will then fertilize this female and care for her eggs.

in Copulatory Plugs what is the time advanatage? advantage to a copulatory plug over mate guarding? plugs are observed in? defensive tactics: Sperm Partitioning? To facilitate sperm partitioning, some males have developed complex ways to store and deliver their sperm: blue headed wrasse?

- While females can expel the plugs, the male's sperm still gets a time advantage in getting to the egg, which is often the deciding factor in fertilization. - is that while guarding a mate the male cannot mate with other receptive females. : After secreting the copulatory plug the male can mate with other females while the mated female is prevented from mating with other males. - insects, reptiles, some mammals, and spiders. : Rats use a copulatory plug, In some insects the spermatophores can act as a copulatory plug. - where males conserve their limited supply of sperm by reducing the quantity of sperm ejected : Ex; In drosophila, ejaculation amount during sequential copulations is reduced; this results in half filled female sperm reserves following a single copulatory event. : results in less sperm in the mated female, it allows the male to mate with a larger number of females without exhausting his supply of sperm. - the sperm duct is sectioned into several small chambers that are surrounded by a muscle that allows the male to regulate how much sperm is released in one copulatory event.

Aggression? advatages? Testosterone? Ex; Spotted Hyenas? Challenge Hypothesis? where was the pattern between testosterone and aggression first observed?

- a behavior intended to inflict noxious stimulation or destruction on another organism. : can be interspecific and intraspecific, hormones play a role - help an animal secure territory, including resources such as food and water, between males to secure mating and results in selection of healthier/more vigorous animal, self-protection or to protect offspring. - steroid linked to prenatal and postnatal development of male gender and physique, linked on average to more physical aggression, present lesser extent in females, more sensitive to its affects though - this and some species females will have high circulating testosterone levels and will show increased aggression. - predicts testosterone linked to aggression when beneficial for reproduction, like mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. : predicts seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders. - first observed in seasonally breeding birds, Song Sparrow where testosterone levels rise modestly with onset of breeding season

Sexual dimorphism in coloration form of? how are these colors obtained? indicator of? positive correlation between the? Chromatic sexual dimorphism? Fitness displays? nest building display of Bowerbirds.?

- also be a form of ornamentation that can be used to determine genetic fitness. 1] Ex; Male blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) are chromatically more yellow than females. - by the ingestion of insect larvae, which contain large amounts of carotenoids. - of male parental abilities, Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining food. - pigmentation of the tail and breast feathers and body condition. - found in many species: Ex; bright facial and rump coloration of male mandrills - also used by females to evaluate the genetic health of males (seen in many bird species): Ex; The male King Bird-of-paradise (Cicinnurus regius) performs a series of tail swinging, fluffing of its abdomen white feathers that makes the bird look like a cotton ball, and acrobatic pendulum displays. : Some bustard species have the males jumping high into the air again and again to show their strength to females. - variation of fitness displays, Male bowerbirds create elaborate nests that will include odd items designed to attract a mate. : Once the bower is complete, the male will sing to attract a female, When a female arrives, he will do a display dance to show both the features of his nest and also his fitness, Since the male will raise the young on his own this could also be looked at as a way to determine parental care ability.

Sexual Interference? what about the Male newts that are extremely effective at sexual interference? how does this reduce the courting male's reproductive fitness?

- any behavior that reduces a rival's reproductive fitness, a number of techniques that can be used. - show three tactics: 1. Pseudofemale Behavior: Male newts will clasp other males for a brief period. The clasped male will signal that he is male to end the clasp. : In psuedofemale behavior the clasped male signal that he is female, this causes the clasper to release his spermatophores. : Males have a limited number of spermatophores: Wasting a spermatophore decreases his reproductive fitness. 2. Amplexus Interference: While a couple are in amplexus a rival male can approach and observe. : presence of this new male disrupts the amplexing male. : He will pause and then resume but at an earlier point. : This causes the male to waste energy reducing the number of females he can mate with. 3. Spermatophore Interference- occurs when a rival male inserts himself between a courting pair, He will release a spermatophores at the same time as the courting male, near the female. : As a result, the female may pick up the spermatophores from the rival male. : This reduces the courting male's reproductive fitness is two ways: a} His spermatophores may not be the one used by the female so he does not fertilize the female he courted. b} Males have a limited number of spermatophores: Wasting a spermatophores decreases his reproductive fitness.

Parental Investment? what should it maximize? Parents must "decide"? Direct Parental Care? Indirect Parental Care? Indirect behaviors can include?

- any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.) that benefits one offspring at a cost to the parents' ability to invest in other aspects of fitness including the wellbeing of existing offspring, parents' future reproduction, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin. - maximize an individual's reproductive fitness overall, not just for one reproductive event. - a] how much of their own resources should be devoted to reproduction instead of to their own needs b] how should this investment be allocated among their offspring - includes behaviors that have an immediate physical effect on the offspring and their survival. : Ex. in birds include feeding the chicks and maintaining the nest. - includes behaviors that do not have an immediate physical effect on the offspring. : may be behaviors that the parent performs while away from the offspring or even before the offspring are born. - building the den or nest, establishing a territory, defending critical resources, defending the young from predators, caring for the pregnant female by the male : Ex; silvery cheeked hornbill (Bycanistes brevis) females are holed up in a tree cavity during the final stages of pregnancy and the early life of the chicks. The male will feed them during this period.

batemans conclusions? Explanations for gender differences vs. energetics: gametogenesis?

- a} The variation in number of mates for males was greater than for females. b} The males show direct proportionality between number of mates and fertility : However, females, provided they have been mated with at least once, show absolutely no effect of number of mates. - 1. Gametogenesis is more expensive per gamete in egg production than it is sperm production. : typically females produce less gametes than males do, eggs=limited quantity : females max her reproductive success by selecting best possible mate. : male max reproductive fitness by inc the freq of matings

A recognition allele would have to? how would green-beard alleles rise to frequency? Reciprocal altruism? what did trivers suggest about the evolution of it? Reciprocal altruism requires? Trivers came up with 3 criteria that are required for reciprocal altruism to occur:?

- a} give its bearer a recognizable indicator, b} give its bearer the ability to perceive this recognizable indicator in others, c} and cause the bearer to behave preferentially to another bearer of this recognition indicator. = green beard effect- recognition allele is directly recognizing copies of itself, regardless of average relatedness. - by promoting altruism toward individuals certain to be carrying the same allele. : ex. wood mouse- Spermatozoa discern the genetic similarity of surrounding gametocytes - organism acts in a manner that temporarily reduces its fitness while inc another organism's fitness, with the expectation the other organism will act in similar manner at later time developed by Robert Trivers - evolved since it might be beneficial to incur this cost if chance of being in a reverse situation where individual whom I helped before may perform an altruistic act towards me. - that nonkin are involved - 1) The benefit of the act to the recipient must be greater than the cost of the act is to the actor. (behavior must reduce a donor's fitness) 2) The opportunity for repayment is likely to occur. 3) The altruist and recipient are able to recognize each other (gives a mechanism for detecting 'cheaters) (ex. vampire bats)

Conserving Heat and Water? benefits of group living? Conserving Energy by Moving Together? Costs of Living in Groups? Altruism? Kin Selection? Coefficient of Relatedness? Hamilton's Rule? who determined indirect fitness? When you consider indirect and direct fitness you get? Kin Recognition? four ways that an animal may be able to tell kin from nonkin?

- birds and mammals that are social will huddle to conserve heat, slugs huddle to conserve water - improved foraging, dec predation risk, Conserving Heat and Water, Conserving Energy by Moving Together - can conserve energy by traveling in a group (Geese flying in a V-formation) - Increased Intraspecific Competition, Increased Risk of Disease and Parasites, Interference with Reproduction - an individual that inc the fitness of another while dec fitness of the individual performing the act. : costly to the altruist but beneficial to another conspecific. - strategies in evolution that favor the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction, The more closely related the altruist is to the kin greater the number of alleles they share - probability that particular pairs of relatives share the same alleles through common descent (symbol=r)(0-no relationship and 1 equals clones) - R = the genetic relatedness of the recipient to the actor, B = the additional reproductive benefit gained by the recipient, C = the reproductive cost to the individual of performing the act - hamilton - inclusive fitness - animal's potential ability to distinguish between close genetic kin and non-kin. - 1. Location works well in species with established distribution patterns. 2. Familiarity involves animals learning to recognize individuals with whom they were raised, involves remembering experiences during early development and later in life. 3. Phenotype Matching allows animals to identify kin even if they had never previously met, Family members tend to share phenotypes 4. Recognition Alleles involves an inherited allele or group of alleles that the individual can use to recognize others with the same allele.

Intrabrood Conflict? siblicide? Obligate siblicide? nazca boobies?

- called "sibling rivalry", is conflict between members of the same litter/brood, Each individual offspring derives greater fitness from the parental care that it personally receives then from parental care bestowed on its siblings. : Offspring will compete with one another for a greater share of parental investment. : Ex; puppies competing for their mother's teats, nestlings competing to get food from their parents - intrabrood rivalry can reach the level where one of the offspring will kill another - when a sibling almost always ends up being killed., will result in the older/stronger offspring killing the other offspring(s). - known for practicing obligate siblicide. 1} They lay two eggs several days apart. 2} If both eggs hatch, the elder chick will push its sibling out of the nest area, leaving it to die of thirst or cold. 3} The parent booby will not intervene and the younger chick will inevitably die (the adult booby has an FAP where any bird that is out of the nest area is considered to be an interloper. They will not allow the displaced offspring back into the nest) 4} It is believed that two eggs are laid so that one remains an insurance in case the other gets destroyed or eaten, or the chick dies soon after hatching.

Chemical Communication? advanatges? what is best medium for longest transmission? ] Ex; a female moth? disadvanatges? how has mammals incresed their efficancy through chemical signals? Detection of a chemical signal is? Aerial Chemoreception? Contact Chemoreception?

- can be olfactory, gustatory, or pheromonal in nature, passes between sender and receiver. - in terms of scent and pheromones (rlly good in air) can travel a good distance. but taste doesnt travel far : are longer lasting than are auditory or visual signals (scent marking advantage but it can be tracked by predators) : longer lasting, they generally take less energy to produce : rarely blocked by environmental obstacles - water - sexually receptive will release pheromones into air, will attract males from many miles away. - much slower to transmit than are auditory or visual signals. : are harder to use to locate the sender than are auditory or visual signals typically. : lower complexity. - the use of specialized urinary proteins and coupling a signaling secretion with oily secretions from other glands (these additions inc longevity of scent marking such as territorial markings) - through chemoreception - detection of chemical signals in the air, Ex; aerial chemoreception is used to signal when a female dog is in heat. - the detection of chemical signals through direct contact, touch, Ex; ants use contact chemoreception to evaluate strange ant to see if she is a member of the colony.

pheromes serving variety of purposes: signal? territorial? trail? sex? information? Touch/Tactile communication advantages? disadvantages? ex with honeybees? worker weaver ants? Electrical Communication advantages? disadvanatges? Gymnotiforms and Mormyriforms?

- cause short-term changes, such as a neurotransmitter release that activates response. - territorial pheromones mark the boundaries of an organism's territory (cats and dogs present in urine) - set out a trail so conspecifics can find the nest or resources, Ex; ants - indicate the availability of the female for breeding, Male animals also emit pheromones that convey info about species and genotype. - are indicative of an animal's identity or territory. - touch make it easier to locate the sender of the message : speed of transmission is good because the distance is so short. : Tactile messages can go around obstacles and work in the dark - Tactile messages can travel only a short distance, durability of a touch message is low, complexity of a touch message is low. - use tactile messages in the dark hive to convey where flowers with pollen can be found. - use tactile communication like attenation (selectively concentrating on one aspect of environment while ignoring others) and body shaking to stimulate activity in signal recipients. - ability to avoid environmental obstacles, high potentiality of the receiver to locate the sender, rapid speed of transmission - short effective distance, low range of duration, low degree of complexity - freshwater fish that can produce a weak electric field for communication, independently evolved this, nocturnal and live in murky waters

to female polygyny cost and benefit? polygyny threshold hypothesis?

- cost is that they bear all or at least the bulk of the parental care cost- Rarely in polygynous mating systems do males offer parental care. : cost is that the females must share essential resources, such as nesting sites and food, with each other. : Another cost is that a breeding area can attract inc predation of the females and/or young- Ex; Orca targeting breeding beaches of pinnipeds. : benefit is that since the males are competing for access to the females the dominant males should have the best genes which inc the female's genetic fitness. : benefit is that the dominant males have access to better resources that is conferred on to their females. **last 2 part of polygyny threshold hypothesis : benefit is that since she has mated with a genetically superior male her offspring will have a genetic advantage. This is conferred to her sons increasing their chances for reproductive success (would increase her reproductive fitness= "Sexy Son Hypothesis") - polygynous matings are beneficial to females when benefits achieved by mating with a high quality male and by gaining access to his resources inc her reproductive fitness over the costs involved.

Defensive Tactics: mate guarding? Precopulatory and Postcopulatory mate-guarding occurs in? Strategic mate-guarding? defensive tactics: Mating (or Copulatory) Plugs?

- defensive behavioral trait that occurs in response to sperm competition, Males try to prevent other males from approaching the female (and/or vice versa) thus preventing their mate from engaging in further copulations. - birds, lizards, insects and primates, the males guard their female by keeping them in close enough proximity so that if an opponent male shows up in his territory he will be able to fight off the rival male that will prevent the female from engaging in extra-pair copulation with the rival male. - occurs when the male only guards the female during her fertile periods, can be more effective because it may allow the male to engage in both extra-pair paternity and within-pair paternity : Ex; Male blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) guard females before she molts, Female crabs can only mate after molting when the shell is still soft. : When she molts he will mate wither and then guard her further until her shell hardens, He guards her by carrying her underneath him, venter to venter. - inserted immediately after a male copulates with a female, which reduce the possibility of fertilization by subsequent copulations from another male, by physically blocking the transfer of sperm. : plug is a gelatinous secretion that is deposited by a male into a female genital tract and later hardens into a plug or glues the tract together.

Providing Long Term Gains: Ability To Provide Parental Care? Ability To Provide Good Genes: female will select her mate based on his genetic qualities.? Ability To Provide Good Genes: ability to produce and maintain sexual ornamentation can be a useful determinant of? ornamentation? females show preference for?

- determining factor in mate selection in certain species where the male is involved in the rearing of the offspring. : Females can use behavioral and/or physical factors to determine male's ability to provide parental care. : In many bird species the quality and quantity of food gifts presented to the female during courtship is used to determine a male's ability to provide parental care. - female can use a number of factors to determine the quality of a male's genes including: 1] ability to dominate rivals 2] ability to produce and maintain showy displays 3] ability to produce & maintain sexual ornamentation - genetic fitness because these items require a great deal of energy to produce and maintain. - form of sexual dimorphism- Exaggerated dimorphic traits are used predominantly in the competition over mates, Ornaments may be costly to produce or maintain but the costs and implications differ depending on the nature of the ornamentation. - exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics when choosing a mate, tend to show a selective preferences for more elaborate males: Ex; elaborate plumage in many bird species (such as pheasants, birds of paradise)

defensive tactics: prolonged mating? defensive tactics: appendages? defensive tactics: Mating Inhibitory Secretions? toxic seminal proteins and drosophila?

- extended mating events, two possible selective benefits to this strategy: 1] Extended mating allows the male to release more sperm into the female increasing his competitive chances of success. 2] Extended mating, like a copulatory plug or mate guarding, prevents other males from having access to the female for a period of time giving his sperm time to reach the egg. : Ex; Dogs have a bulbus glandis (also called a "knot"). This is an erectile tissue structure on the penis of canines. During mating the tissues swell up and lock the male's penis inside the female. - some arthropods is for the male to leave his reproductive appendages in the female after mating, a] This blocks sexual access to the female by other males. b] The male can regenerate these organs. - components of the ejaculate that inhibit a female's ability to mate with another male. : accomplished by producing chemicals that make the female unattractive to other males or by producing secretions that are "anti- aphrodisiac" changing the female's behavior so that she is less receptive to mating. -can have a strong influence on reproduction, manipulate female behavior and physiology Ex; Drosophila males release toxic seminal fluids known as accessory gland proteins, to impede the female from participating in future copulations. : These substances act as an anti-aphrodisiac causing a dejection of subsequent copulations, and also stimulate ovulation and oogenesis.

A. J. Bateman? Bateman's principle? explain his study? how did he test it?

- first explained through reproductive energetics that In most species the males compete for mates and the females select their mate. - the theory that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males invest, and therefore in most species females are a limiting resource over which the other sex will compete. - (Drosophila) hypothesized that male reproductive success inc w/number of mates, whereas female reproductive success does not. : believed this could be supported by illustrating the variance in number of mates between females and males, and by plotting reproductive success versus number of mates. - crossed virgin parent fruit flies that were each heterozygous for a unique dominant mutant phenotype. : placed 3-5 flies of each sex in milk bottles for 3-4 days, allowed the females to lay eggs, then removed the parent flies and counted the offspring once hatched. : Because most (75%) of the offspring expressed the phenotypes of one or both parents, Bateman deduced how many mates each individual had by observing the offspring's mutations. : He judged reproductive success by counting the relative number of offspring sharing each parental phenotype

An example of the greatest degree of sexual dimorphism? In societies where males gain increased access to mates through dominance what happens?

- found in the African cichlid Lamprologus callipterus, Males are 12 times larger than females bc males of the species collect empty snail shells for the females to breed in, have to be large and strong enough to transport shells and also be able to defend them (larger males can defend for longer so more opportunities for mates) - the higher ranking the male is the greater are his mating opportunities, the greater is his overall reproductive success (More dominant animals have larger harems, for ex, leading to increased mating opportunities.) : dominant male may also inhibit mating by lower ranked males, be through driving the lower ranked males away, denying lower ranked males access to females, or even preventing the success of a lower ranking males sperm if mating does occur.

Ex; The male Northern shrike? Ex; In the spider Paratrechalea ornata? edible spermatophore? inedible nuptial gifts?

- gives prey (rodents, birds, lizards, or large insects) to females immediately before copulation. 1} Shrikes are well known for impaling prey on thorns and sharp sprigs. 2} Females select a mate according to the size of prey impaled, with larders thus serving as an extended phenotype of a male: If the amount of food stored by the males can drive female mate choice, food provided before within and extra pair copulations by males may also influence the female's decision to copulate. - males may present either a wrapped or an unwrapped nuptial prey gift. : Prey wrapping seems to be triggered by perception of cues on the female's silk and increases in frequency according to the male's age. - Some insect species produce an edible spermatophore as a nuptial gift. : female will accept the gift, and its nutrients, and allow the male to inseminate her with another spermatophore - a} Inedible tokens may include items such as a fragment of leaf or twig, a seed tuft, or a silk balloon. b} The evolution of this can be seen in robber flies. c} Inedible nuptial gifts may serve to indicate of male fitness d} Ex; In the scorpionfly (Panorpa cognata), males offer a salivary secretion as a nuptial gift before copulation. Exchange of the salivary secretion takes place after prolonged courtship interactions.

during ritualization when behaviors become more stereotyped what happens? Emancipation? Receiver-Bias Mechanisms? Sensory Exploitation? the water mite with this? Sensory Drive hypothesis? Ex; surfperches with this? Since an animal uses its body to send a message, the anatomy of the signal sender will have a major influence in?

- harder for the recipient to misunderstand, involve speeding up or slowing down the signal, anatomical structures such as bright feathers could evolve to draw more attention (Ex; the male green swordtail: sex selection led to development of sword) - ritualized signal has become freed from the external or internal factors that originally led to it, behavior has lost its original function and now serves only for communication - focus on the characteristics of the recipient and how that may influence the evolution of a signal. - explains above, a receiver has a preexisting bias for a particular stimulus and the sender's signal will evolve to exploit this bias. - use the hunting strategy of the female to mate with the female, blind so female stands on plants to sense movement, male will mimick prey for her to jump and grab and in that time he releases spermatophore and pheromones - the receiver 's characteristics are shaped by the environment and that will affect signal evolution. - living in a variety of habitats differing in light quality, Species deeper with poor visual quality will respond to differences in brightness, Species shallower waters with good visual quality respond to differences in color. : Male color patterns have evolved to exploit this sensory bias. - the nature, strength, and other aspects of that message.

Conflicts Among Family Members Over Parental Investment: how do they affect fitness? Conflicts Among Family Members Over Parental Investment: Sexual conflict between males and females over parental investment occur due to? parental investment and fisher? clutton and brock? robert trivers?

- have an evolutionary aspect 1) sexual conflict between the evolutionary interests of male and females 2) intrabrood conflict between members of the same litter/brood 3) interbrood conflict between members of the current brood and future offspring - to the costs of providing parental care 1) Each parent pays the cost of parental investment individually but the benefits accrue mutually regardless of the individual investment: it would benefit one gender to invest very little energy and leave the bulk of the investment to the other gender, This ties into Bateman's hypothesis and intersexual selection. 2) Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory. 3) Sex differences in parental effort are important in determining the strength of sexual selection. - earliest consideration of parental investment is given by Fisher, argued that parental expenditure on both sexes of offspring should be equal. - expanded the concept of parental investment to include costs to any other component of parental fitness. - theory of parental investment predicts that the sex making the largest investment in lactation, nurturing, and protecting offspring will be more discriminating in mating; and that the sex that invests less in offspring will compete for access to the higher- investing sex (expansion on Bateman's principle)

territory? Animals that defend territories in this way are referred to as? Territorial animals defend areas that contain? who holds territories? Ex; European robins? Large solitary (or paired) carnivores require? benefits and costs to owning a territory? Territoriality will occur if the fitness benefits from enhanced access to the resources? There are a few variables that will determine the relative value of defending a resource. Some are:? Territory size will be determined by?

- in ethology, any sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics - territorial - a nest, den or mating site and sufficient food resources for them and their young. - an individual, a mated pair, or a group - defend territories as pairs during the breeding season and as individuals during the winter. - require an extensive protected area to guarantee their food supply - exclusive access to resources, but costs, such as defense and vigilance. - outweighs the fitness costs of defending the resource. - 1. Resource Abundance -Territoriality favored when the resource is moderately abundant: If resource is very abundant then there is not point in expending energy guarding it. 2. Resource Distribution - Territoriality favored when the resource is moderately aggregated in its distribution: resource is spread out over a large area than the cost of defending it would be high. 3. Intruder Pressure - the number of other individuals willing to compete for a resource will help to determine if it is beneficial to hold a territory. - fitness benefits from holding a territory of a certain size outweighs the fitness costs of defending a territory that size.

Infanticide? Ex; Hanuman langurs?

- is another form of sexual interference where a one animal will kill the offspring of a rival. 1) Infanticide caused by sexual conflict has the general theme of the killer (often male) becoming the new sexual partner of the victim's parent, which would otherwise be unavailable. : represents a gain in fitness by the killer, and a loss in fitness by the parents of the offspring killed. - Old World monkey found in India. They are a social animal, living in groups, Each group is generally dominated by a single male, with many females, though the male must struggle with other males for control of the group. : When a male tries to take over a group, there is a violent struggle with the existing male leader. If successful in overthrowing the previous male, infants of the females are then killed : This infanticidal period is limited to the window just after the group is taken over. : after this period the females begin ovulating, allowing the new male mating opportunities.

Belding's ground squirrel? their alarm calls? Paul Sherman? the answers? whats the answer with belding ground squirrel? Cooperative Mate Acquisition? what is it when When kin are involved a coalition can increase and when nonkin are involved?

- live in a nepotistic society where most interactions occur between females and their offspring and kin, Cooperation between individuals correlates with their degree of relatedness, recognize their kin by comparing their phenotypes - 1. churr call or the trill series of more than five notes given rapidly: for predators that pose less immediate threats, usually terrestrial, only females with kin will call. 2. the whistle, which is a single high- pitched note, response to immediate threats usually aerial, all squirrels will call - studied alarm calls in Belding's ground squirrels to determine if the alarm calls were directed at the predator or at kin: answer was it varied - 1. Individual selection is the answer when a predatory bird is spotted, caller directly benefits by increasing its chance to escape 2. Kin selection answer when alarm call is in reference to a terrestrial predator, place the caller at a greater risk - live in female dominated colonies, caller risking itself - males may cooperate to obtain mating opportunities, two or more males band together to aid in mating show males are related, an ex. of kin selection. : Ex. The Wild Turkey- Males may be seen courting in groups (sibling groups), less dominant male greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if it were courting alone. - inclusive fitness= kin selection - direct fitness= aid each other and both can breed so this is reciprocal altruism.

Social Monogamy? Sexual Monogamy? Extra-pair matings seem to occur in? DNA fingerprinting studies have shown that even in pair-bonding, matings outside the pair occur in? costs and benefits to extra-pair matings for mated male? costs and benefits to extra-pair matings for female?

- male and female share territory and engage in behavior indicative of a social pair, but does not imply any particular sexual fidelity or reproductive pattern. : 90 percent of avian species, 3% of mammalian, 15 percent of primates : observed in reptiles, fish, and insects. - an exclusive sexual relationship between a female and a male based on observations of sexual interactions. : male and female hypothetically mate exclusively with only each other : very rare - almost all sexual monogamous species. - with fair frequency, and a significant minority of offspring result from them, referred to as "extra-pair matings". - cost of finding a receptive female other than his mate and mate possibly mating with another male while he is away : benefit of inc his reproductive success if he successfully mates with other females - may gain additional assistance in rearing her young. Ex; In red winged black birds extra-pair mated males will assist in defending the nest from predators. : may use extra-pair mating to gain more resources such as exchanging matings for food. Ex; additional nuptial gifts in some insects : It may take more than one male's sperm to inseminate all of her eggs. : Extra-pair matings may increase the quality of genes that will fertilize her eggs. (Ex; Female reed warblers will seek out males having a greater song repertoire than does her mate.) : In social breeding species extra-pair matings may help to reduce the chances of breeding with close relatives, Ex; Gray crowned babblers are birds with an alpha male-female mating system. However, the two are often related.

what happens when the male is the gender that does the bulk of parental care? Brood Parasitism? what does it relieve? Intraspecific Brood Parasitism? Interspecific brood parasites?

- male is the limiting resource competed for by females and will be the gender to select the mate, Found in a few bird, amphibian, fish, crustacean, and insect species, Ex; Northern Jacana - manipulation and use of host individuals either of the same (intraspecific brood-parasitism) or different species (interspecific brood-parasitism) to raise the young of the brood-parasite (found among birds, fish, and insects) - the parasitic parent from investment of rearing young or building nests, enabling them to spend more time foraging, producing offspring : risk of egg loss to nest raiders reduced by having distributed the eggs amongst a number of different nests. : reduces the reproductive fitness of the hosts through wasting resources on the alien young or through the loss of their own young. - involves one parent depositing its eggs into the nest/care of a conspecific, Found in a number of birds such as golden eye ducks, red-fronted coots, cliff swallows, and wood ducks. : lay eggs in their own nest and conspecifics nests, raise the young in their nests but not their young in other nests, Or intraspecific brood parasites will only lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics. They never build their own nests. - parent depositing her eggs into the nest/care of a host of another species, are Obligate Brood Parasites bc they are unable to build a nest of their own.

Example: The Long-tailed Manakin? For the beta male what is the benefit?? Cooperative breeding? first observed in? Benefits of Cooperative Breeding to the Helper? passive vs active benefits? These benefits of cooperative breeding will occur in? Costs of Cooperative Breeding to the Helper?

- males form a long-term partnership duo or trio, sing in synchrony, perform a complex coordinated courtship dance, only the alpha male inseminates her - younger male can learn how to be an alpha male and inc his chances of dominating a duo or trio that he will form later in life. - individuals contribute care to offspring that are not their own at the expense of their own reproduction. - birds but has also found in mammals, insects, and spiders (rare) - 1. inc its indirect fitness by assisting its relative increase their direct fitness, Ex; In Florida scrub jays 2. allow juvenile members to gain parental experience, acquiring social status, "rent payment" for a shared habitat/gateway for future mating opportunities, Ex; Seychelles Warbler 3. group augmentation: , survival is greater in large groups due to the benefits of large group numbers. - (actions that indirectly increase the fitness of an animal) due to the presence of other group members, such as the dilution effect - (actions that are directed specifically to increase an animal's fitness) that depend on the help that new members might offer. - only if it is better to stay and help other individuals than to move somewhere else and attempt breeding. - 1) unable to inc helper's direct fitness in the short term or permanently. 2) cost of expending energy towards raising the offspring of another individual.

Ex; In the scorpionfly? Not all nuptial gifts are food (or pseudo-food) items: Some are delivered to the female's reproductive tract? Sexual Cannibalism?

- males offer a salivary secretion as a nuptial gift before copulation. Exchange of the salivary secretion takes place after prolonged courtship interactions. 1} The nuptial gift is more likely to be accepted by the female if premating duration is long. 2} Males in poor condition with a limited supply of saliva may deliberately delay initiating copulations to decrease the probability that their costly gift is rejected and, thus, wasted. 3} Males in good condition with ample mating resources, on the other hand, may afford the risk of wasting a salivary mass and therefore take every opportunity to mate. - a] This is found in some insect species. b] These species use a spermatophores that will be rich in nutrients as well as sperm. 1] Usually the nutrients diffuse across the cloacal mucosa and provide nourishment to the female. c] Ex; Katydid males offer a spermatophore that is protein rich: The females ingest into their reproductive tract. - special case of cannibalism in which a female kills and consumes a male of the same species before, during, or after copulation

patterns of parental care? birds with laying eggs and parental care? Mammals have the prenatal young where? biparental care and males? Biparental care has the advantage that? care found in teleosts and anurans? what kind of care does external fertilization seem to go towards? Ex; mollies, guppies, and cichlids? all Chondrichthyes practice? what kind of reproduction of Animals that suffer a great deal of predation and the parents are unable to defend the young?

- mammals and birds generally show parental care but the distribution of labor varies. : Mammals show 81% maternal only care and 9% biparental care. : Birds show 81% biparental care and 8% maternal only care. - Birds lay eggs and the males can incubate and guard the eggs as easily as the females, males can be involved in prenatal care, more likely to stay for raising offspring. - young in the womb so there is nothing that the male can do directly, more effective for male to leave during prenatal period to inc his fitness by inc mating chances - that two adults are feeding and guarding the young allowing a greater supply of resources to the young (suggest this care evolved because it allows young to grow quicker) - no-parental care -towards no-parental care and internal fertilization is more likely to be associated with parental care. - internal fertilization and slight parental care, : internal fertilization and no parental care : external fertilization and most have parental care : all these studies are inconclusive then bc doesnt match up - practice internal fertilization but show no-parental care. - produce a large number of young and no parental care (r selection), investment in raising and defense would be wasted, Ex; sea turtles

Intrasexual selection? what can it lead to? Adaptations That Help a Male Secure Copulations? dominance behavior? Species that use this approach tend to ?

- mechanism of sexual selection where members of one gender will compete with one another to gain reproductive access to the other gender. - to intense fighting and competition for mates which, in turn, can result is selection for increased size (ex; elephant seals), increased weaponry (ex; rhinoceros beetles), and increased display structures (ex; peacocks). - dominance behavior, Alternate Reproductive Strategies, - males may secure copulations by dominating other males, allows them to prevent competitors from having access to females (Some species show female dominance) : will reduce competition for a female of other females trying to copulate with her mate (ex; wolves). - favor larger, stronger males which can lead to sexual dimorphism.

Sensory Bias Model? Cryptic Female Choice? what does this allow? In some cases certain male traits will affect the fitness of eggs laid in particular environmental conditions? fly Dryomyza anilis?

- model states that female preference for certain traits evolve bc they stimulate a preexisting sensory bias that may be unrelated to sex. : Ex; an animal may have a sensory bias to associate a particular color to food. Males who have more of that color would attract more mates closer to them resulting in more matings. : Female satin bowerbirds prefer to eat blue grapes when offered a variety of colors and male satin bowerbirds prefer to use blue items to decorate their nests. - ability to store and separate sperm from multiple males enables females to manipulate paternity by choosing which sperm fertilize their eggs, a process known as cryptic female choice. Evidence for this ability exists in many different taxa, including birds, reptiles, gastropods, arachnids, and perhaps most-notably, insects. - allows females to preferentially choose sperm and are thus able to mate multiple times and allocate sperm to their eggs according to paternal phenotype or according to other characteristics. - 1] Females can choose sperm based on male quality as a function of its interaction with the environment. 2] Ex; yellow dung fly - females preferentially choose sperm from one storage location over another. 1] Males of this species have developed behaviors, such as abdominal tapping, to increase their number of sperm stored in the favored storage site.

Paper wasp? the dominance hierarchy within the species is dependent on? In sub-dominant males what is suppressed? what about in females? ] Glucocorticoids and dominance? benefits to being dominant in a social hierarchy? benefits to being subordinate? Subordinate individuals can sometimes change their status how? Home Range? Within a home range will be a central area where the animal spends most of its time?

- modulation of hormone levels after hibernation may be associated with the establishment of dominance hierarchies - highest ranking female (queen) and her ability to suppress critically important reproductive hormones in male and female sub-dominants. - luteinizing hormone and testosterone - ovarian cycle: reduces sexual virility and behavior and thus redirects the sub dominant's behavior into helping the queen with her offspring - produced by the adrenal glands which stimulate the fight or flight response. - gives greater access to resources and mating, all or most of the reproductive benefits are conferred on the dominant members (sometimes only the dominant individual gets to breed, naked mole rat and eusocial insects) - being dominant can be expensive, limiting long term fitness (adverse health affects) - 1) They may successfully challenge the dominant individual. 2) They may leave the group and establish a new group or join a new group where they can be dominant. 3) In some species subordinates can sometimes band together to challenge the dominant individuals (primate species) - area in which an animal carries out most of its normal activities. - core area (used by only 1 group) (result of avoidance rather than defense)

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)? Gonadal steroids generally regulate? non-gonadal steroids may regulate ? does castration durning non breeding season have an effect? In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated? Glucocorticoid? proactive and reactive aggression? Agonistic Behavior? what kind of aggression does it only apply to? what are most common form of agonistic behaviors?

- most abundant circulating androgen hormone and rapidly metabolized into potent androgens and estrogens. - aggression during breeding season, - aggression during the non-breeding season. - no effect on territorial aggression - in birds during the non-breeding season. - role in regulating aggressive behavior. - that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be accompanied by elevated levels - social behavior related to fighting: broader than aggressive behavior bc it includes not only actual aggression but threats, displays, retreats, placating aggressors, conciliation. - intraspecific aggression: contestants who are competing for access to same resources, like food or mates or tests of strength/threat display - Ritualistic or display behaviors

Muscle contraction as a means of moving spermatozoa? Sexual Conflict? generated by? sexual conflict: antagonistic co-evolution?

- moving spermatozoa through the reproductive system into and out of the storage structures has been examined in a number of insects. : The female insect nervous system affects many of the processes involved in sperm storage. The nervous system may signal for muscular contractions, fluid absorption, and hormone release, all of which aid in moving the sperm into the storage organs. - defined by Parker in 1979 as a conflict between the evolutionary interests of males and females. - sometimes generated by sexual selection, particularly in males that compete for mates. : Traits evolve in the males to give them a competitive advantage but end up being deleterious to the female. : Ex; a compound in the seminal fluid of fruit flies inc sperm motility but also decreases the longevity of the female, especially multiply mated females. - occurs over time between the genders. : relationship between males and females where sexual morphology changes over time to counteract the opposite's sex traits in order to achieve the maximum reproductive success: For ex- when insects reproduce by means of traumatic insemination (ex; bed bugs), it is very disadvantageous to the female's health. : During mating, males will try to inseminate as many females as possible, the more times a female's abdomen is punctured, the less likely she is to survive. : Females that possess traits to avoid multiple matings will be more likely to survive, resulting in those morphologies being retained in future generations. : In males, genitalia are relatively simple and more likely to vary among generations than female genitalia. This results in a new trait that females have to counter in order to survive.

2 phases of waggle? dancer bee? ] Honeybees use ____ as a directional cue? 2 mechanisms for distance? . Signals are Likely Honest When? ) If the sender and receiver have the same goal then it will benefit? Ex; baby birds signal their hunger to parents?

- of one to 100 or more circuits, two phases: the waggle phase and the return phase. : worker bee- running through small figure-eight pattern followed by turn to right to circle back to starting point (aka return phase), another waggle run, followed by a turn and circle to the left, and so on in a regular alternation between right and left turns after waggle runs. : also produce and release chemical messages onto their abdomens and into the air - directional information and distance - the sun, problem in a dark hive and with the passage of time but the dancer adjusts the angle of their dances to compensate. - a] The greater the number of waggles in waggle dance the greater is the distance to the food. b] The greater the amount of buzzes during the straight run portion of waggle dance the greater will be the distance to the food. - The Sender and Receiver have Similar Goals, The Signal Cannot Be Faked, The Signal is Expensive to Produce, The Sender of a Dishonest Signal Can Be Identified - the sender to transmit an honest signal. - 1] This message will have an auditory and visual component. 2] The parents will want to feed the offspring to improve on their own reproductive fitness. : not a need to deceive in the signal (hungrier the baby bird is the stronger will be the begging message)

Intention Movements? gray heron? birds food exchange has become ritualized? rattling of rattle snake? Displacement Activities occur when? ritualization includes? Autonomic Responses?

- often possible to judge what an animal intends to do these movements have been named this, considered as a behavior derived from locomotory movements. - ritualized hunting behavior as part of his courtship display. 1} He fluffs his crest, points his head down (as if pointed at a fish), does a mock strike, and snaps his mandibles. - Bill touching most likely developed from parents feeding young and has developed into a number of signals in various bird species. - evolved from a caudally localized intention movement, selective advantage is threat display communicates the potential cost for an attack on the snake, protecting it from possible damage or death (energy to produce venom too) - 1. high motivation for two or more conflicting behaviors: the resulting displacement activity is usually unrelated to the competing motivations. 2. prevented from performing a single behavior for which they are highly motivated. 3. involve actions that bring comfort to the animal such as scratching, drinking or feeding (primates self grooming) - intention movements, displacement activites, autonomic responses - involuntary nervous system and regulates many of the body's visceral activities.

Sexual dimorphism? ornamentation? male stag beetle? Behavioral dimorphism? what causes male to be larger? explain this with birds and telosts?

- phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.Ex.'s of such differences include differences in morphology, size, ornamentation and behavior. - to be the result of intersexual selection; the showier the male the better his chances (obvi intersexual selection also) - has horns. The female selects males with larger horns but at the same time the males use these horns in dominance displays and fighting. - dominance ties in to increased aggressive behavior of males and increased posturing. - typically morphological sexual dimorphism, It depends on reproductive energetics as well as dominance. - bird species the female is larger than the male, Her larger size accommodates the energetics of egg production and flying while pregnant. : Males sing to establish/defend territories and display to attract mates so they do not need the greater size. : Instead dimorphism is based on ornamentation (ex; plumage) and behavior (ex; signing). - Some species of teleosts change gender as they age, They will grow throughout their lives and change gender based on reproductive needs : Some species that fight for territories so as to have access to mates will be born female, takes greater size and strength to defend and establish a territory. : This favors larger males. : Some other species that do not fight for mates are born male, it takes greater size and strength to produce eggs, So, when a male as gained enough size to be able to afford the energetics of producing eggs instead of sperm he changes gender.

Promiscuity? who does it? with bonobos? Communication? requires? what determines the mode animals communicate? 5 types of ways animals communicate? vision advantages? stimulus variables associated with vision?

- practice of casual sex with multiple sexual partners, rare in animal groups and some behaviorists consider it to be a form of polygynandry - primates chimpanzees and bonobos. : Each male copulates with many females, and vice-versa. - amount of promiscuity is particularly striking bc bonobos use sex to alleviate social conflict as well as to reproduce. - transfer of information from a sender to a receiver that on average will benefit the sender or any behavior of one animal that sends a signal affecting the current or future behavior of another animal. - a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication. - on the biology and environment of the species and the nature of the message. - vision, audition, chemicals, touch, and electrical fields - in addition to exchanging information Visual messages allow for ease of localization (If the message can be seen then so can the sender), can be rapidly transmitted and will rapidly fade out (message will travel at the speed of light) : Once the sender stops sending the message the message stops in contrast to smell which can last longer - allow for the variation in messages and ways to "state" them: brightness, color, spatial pattern, and temporal pattern. : Ex; the flashing of the white rump and tail of a fleeing white tail deer informs conspecifics of a threat nearby.

Ex; The peacock? ornate plumage what can happen? Criteria Used By Females To Select Males?

- provides a particularly well known example of intersexual selection, where ornate males compete to be chosen by females. 1) The result is a stunning feathered display, which is large and unwieldy enough to pose a significant survival disadvantage. 2) Biologists have suggested that the layers of the ornate plumage of males provide a means of demonstrating body symmetry, such that peahens are "trying" to discover the health of the male or the quality of his genes. - 1. Diseases, injuries, and genetic disorders may impair the body's symmetry. : There is also evidence that reduced symmetry of males may result in fewer offspring, or allow males access only to females with lesser parenting skill. 2. Another possibility is that the peacock display shows that he has the energy and strength to support such an expensive and costly display. - Sperm Production, Ability to Provide Resources, Ability To Provide Good Genes

details about sexual cannabolism? Providing Long Term Gains: Territories? Ex, the European house wren?

- rare overall, is common in most families of spiders and scorpions, suspected to occur in some mollusks (gastropods & cephalopods) : In most species in which it occurs, the female usually cannibalizes the male, due to the large size of the female: In effect, the consumed mate becomes a nuptial gift. : the consumer benefits by gaining nutrients to produce healthy eggs. : The consumed benefits by being able to mate. - used by the females of some species to select a mate. : 1. The size and/or quality of resources of a territory will allow the female to determine what quality of resources the male can provide. 2. A male with a better stocked territory will outcompete a male with a similar sized, or even larger, territory that is not as well supplied. 3] Another factor in dominant determined territorial species is that the size of the territory will correlate with overall male fitness. - selects a male based on the number of nesting sites on his territory, These birds will nest in hollowed cavities in trees. They do not make these cavities so the territory must have an adequate supply of "premade cavities".

Genetic Monogamy?. Polygyny? benefit and cost to male?

- refers to DNA analyses confirming that a female- male pair reproduce exclusively with each other, very rare: Ex; while over 90% of birds are socially monogamous on average 30 percent or more of the baby birds in any nest are sired by a male other than the resident male - One male has an exclusive relationship with two or more females, Ex; the wood mouse males mate with multiple females, result in competition between males during reproductive periods. - benefit is that the male can maximize his reproductive potential by mating with multiple females- does not work as well when energy must be invested by the male into parental care so most lack parental care : cost is that since the male is mating with multiple females there will be periods of times when some of his females are unguarded allowing for other males to have reproductive access. : also costs involved in defending the females and/or the breeding territory.

Many male mammals will what with their urine? Origin and Maintenance of Mate-Choice Preferences: a) Indicator Mechanisms? Handicap Principle proposed by Amotz Zahavi? The offspring of females who choose males with exaggerated handicaps will receive an advantage why? Johnstone's representation of the of the Zahavian handicap principle?

- scent mark with urine rich in pheromones and scents that females can use to determine their reproductive fitness. - are specific traits in a male that females prefer, Indicator mechanisms are also gene models. : preferred feature has a genetic basis and infers viability, also causes an increased viability by conferring a mating advantage. : Over evolutionary time genes for the particular trait, high viability, and female preference will become associated. : ex: is the Handicap Principle proposed by Amotz Zahavi - Females prefer a mate with a handicap (a trait that reduces his chances for survival) if it announces his superior genetic quality bc he has managed to survive despite this handicap. : Females choose the males with the greatest handicap because they indicate superior genes that can be conferred to their offspring. : Male secondary sexual characteristics act as honest signals indicating their actual fitness level. - advantage since the genes that gave him the selective advantage will confer an advantage to his offspring. - CL = cost to a low quality signaler CH = cost to a high quality signaler SL = the optimal signaling level for a low quality signaler SH = the optimal signaling level for a high quality signaler

Case Study: The Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina? Conflicts between high ranking males are more often resolved with? antagonistic behavior in bulls? The least successful males have?

- show extreme sexual dimorphism, possibly the largest of any mammal, with males typically five to six times heavier than the females, males much larger than females : Males arrive in the colonies before the females and fight for control of harem : Large body size confers advantages in fighting. : fighting males use their weight and canine teeth against each other, outcome rarely fatal, and defeated bull will flee; however suffer severe tears and cuts. : Males commonly vocalize with a coughing roar that serves in both individual recognition and size assessment. - with posturing and vocalizing than with physical contact. - gives rise to a dominance hierarchy, with access to harems and breeding activity being determined by rank: dominant bulls or "harem masters" establish harems of several dozen females. : A dominant male must stay in his territory to defend it, which can mean months without eating, living on his store of blubber, Some males have stayed ashore for more than three months without food. - no harems, but may try to copulate with a harem male's females when the dominant male is not looking, Often do not get the opportunity to mate.

Facultative siblicide? when does siblicide usually occur? who is it advantageous for? Interbrood conflict? Case Study: Interbrood Conflict in the Galapagos Fur Seal? what does the younger sibling serve as?

- siblicide may or may not occur, based on environmental conditions, fighting is frequent, but will not always lead to death of a sibling; - only when resources, specifically food, are scarce. - for the surviving offspring bc they have now eliminated most or all of their competition and for the parents because surviving offspring most likely have the strongest genes, and so, will pass these genes onto their offspring later in life, creating a strong line of genetics. - conflict between members of the current brood and future offspring: question is how much resources should be invested in the current brood at the expense of future broods. - seal pups rely on their mother's milk for the first 18 months, and weaning may be delayed for up to 2 or 3 yrs if conditions are poor, result is every yr up to 23% of pups are born when an older sibling is still suckling. : Survival of the younger sibling greatly depends on the availability of resources. : when food is scarce, 80% of pups with suckling older siblings die within a month. - as an insurance in case the first sibling dies, and also provides extra reproductive value in case conditions prove better than expected.

mobbing calls? aggregation? agonistic messages? affiliative displays? Case Study Honeybee Communicative Dances? who the first who translated the meaning of the waggle dance?

- signal conspecifics to join together to defend a resource or a member: Ex; The Great Tit, songbird, uses signal to call on nearby birds to harass a perched bird of prey, such as a hawk - cause conspecifics to join together Ex; pheromones cause number of insect species to aggregate like bug nymphs of tree roots - conflict communication, includes contests and aggression between individuals, conflict over resources such as mates or territory, and dominance and submission displays. : species have distinctive threat displays that are made during competition over food, mates or territory. - indicate that a dominant animal accepts the presence of another. - 1) Round dance: inside beehive. When a forager, or scout bee, returns to hive she performs this to communicate the location of food sources close to the colony {less than 35 yards away}. : moves in a circular pattern, used for more distant nectar sources or pollen sources. 2) Waggle dance figure-eight dance, successful foragers can share with other members of colony, info about the direction and distance to patches of flowers yielding nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new housing locations. - Nobel laureate Karl von Frisch

Ex; the deeper, booming roar of a red deer? Mate Assessment? functions of communication? courtship? Courtship displays can help two prospective mates to? ex with male pigs? pair bond? Usually pair bonds are established and maintained through?

- species secondary sexual characteristics will play a role in communication helping to identify a potential mate. - animal will selectively be driven to max its fitness by choosing best possible mate. : Usually male presents and female selects but exceptions. - Species Recognition (or Intraspecific Communication), mate attraction, and mate assessment, alarm - apart of mate assessment: complicated dances or touching, vocalizations, or displays of beauty or fighting prowess. : Ex; The courtship of the Blue-footed Booby consists of male flaunting blue feet and dancing to impress the female, male spread his wings and stamphis feet on the ground. : brightness of male foot color is dependent on access to food. - synchronize behavior and physiology to inc efficacy of mating - have pheromone in saliva called androstenone. : When a sow is exposed to it she will assume mating stance, boar mounts the female he will produce specialized grunts, grunts stimulate ovulation in sow improving chance that copulation will result in pregnancy. - strong affinity that develops in some species between a pair males and females. potentially leading to producing offspring (monogamous species) - ritual displays: displays can be repetitions or modifications or unique from courtship displays.

Female Defense Polygyny? Resource Defense Polygyny? - Males of the African cichlid Lamprologus callipterus guard snail shells? Lek Defense Polygyny? lek? term for the females associated with one dominant male is?

- the male herds the females into a cluster, allows them to be protected by the male, while the male has continuous access to the females, and prevents other males form mating with them. : Ex; Elephant seals, fur seals - where the male guards a resource that the female needs for reproduction. - 1} They carry these shells to their territory and guard them from other males. 2} Females will enter these shells for spawning. 3} He will guard multiple shells - male defends a symbolic territory located at a traditional display site called a lek. : Females will visit these leks, choose a male, mate, and then leave, better a male's display/defense of his lek the more females he will have access to, Found in some insects and some bird species such as many grouse species. - gathering of males, of certain animal species, for the purposes of competitive mating display. : assemble before and during the breeding season, on a daily basis, Intermittently or continuously, they spar individually with their neighbors or put on extravagant visual or aural displays : same group of males meet at a traditional place - Harem: Since mating in the harem is limited only to the dominant males in some mammals, young non-dominant males can spontaneously form "bachelor groups" or "bachelor bands." : Ex; horses, elephants

Ex; In some birds of paradise? problems with visual communication? audition? being transitory and fast allows for? disadvantages?

- the visual signal can be modified by the sender based on the distance to the receiver. : the call of the male brings females near. They can then see him and his display of color identifying him as a sexually mature male. : This initial visual communication is passive. : If it draws the female closer, he will then engage in an active visual communication involving flashing his tail feathers and wings and engaging in other display types of activities. - receiver and signaler must be within visual distance of each other. : can be partially or completely blocked by obstructions such as murkiness of water, vegetation, or weather- Ex; The Northern Mockingbird will perform a display flashing the white bands on its wings, they will move out of foliage on to an open field to inc the efficiency of the communication. : do not work well in dimly lighted environments or at night (nocturnal species do visual signals at dusk/dawn and deep sea produce light) - advantages: being able to be transmitted over great distances Ex; Howler monkeys, Cicada (very true for signals transmitted in water) : be fast and transitory (not as fast as the speed of light) (Auditory transmission is transitory. Once the signaler stops signaling the message ends) : avoids some of the blockage problems associated with visual communication. - quick modification of a message Ex; bird song -Localization of the sender is possible but not as easy as it is with visual communication.

agonistic interaction consists of three kinds of behaviors? Threat Behavior? The initiation of a threat display will result in? Agonistic Fighting? Ex; Agnostic fighting for black mambas? Ex; Agnostic fighting for black mambas? Submissive Behavior? what allows the submissive animal to avoid injury or death from a superior opponent? type of agonistic behavior observed, whether it be aggressive or submissive, all depend on? Ex; Agonistic behavior in the jumping spider? Conflict?

- threat, agonistic fighting, and submission. - is any behavior that signifies hostility or intent to attack another animal, meant to cause the opponent to back down and leave, last step before fighting or submission, often elicits other agonistic behavior in the recipient. - display of physical attributes, a fight, or submission. - escalates from an indecisive threat display. is rare because of the risk of injury, occur when individuals similarly sized, when reproduction and survival w/o the contested resource is less likely - wrestling match, opponents attempt to pin each other's head repeatedly to the ground to secure mating rights - indicating by an act/posture that it won't challenge a dominant individual in a social group, maintenance of a dominance hierarchy of cooperating individuals - agonistic behavior: Ex; In Bearded Dragons, waving is one of the most visible signs of submission - the likelihood of winning: ex. size is usually a good predictor of fighting success - raising and spreading first pair of legs and vibrating abdomen to indicate size and strength. - Physical fighting is rare, animal too aggressive it might face high cost like injury or death, Even non-fighting conflict take energy

Differing goals between the sender and recipient can lead to? The Signal Is Costly To Challenge Or To Assess By The Receiver? Behaviorists take two different approaches to the evolutionary origin of signals? in ritualization what do ethologists propose? ) Evolution favors? sources of raw material for signals including:?

- to false signals, Ex; Fireflies use bioluminescence to identify their species and gender but female fireflies known for mimicking mating flashes of other "lightning bugs" for sole purpose of predation, Target males are attracted to what appears to be a suitable mate and are then eaten. - sender of a false message can get away with it if the cost to the recipient of challenging the signal or determining its validity are high, potential cost is too high if the receiver is wrong (bluffs often work) - a) Ritualization - a phenomenon where incipient signals become more stereotyped and unambiguous in a population over evolutionary time. (Ethologists) b) Receiver-Bias Mechanisms - focuses on characteristics of receiver of the message (over the characteristics of the sender of the message). (Comparative Psychologists) - that many signals begin as a part of another behavior, or as a physiological response, and over time develops into a signaling function. - modification of the incipient signal so that it becomes more stereotyped unmistakable - intention movements, displacement activities, and autonomic responses.

Polyandry? occurs in? polyandry will reduce?explanations for polyandry? Polygynandry? Polygynandry may occur in mating systems that? advantage proposed for this form of sexual behavior is:?

- type of breeding adaptation in which one female mates with many males: Ex; In the Field Cricket females will mate with any male located close to them, including siblings - some primates such as marmosets, the marsupial bandicoots, around 1% of all bird species, such as jacanas, insects such as honeybees, and fish such as pipefish. - the effective population size of a given closed population - mate competition and inbreeding avoidance. : a} It is easier to ensure reproductive success (it is more likely that the female will have offspring) b} Females may be encouraging sperm competition between males post-copulation c} Multiple sperm lines may confer more variation in traits to female's offspring. d}Females may receive food offerings from prospective mates inciting copulation e} Offspring paternity is unknown and this can be beneficial in encouraging parental care and discouraging infanticide by males - where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females: number of males usually is in a lower ratio to that of the females (ex. bonobo chimps) - 1. typically are polygynous, when a population becomes too large for males to maintain exclusive harems successfully. : often will contain related males. - a} greater genetic diversity b} less need for males to compete with each other c} greater protection for, and nurturing of, the young.

The types of sounds used in communication by a species is determined by? Ex; the larynx of mammals? stridulation? mechanism of it? Goliath tarantula? Ultrasound? Infrasound? Substrate Vibrations? how can they be done?

- what structures it uses to make the sound. - use respiratory structures for auditory communication - act of producing sound by rubbing together certain body parts. : mostly associated with insects, but other fish, snakes, birds, and spiders. - one structure with a well defined lip, ridge, or nodules (the "scraper" or plectrum) being moved across a finely-ridged surface (the "file" or stridulitrum) or vice-versa, and vibrating as it does Ex; the sound of a cricket - When disturbed produce loud hissing noise by rubbing together bristles on its legs. - high frequency sounds that are beyond the range of human hearing : Ex; The Philippine tarsier uses calls associated with territorial maintenance and male-female spacing, vocalize in an ultrasound frequency range of 70 kHz and can pick up frequencies above 90 kHz. - sounds below the range of human hearing for communication (elephants a lot) - form of auditory communication using seismic signals, - done by percussion of the substrate: Ex; the drumming of a woodpecker on a tree : producing low frequency sounds that will cause the substrate to vibrate: Ex; Elephants produce sound called infrasound and is a sub-sonic rumbling, which travel in air and through ground much farther than higher frequencies.

Intersexual selection? Bateman's principle and nutritional investment? So intersexual selection typically refers to?

- where members of the opposite gender influence the characteristics of the other gender through sexual selection. a) The choice of one gender will affect behaviors and morphologies of the other gender. b) Typically it is the female selecting the male, leaving the males to compete among themselves, but in some cases the opposite occurs. c) The conditions determining which sex becomes the more limited resource in intersexual selection can be best understood by way of Bateman's principle. - states that the sex which invests the most in producing offspring becomes a limiting resource over which the other sex will compete, illustrated by the contrast in nutritional investment into a zygote between egg and sperm, and the limited reproductive capacity of females compared to males. - the process of choice (the limiting factor, which is typically females) over members of the opposite sex (the non-limited factor, typically males).

Females who possess traits where they can lessen the impacts of male behavior? methods that females have evolved over time to "defend" themselves against the onslaught of potential mates? Males have also developed responses to counter evolutionary adaptations of the opposite sex.? Males have also developed alternative ways to copulate?

- will be more likely to survive and reproduce. - alternative sperm storage sites that are complex and extremely variable to allow for more choice in sperm selection, In some cases, sperm storage sites can produce proteases that break down various proteins in male seminal fluid resulting in female selection in sperm. - Responses in insects can vary in both genitalia and sperm structures, along with variations in behavior. : Spiny male genitalia help to anchor the male to the female during copulation and remove sperm of previous males from female storage structures. - Ex; bed bug, males traumatically inseminate females, which allows faster passage of sperm to female sperm storage sites. : In addition, shorter male developmental times allow them to emerge before females, eliminating females' mating choice