Anthro Exam 2

When Men are Women

• Fa'afafine: 3rd gender in Samoan society • Hijra: 3rd gender in Indian society • Men take on the appearance of women, may marry men and fill feminine roles

Recap (5)

• Family - varies in form • Kinship - provides us with structure of social action • Most societies practice patrilocal or matrilocal residence

Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009)

• French anthropologist • Developed structural anthropology (all cultures have similar basis in analogous pracLces) • Interested in exchange & marriage • Said that women are the "ultimate gift," and the flow of women holds groups together

Marcel Mauss (1872-1950)

• French sociologist • argued that giHs are never "free" • found that early exchange systems center around the obliga3ons to give, to receive, & most importantly, to reciprocate

Why is marriage universal

• Gender Division of Labor • Prolonged Infant Dependency • Sexual Competition • A Look at Other Mammals and Birds

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

• German philosopher/ economist/socialist • Identified factors of production as land, labor & capital • Believed societies progress through class struggle: a conflict between the bourgeoisie & the proletariat • Argued that the proletariat should rise!

Max Weber (1864-1920)

• German sociologist • Social class based on relationship to the market • Status class based on prestige • Party class is membership in political domain • All have room for improvement: "life chances"

Potlatch ceremonies

• Gift giving feast practiced by indigenous people of the Pacific NW • Studied by Mauss • Typically practiced in the winter, as the warmer months were for procuring wealth • Hosted by a particular House (numaym), or kin group

Patterns of Marital Residence

• In many societies, young married couples live with or close to their families • Where a couple lives aler marriage can tell us which groups and social ties are important in a society • Residence determines who influences a couple & their offspring

Matrilocal versus Patrilocal Residence

• In societies in which married couples live with/near kin, the pa<ern of residence does not reflect male vs. female subsistence roles • Relates, instead, to the type of warfare practiced - Internal warfare = more likely matrilocal - External warfare = more likely patrilocal

Why is polygamy common?

• Large families may provide economic and social benefits - Production of plenty of labor & food - Community/government influence • Perhaps the postpartum sex taboo, or the prohibiLon of sexual intercourse between a couple after the birth of their child.

Recap (4)

• Marriage is Nearly Universal - caretaking bond • Marriage usually involves a social, political, or economic exchange • Taboos on who and how many people to marry differ around the world

Why Extended-Family Households?

• May be a social mechanism that protects against division of property • May be beneficial for division of activity/ gendered role assignments example: Dadi Family

General Features of Foragers

• Most live in small communities in sparsely populated territories • Follow a nomadic lifestyle - no permanent se8lements • Division of labor based on age and gender, generally not divided by class don't own, buy, or sell land, since hunters & gatherers depend on following the food.

Female homosexuality around the world...

• Osen ignored or minimized - due to the minimization of female sexuality in general, - attention on penis insertion as a key component of sex acts, - because of gender inequality • Records of gender stratified lesbianism in ancient China & Japan • Records of age stratified lesbianism among the Kuguru of Tanzania • Records of lesbianism from the Greek poet Sappho & the isle of Lesbos

Sex and Gender

• Sex: male and female • Gender: men and women • Gender Expression: masculine and feminine

• Do ethnic groups have biological roots?

• Some do, some don't - when we think they do, we call that "race" - a culturally constructed category • Race is not a biological fact! Race is a cultural construct, not a biological fact • Ethnicity is a group designaEon based on cultural similariEes & differences from other groups

types of kinships

• Some kinship relations are cosanguinal: blood ties • Some kinship relations are affinal: by marriage

Recap (1)

• Variation in Degree of Social Inequality is based on access to resources, power, and prestige • Egalitarian Societies - no stratification • Rank Societies - stratification based on prestige • Class Societies - stratification based on all access

Homosexuality among Azande Warrior Apprentices

• Warriors selected young men as brides, they took on household roles & engaged in sex acts • The young men would eventually become warriors and select male brides of their own • All forms of sexual orientation (heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, pansexuality/omnisexuality) are found worldwide but are interpreted differently based on cultural norms

Recap (3)

• Women tend to work more, but more men tend to hold positions of power • Sexuality varies widely around the world - understanding varia1on has built tolerance around a variety of sexual behaviors

Ethnic conflict can arise due to...

• access to resources, • political or economic competition, • prejudice, discriminaEon, and other ways of devaluing personal identity

Mead on sexuality in Samoa:

• collected data on 25 adolescent girls; >40% were sexually active • Data suggested that Samoan culture allowed many adolescents to engage in sexual activity before marriage • After her death, her methodology came under scrutiny

Characteristics of pastoralists

Pastoralists rely on animals for either their source of food or to trade • Trade with agricultural groups is very important • Pastoralists are generally nomadic and live in small groups • Risk of overgrazing, which can lead to desertifica2on - managed through mobility travel across wide territories where they typically have land rights rather than ownership.

white privilege

Peggy McIntosh can be used for good or bad

social mobility

- How can you improve your social standing? - Can you lose your social standing? - What are the keys to upward or downward mobility?

• Common Genetic Syndromes

- Klinefelter's • unusual combination of sex chromosomes (XXY) • reduced fertility & small testicles • affects 1 in every 1000 males - Triple X • XXX or XYY • few discrepancies in genitalia, some hormone imbalances though • affects 1 in every 1000 females - Turner's • Most common condi?on is X0 - 1 sex chromosome missing or abnormal

The Yanomamö

- Live in the Amazon in a dense rainforest - Most of their food produced by gardening - Men do clearing work and women plant, weed, and harvest - Use of slash and burn clearing technique

intersex

- Sex variance occurs in 1.7% of live births (1700x more common than a cleh palate!) - Conditions involve a discrepancy between internal and external genitals - Causes are varied & complex - Old term: hermaphroditism (combined names of Greek god Hermes and goddess Aphrodite) - 1. Person with XX sex chromosomes & internal genitals female, but external genitals male - 2. Person with XY sex chromosomes and either female external genitals or incompletely formed genitals - 3. Person may have both ovarian and tes?cular ?ssue

same-sex marriage

- Socially approved unions between 2 men or 2 women - Some cultures expect one person to take on the opposite gender role

The Na ExcepLon

- in SW Provinces of China, women don't marry or live with their sexual partners - They live in cooperaLve residenLal groups made up of maternal kin - PracLce sese: consensual sexual union of an unmarried couple, or zouhun: free love

Two-Spirits

: 3rd & 4th genders found in >150 Native American cultures • Fulfilled mixed gender roles • Understood and incorporated Hosteen Klah into society in a respectful manner Pine Leaf • Believed to be the result of divine interven?on

nuclear family

A married couple and their children - A single parent and her/his children - May be more than one spouse and their children in polygamous settings

food production

About 10,000 years ago, people in diverse geographic loca2ons made the revolu2onary change to food production Most people today depend on domes2cated plants and or animals for food Domestication of plants & animals allowed people to have some control over natural processes, like breeding and seeding

achieved status vs ascribed status

Achieved status: your personal qualities and life accomplishments determine your standing in society (fluid) • Ascribed status: the qualities you are assigned by birth determine your standing in society

Bonding

Bonding occurs in most bird and some mammal species - unrelated to division of labor, childcare, or sexual compeLLon • Bonding may relate to whether females can care for themselves aYer giving birth (postpartum)

class societies

Fully stratified, or class societies, range from somewhat open to virtually closed class, or caste, systems. • Slavery • Caste Systems • Open Class Systems • Class - A system of power based on wealth, income, and status, that creates an unequal distribu*on of society's resources - Surplus tends to move toward the wealthy/ powerful - Can be difficult to see

transgender

Gender identity or performance that doesn't fit with cultural norms related to one's assigned sex at birth Umbrellaterm...encompassestranssexual,whichisan older term, specifically used for someone who have permanently changed their body to fit their gender iden?ty (e.g. through sex reassignment surgery) • Transgendermen(FTM)andtransgenderwomen (MTF)

Characteristics of Horticulture

Horticulturalists are more sedentary than foragers - attempt to yield more food from an area of settlement, and move aier several years • Horticulturalists don't rely on crops alone • Hunting, fishing, and some small domesticated animals (pigs, chickens, goats, sheep), included in lifestyle

irrigation

Horticulturalists wait for rain; agriculturalists developed irrigation systems - An irrigated field is a capital investment - takes 2me to yield but then increases in value

3 types of food production

Horticulture Intensive Agriculture Pastoralism

kindred ego

In a bilateral system the kindred is ego-centered

premarital sex

In some cultures, sex before marriage is discouraged; in others, it is allowed or even encouraged • Cultural attitudes on premarital sex can change... it was not until the 1990s that premarital sex in the United States was generally acceptable

extramarital sex

In ~69% of societies, men have extramarital sex more than occasionally, as do women in ~57% of societies • Large discrepancy in stated code and practice

Characteristics of intensive agriculture

Intensive Agriculture is more complex than horticulture • Incorporates use of fertilizers and irrigation; more machines than hand labor • Stay in same area by rotating crops to restore nutrients to the soil • Settlement, production for market, and specialized roles lead to differences in wealth and power

majority and minority groups

Majority Group: racial or ethnic group that has political power (more opportunities, greater access to resources) • Minority Group: racial or ethnic group that lacks political power (subordinate opportunities, less access to resources)

social stratification

Majority at the top, Minorities at the bottom

homosexuality

Meaning of homosexuality may vary depending on gender dichotomies in various socie1es • Range of attitudes toward homosexual relations around the world varies just as much as range of attitudes related to any other sexual activity Homosexual behavior may have evolved to promote social bonding in humans:

Nature vs Nurture

Nature: what biology stipulates about our morphology; genetic predispositions Nurture: the environment we are raised in, our cultural background, process of enculturation

suttee

(no longer prac1ced - Indian custom of burning a widow with her deceased husband

economic anthropology

is a subfield that attempts to explain human economic behavior in the scope of history, geography, & culture

pastoralism

is a subsistence technology principally involving the raising of large herds of animals. is typically practiced in grassland regions of the earth: steppes, prairies, & savannahs

bride price/bride wealth

is a substantial gift of goods or money given to the bride's kin by the groom or his kin at or before the marriage (aka bride wealth). Papa New Guina

dowry

is a substantial transfer of goods or money from the bride's family to the bride, the groom, or the couple • Goods do not go to the kin of the bride or groom • Common in socially stratified societies An indirect dowry is given by the groom's kin to the bride or her father

unilineal descent

is affiliation with a kin group through decent links of one sex only • Unilineal descent groups are most common in societies in the middle range of cultural complexity. • Unilineal descent groups olen have important functions in the social, economic, political, and religious realms of life.

sexuality

is capacity for sexual feelings all societies are known to regulate sexual activity in various aspects

family

is defined as a social and economic unit consisting minimally of one or more parents and their children.

income

is earnings from work, dividends, interest on investments, rent, and royalties

emancipation

is freeing enslaved people, specifically through government action

sexual orientation

is habitual sexual or emotional attraction to one sex or the other, or both, or neither - Heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, pansexuality/omnisexuality

civil marriage

is performed, recorded, & recognized by a government official

classism

is prejudice or discrimination for or against people based on class

redistribution

is the accumulation of goods or labor by a particular person, or in a particular place, for the purpose of subsequent distribution.

cultural appropriation

is the adoption or use of elements of one culture by members of a different culture

racism

is the belief that some "races" are inferior to others. Diversity of skin color is a biological response to environment

abolition

is the end of slavery enacted by the government

gift exchange

is the exchange of food and other objects between the 2 kin groups of the bride and groom

manumission

is the granting of freedom to an enslaved person

horticulture

is the growing of crops of all kinds with relatively simple tools (like hand tools) & methods (usually no irriga2on or fertilization)

strength theory

is the idea that males are generally stronger & have the capacity to mobilize their strength in bursts of energy • Males may therefore be beHer suited to certain tasks • But then how do we explain tasks done by males that don't require strength, or, tasks requiring strength that are completed by females?

wealth

is the total value of what someone owns, minus debt. - More skewed than income - Wealth affords opportunity

gender performance

is the way gender identity is expressed through action, rather than a pre-existing trait; context specific

social stratification

is when social groups (families, classes, and ethnic groups) have unequal access to important advantages: • Economic resources • Power • Prestige appears to have emerged relatively recently in human history, about 8,000 - 10,000 years ago based on archaeological evidence. Cultural features related to stratification include intensive agriculturalism, fixed se.lements, commoditization, and specialization.

bride service

is work performed by the groom for his bride's family • May be before (probationary) or after wedding • Varies in duration: few months - several years • Common among egalitarian societies/foragers

assimilation

minority group adopts norms and pa.erns of host culture

degree of inequality

more unequal societies have less mobility • Can be measured by the Gini coefficient

plural societies

multiple ethnic groups living peaceably with economic interdependence and ecological specialization (Frederick Barth)

tributary

non-industrial; most people pay labor tribute to ruler

corvee

nonmonetary system of required labor

recognition of class

open class systems sometimes include individuals who deny the evidence of multiple social classes, claiming that hard work and strong character can transform anyone into a success.

division of labor

or customary assignment of different kinds of work to different kinds of people. Children work more among food producers. • With technological advancement comes specialized skills.

totem

or plant/animal group ID

extended family

prevailing form of family consis@ng of a married couple and one or more married children, all living in the same house or household; multigenerational the newlyweds are assimilated into an existing family unit • More likely to perpetuate itself as a social unit

kinship

provides the main structure of social action in noncommercial societies • Kin are generally people obligated to help you • Societies differ on who counts as kin, who matters, and whether you must be related by blood

gender differences

refer to cultural expectations and experiences of "femaleness," "maleness," and other. Not biological! Gender includes actions, dress, preferences, attitudes, etc.

sex differences

refer to purely biological differences - physical differences between males and females, especially in relation to reproduction.

gender roles

refer to role assignments for females and males that are a product of a particular culture (rather than a product of biology). include acting and dressing in ways that are regarded in a particular culture as "masculine" or "feminine" or "other gender variants"

polyamory

refers to a romantic relationship of any kind with >2 people group marriage is an example

race

refers to a subpopulation of a species that differs in some gene frequencies from other members of the species. is based on perceived differences between discrete groups of people • These perceived differences become perpetuated as race over Eme • However, the traits we've used to separate one race from another are arbitrary

ethnicity

refers to someone's idenEficaEon with an ethnic group based on cultural differences • People can opt in rather than being labeled Ethnic social status can be mutually exclusive or contextual • Mutually exclusive status can only be one ethnicity • Contextual status is dictated by one's environment • Ethnicity may be a situaEonal negoEaEon of social idenEty (think code switching)

industrial

reliance on machines & workers (wage-earners)

ethnic expulsion

removal of an ethnic group from a country, creating refugees

prestige

respect or honor

Gender stereotypes and ideologies

set of strongly held beliefs about male/ female characteristics; often oversimplified. • Promotes and justifies gender stratification.

migratory labor

some members of a community move to a place that offers the possibility of working for a wage

exogamy

specifies marriage to a person from outside one's own group - Lévi-Strauss theorized that marriage was a tool to create & strengthen bonds across social groups - Lévi-Strauss also pointed out that exogamy minimizes incest

endogamy

specifies marriage to a person within one's own group (may be ethnic, social, religious group)

compatibility-with-child-care theory

suggests that it is in the best interest of human societies for women to avoid interference with feeding their offspring • Breast-feedingisa universal women's activity • Buthowtoexplainnon- dangerous tasks done by males?

economy-of-effort theory

suggests that it makes sense for certain types of tasks to be grouped by material, location, etc.

expendability theory

suggests that males are better suited to dangerous tasks because their loss is not as much of a reproductive disadvantage WARFARE Exceptions to the rule: Mbuti women hunt and both men & women gather Exceptions to the rule: Hidatsa women built boats

rules of descent

tell us how individuals are connected with particular sets of kin • Based on known or presumed common ancestry

power

the ability to make others do what they don't want to do

bourgeoisie

the capitalist class who own most of society's wealth and means of production (vs. common use: middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conven*onal aptudes)

secondary subsistence activities

the processing and preparation of food for eating and storing

production

the transformation or conversion of resources into into food, tools, and other goods through labor. Food producers are people who have domesticated plants or animals to control food sources - Horticulture: small scale farming - Agriculture: large scale/industrialized cultivation - Pastoralism: animal herding Food Production is generally more productive per acre of land than foraging and so can support more people in a region • This leads to competition for land

sexually dimorphic

there is a general degree of difference in biology of males and females of our species includes features besides sexual differences: height, weight, location of adipose tissue (fat), strength, lifespan, span of reproductive age

human biological diversity

these variations are independent from one another so that there is more variation within racial categories than between them • 93-95% of genetic variation is due to individual differences within populaEons, only 3-5% is due to differences between major population groups

economic resources

things that have value, e.g. land, tools, technology, goods, or money

distribution of goods and services

three general types: • Reciprocity • Redistribution • Market or Commercial Exchange

cousin marriage

typically are regulated as to which cousins are appropriate spouse material

genocide

using mass murder as a technique to deliberately remove an ethnic group

complex forager

Societies that depend on fishing are more likely to have more permanent communi2es & more social inequality

People Forage

The Ngatatjara of Western Australia Mountains of Gold: The People of Porgera - Early foragers lived in most types of environments - Contemporary foragers are not relics of the past - Rela2onships among difference socie2es are different today than in the past

gender stratification

There appears to be variation in the degree of gender stratification from one society to another, largely based on the cultural value attached to the contributions of men & women to society and family. Less complex societies seem to approach more equal status for males and females in a variety of areas of life. Power depends on participation in subsistence activities, warfare, politics, and systems of residence.

de facto and de jure discrimination

Types of DiscriminaEon - De facto: in effect whether by right or not; not legal but in practice - De jure: by right, legalized/part of the law

polygamy

a person to have multiple spouses.

bride kidnapping

a practice in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry • occurs in countries in Central Asia, the Caucasus region, and parts of Africa • considered a sex crime rather than a valid form of marriage in some places Kyrgyzstan

bilateral kinship

affiliates individuals more or less equally with their mother's and father's relatives • Kindred are a bilateral set of close relatives who may be called upon for some purpose (e.g. who a<ends a family party, gathering, reunion) • May have helped humans survive in harsh environments by allowing individuals to rely on mul@ple family members • e.g. the Urapmin people in PNG

abilineal descent

affiliates individuals with groups of kin related to them through men or women • Ambilineal systems are less common than unilineal or bilateral societies • e.g. some Polynesian societies: Samoa, Hawaii Some societies with unilineal descent groups may be transformed into ambilineal ones under special conditions, such as depopulation.

patrilineal descent

affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through only men Most frequent type of descent system • Lines of descent pass through males • Lines of descent and authority typically converge • e.g. European royal dynasties

matrilineal descent

affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through only women Lines of descent pass through females • Believed by 19th c. anthropologists to have been the original kinship system worldwide • Doesn't mean that females exercise authority in their kin groups

multiculturalism

an attitude that encourages ethnic diversity and maintenance of cultural traditions

caste systems

are characterized as extremely rigid and closed systems, with caste membership permanently determined at birth - no moving from class to class.

cross-cousins

are children of siblings of the opposite sex - Lévi-Strauss found that across most cultures, it is more appropriate to marry cross-cousins - So, a groom may marry his FZD (father's sister's daughter) or the MBD (mother's brother's daughter)

parallel cousins

are children of siblings of the same sex - Marriage typically prohibited - So, a groom may not marry his father's brother's daughter or his mother's sister's daughter

cash crops

are cultivated commodities raised for sale rather than for personal consumption by the cultivator

subsistence economics

are economies in which almost all able-bodied adults are largely engaged in geUng food for themselves and their families

fictive kin

are kinship or social ties based on neither blood ties nor marriage

hunter-gathering

are people who collect food from naturally occurring resources: wild plants and animals. Term sometimes minimizes dependence on fishing. AKA foragers or food collectors

arranged marriage

are those in which parents or other family decide who their sons and daughters will marry • Importance of joining together kin groups for social or economic reasons

open class systems

are those in which there is some possibility of moving from one class to another.

market or commercial exchange

are transactions where prices depend on supply and demand. Most exchanges involve money. - General-purpose money is a universally accepted medium of exchange - Special-purpose money are objects of value for which only some goods/services can be exchanged.

domestic partnership

between 2 individuals who live together but are not married (to each other or to anyone else)

prejudice

bias; negative judgments and axtudes toward a group based on presumed values, behaviors, etc.

reciprocity (generalized and balanced)

consists of giving and taking without the use of money. • Generalized Reciprocity: gift giving without immediate or planned return • Balanced Reciprocity: giving with the expectation of immediate or planned trade

egalitarian societies

contain no social groups with greater or lesser access to economic resources, power, or prestige. - Oldest form of social organization - Everyone has equal status (no class system), regardless of differences in age, gender, or ability - Sharing of economic resources and coopera*on to ensure group success - Balanced reciprocity Bushmen of the Kalahari

rank societies

contain social groups that do not have very unequal access to economic resources or power, but they do have unequal access to prestige. Emerging stratification based on prestige and ascribed status - OYen develops in agricultural or pastoral societies - Society still relatively even in terms of wealth - Chiefly positions oversee social and political organization of society - Redistribution (giYs and tributes shared with community) Potlatch

Introduction of Commercial and Industrial Agriculture:

cultivation for sale, rather than personal consumption, becomes industrialized when some of the production processes are done by machine.

ethnocide

destroying the culture of an ethnic group

post industrial

development of economy toward technology-enabled knowledge/ service oriented work, rather than manual

pre-industrial

domestic (family) production

degree of openness

easier to move from one class to another, especially compared to parents' class (oYen through obtaining education)

Thomas Beatie

first man to have a baby

slavery

forced work upon kidnapped/ captured enslaved persons who have no freedom

forced assimilation

forcing an ethnic group to assume the culture of the dominant group

primary subsistence activities

gathering, hunting, fishing, herding, and farming

Horticulturalists

generally don't own land, as they move periodically to new plots, but oHen families, bands, or other groups are known to be associated with the areas they cultivate.

discrimination

harmful actions toward a group, whether in pracEce or in policy

Slavery

has existed in various forms in many times and places, regardless of "race" and culture. Slavery has ranged from closed class systems (caste systems) to relatively open class systems.

overall work

in studies of hor1cultural and agricultural societies, including all known types of economic activities, women typically work more hours a day

incest

incest taboo is the rigid, cross- cultural prohibiLon of sexual intercourse or marriage between immediate family members. • Historically incest sometimes permiled among the aristocracy

ethnic group

includes members who: • share cultural similariEes including common origins & language, shared history, religion, geography, and belief in common descent • are culturally different from other groups

taxation

indirect form of forced labor - must work to pay tax

intensive agriculture

involves techniques that enable people to cultivate fields permanently. commonly maintain individual ownership of land, given that they invest in the annual use of a plot

moeity

is 1 of 2 descent groups composing a small society

species

is a biological classificaEon: the largest group where 2 organisms are capable of reproducing fertile offspring All humans are the same species: Homo sapiens sapiens

multiracial

is a category of identification for people whose ancestry is mixed

exchange of females

is a custom in which a sister or other female relaLve of the groom is exchanged for the bride • Common among egalitarian/horticultural societies

phratry

is a descent group made up of related clans

foraging ("food collection")

is a food- getting strategy that obtains wild plant and animal resources through gathering, hunting, scavenging, or fishing.

neolocal residence

is a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives separately and at a distance from both spouse's kin • Common today in most developed nations • Also found among some nomadic groups, where movement away from one's family is important for subsistence may be related to the presence of commercial economy

bilocal residence

is a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near either the husband's or the wife's parents • Not necessarily both • 7% of societies • May occur out of necessity - due to a society's drastic population loss • May also be more favorable in hunter- gatherer societies

patrilocal residence

is a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's parents • 67% of societies • Archaeological evidence suggests this pattern was even common among Neanderthals in Europe and earlier hominin species in Africa

matrilocal residence

is a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's parents • 15% of societies • Common among some Native Americans & in the Amazon • Encouraged in China today to address male- dominated child ratios

avunculocal residence

is a pattern of residence in which a married couple settles with or near the husband's mother's brother [uncle] • 4% of societies • Occurs with matrilineal descent • Sometimes means that a boy moves in with his uncle as a child, and when he marries, his wife moves in as well Avunculocal societies are typically matrilineal • Living with/near uncle helps to localize matrilineal relatives • May relate to warfare as well - internal in this case

unilocal residence

is a pattern of residence that specifies just one set of relatives that a married couple lives with or near • Can be patrilocal, matrilocal, or avunculocal • Versus bilocal residence

polygyny

is a practice in which men are allowed to be married to more than one woman at the same time. • From the Greek poly (many) & gyne (woman) • Sororal Polygyny: marriage of a man to 2+ sisters at the same Lme • Nonsororal Polygyny: marriage of a man to 2+ women who are not sisters

polydandry

is a practice in which women are allowed to be married to more than one man. • From the Greek poly (many) & anēr (man) • Fraternal Polyandry: marriage of a woman to 2+ brothers at the same Lme • Nonfraternal Polyandry: marriage of a woman to 2+ men who are not brothers

clan

is a set of kin whose members are descended from a common ancestor, but cannot specify the links - olen designated by a totem

lineage

is a set of kin whose members trace descent from a common ancestor

marriage

is a socially approved sexual and economic union • commonly between a man & a woman • usually permanent • includes rights and obligaLons between spouses

sex in marriage

Sexual relations among married people vary in terms of position, terms of privacy, appropriate time of day, appropriate frequency, and restrictions on intercourse

Reasons for restrictiveness on sexuality

Population size social inequality

Recap (2)

Recap • Are sex & gender are not the same! • Men & women are both born and made • Categories of sex and gender vary around the world and throughout history

independent family

when a family lives alone

nonagricultural commercial production

when a self-sufficient society depends on trading for its livelihood. This is generally done to obtain other industrially made objects.

common law marriage

where a couple has lived together with the intent to marry (only recognized in 16 states)

proletariat

workers or working-class people

Etoro and Sambia of Papua New Guinea

• "Ritualized homosexuality": sexuality linked to beliefs about cycle of life

When Women are Men

• "Sworn Virgins" of Albania: women who choose to live as men - Social role, has little to do with sex/sexual preference - Strong domestic-public dichotomy: women in the house, men in public sphere - what if there are no men?

Changing family norms in modern society

• # of households made up of nuclear families in U.S. has dropped from 40% in 1970 to 19% in 2010 - more people living alone, getting married later, and having children later • # of divorces has increased from 3% in 1950 to 26% in 1960, to ~50% from 1980 - 2010

Recap

• Allocation of Resources: it's about landownership • Conversion of Resources: turning resources into capital • Distribution of Goods and Services: you need pigs for everything • Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization

Alfred Kinsey (1895-1956)

• American biologist/sexologist • Began controversial research in the 1940s on the sexual experiences of men and women • Developed the Kinsey Scale, which ranged from 0, or exclusively heterosexual, to 6, exclusively homosexual, and 1-5 for varying levels of attraction to either sex

Margaret Mead (1901-1978)

• Americananthropologist(Boas'student) • Major works: Coming of Age inSamoa (1928) & Sex and Temperament in Three Primi1ve Socie1es (1935) • Workonsexualitycreditedwith influencing the 1960s sexual revolution • Suggested that an individual sexual orienta1on may evolve throughout life - she was married to 3 men and had romantic relationships with 2 women

Mead on gender roles in Papua New Guinea:

• Arapesh: both males & females were gentle, responsive, cooperative • Mundugumor (Biwat): both males & females were violent & aggressive, seeking power • Tchambuli (Chambri): male & female temperaments were distinct, women being dominant, & men more emotionally dependent

Culture with a 5th gender role

• Bugis culture of Indonesian island South Sulawesi - 1. women - 2. men - 3. Calilai (females who live as men) - 4. Calibai (males who lives as women) - 5. Bissu (male or female priest figure, "gender transcendent")