Anthro Exam 3
Philippines
7,107 islands National language is Tagalog, but there are hundreds of local dialects spoken. Predominantly Roman Catholic Population: ~100 million Land area: 112,000 mi² (TX is ~ 270,000 mi²) Among the top 12 countries for biodiversity conservation. Three main regions: Northern: Luzon Central: Visayas Southern: Mindanao
Animatism
A belief in impersonal supernatural forces (e.g. rabbit's foot). Believed that this came before the creation of spirits.
Colonialism
A forced change in which one culture, society, or nation dominates another
Acculturation
A form of cultural change in which a minority culture becomes more like the dominant culture. The minority culture still retain aspects of their own culture, but also changes and adapts to the majority culture.
Assimilation
A form of culture change in which a culture is thoroughly acculturated, or decultured, and is no longer distinguishable as having a separate identity.
Taboo
A prohibition that, if violated, is believed to bring supernatural punishment.
Taboo
A prohibition, that, if violated, is believed to bring supernatural punishment; something that can bring you bad luck or harm.
Mana
A supernatural impersonal force that inhabits certain objects or people and is believed to confer success and/or strength (e.g. "lucky" items, something that brings success or power. Malayo-Polynesian name).
Variation in types of political organization
Aspects of variation in political organization are generally associated with shifts from food collection to more intensive food production, from small to large communities, from low to high population densities.
Bohol
Bohol is the tenth largest island province and is located in the central region (Visayas). The language spoken in the Visayas is Visaya/Bisaya/Cebuano.
Subsistence
Complete, or near-complete, reliance on hunted, fished, or gathered foods Highly mobile Historically present around the globe; original subsistence strategy; much of human history has been as foragers in a band society
Harmony, Balance, Beauty (Hózhó)
Concept of living in balance with yourself and the world. This serves to keep people "living in harmony" in all aspects of life—spiritually, mentally, physically. If you are not living in balance, ceremonies can be conducted by medicine men or women to restore it
Potential Problems with Human/Animals
Crop damage Disease/parasite transmission Damage to homes, property Animal bites Fear
Common Problems with Human/Animals
Deforestation Hunting/bushmeat Tourism Indigenous remedies Conflict over area/environment
Ecotourism
Ecotourism can promote public awareness on conservation issues, such as that of the Philippine tarsier. However, tourism can have long-term negative effects on reserves and communities, if uncontrolled or mismanaged. Ecotourism is used as a tarsier conservation strategy in the Philippines; however it comes with several problems that need to be addressed. Some of these include: Disease transmission between human-nonhuman primates Overhabituation of animals for the tourist's benefit Damage to habitat Degree of stress placed on animals as a result of increased human presence
Reversion to Childhood Feelings
Events from infancy can have a long-term, personal effect on beliefs and practices in adulthood. People may turn to religion, gods, or magic, to address uncertainty in their life.
The Character of Supernatural Beings
The character, or personality, of supernatural beings varies cross-culturally. This may be related to child training. Societies with hurtful or more punishing child-training practices - believe that their gods are aggressive and mean. Societies with less punishing child training - their gods are compassionate, more kind.
Stratification
The creation of separate social strata The emergence of stratification signified the transition from chiefdom to state.
The Kaluli: Supernatural
The dense forest plays a large part in Kaluli supernatural belief. Unseen sounds from various sources (birds, animals, insects, etc.) carry a great deal of meaning. Different meanings are assigned to different sounds: In particular, bird calls that may resemble other, potentially human, noises. People in the unseen world - every living individual has his or her own shadow in the unseen world that roams the forest. If you harm/kill the shadow, you harm/kill the person. Shadows of men are wild pigs Women are cassowaries (a large, flightless bird)
Biomedicine
The dominant medical paradigm in Western societies today.
The Kaluli
Live in longhouse communities. Communities often have one longhouse with several smaller houses around it. There may be at least 20 longhouses within a community, with several families living in them (~15 families per longhouse). The longhouse identity is tied more to the land than to their clan affiliation - the name of the community's land becomes an important form of their identity. Time is marked by seasonal changes - by changes in forest vegetation, and by the changes in the bird population (the appearance of a particular bird during the month of April). This bird also marks various times of day for the Kaluli.
Authority
The formal, socially approved use of power (e.g. government officials).
Ethnomedicine
The health-related beliefs, knowledge, and practices of a cultural group.
Indigenous knowledge
Local knowledge about the environment, including plants, animals, and resources.
Sorcerers and Witches
Low social and economic status. Usually feared because they cause illness, injury, or death. Uses thought and emotion alone - there is no "evidence" of witchcraft.
The Need for Community
The idea that religion stems from living in social groups Religious belief and practice affirms your place in society, enhances feelings of community, and gives people confidence
NAGPRA
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act Federal law passed in 1990 A process for museums and federal agencies to return Native American cultural artifacts to Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian organizations.
Magic
The performance of certain rituals that are believed to compel the supernatural powers to act in particular ways. Can be used for good or bad; some may carry "lucky" items to protect themselves from this.
Features of a State
The presence of stratification is one of the key distinguishing features of a state.
The Kaluli: Children
The proper teaching of children is an essential part of Kaluli society. Traditional gender roles and the tasks associated with them are very important. Mothers are responsible for the child's upbringing and will treat girls and boys differently; this begins at birth. The most important tie in establishing relationships is among siblings. Boys: Strength and aggression is emphasized; more assertive activities. Taught to be very demanding. They are taught that they must never give up. Proper forms of begging and whining are taught to accomplish these goals. Girls: Not allowed to be considered "helpless" for very long. Assigned chores as soon as possible (unlike boys). Service to others (males) is the primary goal. Maternal skills are very important (they will assist with caring for younger siblings at a very young age).
The Spread of State Societies
The state level of political development has come to dominate the world. Societies with states have larger communities and higher population densities than bands, tribes, or chiefdoms. Based on past history, a number of investigations have suggested that the entire world will eventually come to be politically integrated. (e.g. colonization)
Navajo, or Diné ("The People")
Navajo Nation of NM, AZ, UT Over 10 million acres; the largest Indian reservation and largest tribe. Population: ~300,000 Navajo Reservation: New Mexico, Arizona, Utah Larger than 10 of the 50 United States In the past, Navajos were primarily hunters and gatherers. Most important crops were corn and squash. Sheep are an important part of Navajo culture, and diet. The wool is also used to weave rugs
Bohol earthquake
October 2013: 7.4 magnitude earthquake in Bohol, Philippines Damaged houses, churches Recovery efforts are ongoing
Universal features
Provide the general framework for understanding different societies. These variables provide anthropologists with a basis for comparing societies
Navajo Traditional residence
The traditional Navajo home is called a hogan. It is also used for certain ceremonies, such as the puberty ceremony. The doorway always faces the east (where the sun rises, to honor it). The dome shaped roof has an opening to allow for smoke to escape. Dirt floors Belongs to a family and has ties to their land/home. It cannot be destroyed unless it is struck by lightning or someone dies in it.
Cultural appropriation
The use of a culture's symbols, artifacts, genres, rituals, or technologies by members of another culture.
The Kaluli: Trade
Trade within their community and with other groups. Trade alliances are formed between the longhouses based on marriage ties, which help to reinforce bonds among the longhouse groups. Tool manufacturing: for example, for gardening, and making bows. The Kaluli get building materials from the forest , but specific trade items are also used for specific groups of people. Clear gender roles in the community: Men plant crops and build structures in the community, women take care of children, tend the garden, and process sago.
Market or Commercial Exchange
Transactions in which the "prices" are subject to supply and demand, whether or not the transactions occur in a marketplace. Goods and services are bought and sold, and values are determined by supply and demand. May also include transactions of labor, land, rentals, and credit.
Shaman
Usually male, part-time specialist who has fairly high status in his community and is often involved in healing ("witch doctor"). May enter a trance or altered state of consciousness to get help. Dreams, visions, use of hallucinogens, or fasting.
Navajo Religion
Varies among individuals, but many do not practice an organized religion and have more spiritual beliefs. Many Native American tribes (not only Navajos) participate in the Native American church. This is not unique to Navajos and originated with the Plains tribes. There are several other religious ceremonies that must be conducted by a medicine man or medicine woman
Ways to Interact with the Supernatural
Various methods have been used to attempt communication with the supernatural. Prayer, taking drugs (e.g. going into a trance), simulation (e.g. voodoo, feasts, and sacrifices are some examples. Many of these are highly ritualized
The Kaluli: Subsistence
Very good at identifying changes in their environment. Staple crop is sago, a starch extracted from wild sago palms. Other crops include: Bananas, breadfruit, pandanus (pandan leaves), sugarcane, green vegetables, sweet potatoes. Swidden (slash-and-burn) horticulture Animals Small animals of all types are collected opportunistically during the course of the day (e.g. crayfish, small rodents, lizards). Fish or small game animals are abundant and are regularly hunted. Also keep a small number of pigs.
Leyte
Visayas State University (VSU) is located near Baybay, Leyte. Existing populations of tarsiers and macaques near VSU. The tarsiers in Leyte may be a different species from T. syrichta. Tourism is not as developed in Leyte like it is in Bohol.
Economy
Reciprocal system Based on kinship relations and trust Less materialistic?
The Kaluli: Children
Reciprocity and sharing are important in social exchanges. The "hardening" of children's language and behavior. "Hard" behavior and language is referring to adult ways of doing things, rather than the easier, "soft" baby-type behavior. "Hardening" refers to the process of the child's mind and body maturing together, thus putting them more in control of themselves and others. Hard and soft are descriptive themes that are present in almost all aspects of Kaluli culture. For example, "soft" behavior is considered as "weakness or decay". The learning of the importance of reciprocity and exchange is very important for children. Must be able to give and receive, and use the proper language while doing so, at a young age.
Cultural Resource Management
Recovering and preserving the archaeological record before programs of planned change disturb or destroy it is called Cultural Resource Management (CRM).
The Need to Understand
Religion originated in people's ideas about dreams, trances, and death- the lifelike appearance of people and animals in these dreams/trances suggested a dual existence for all things (i.e. a physical/visible body and psychic/invisible soul)
Rituals
Repetitive sets of behaviors that occur in essentially the same patterns every time they occur. Religious rituals involve the supernatural in some way.
Repatriation
Returning art or other objects from museums to the people with whom they originated.
Terrorism
involves the threat or use of violence to create terror in others, usually for political purposes. One main difference between crime and terrorism is that criminals do not want to be caught and do not take credit for their activities. Terrorists usually take responsibility for their actions.
Witchcraft
may be said to accomplish the same ills by means of thought and emotion alone. There is no evidence of witchcraft.
Sorcery
may include the use of materials, objects, and medicines to invoke supernatural harm/evil.
Archaeological and ethnographic studies have revealed
variations and relationships between food getting strategies, the economy, and social stratification.
The Azande
"The people who possess much land" Southwest Sudan Eastern edge of the Central African Republic Northeast portion of the Democratic Republic of Congo Subsistence: Shifting cultivation; No crop rotation, have a fallow (uncultivated) period. Crops: Maize, millet, gourds, pumpkins, manioc (a root crop, cassava), bananas, groundnuts (peanuts), beans Some hunting in the dry season. Population: ~ 1 million Two seasons: Wet and dry Political Organization: Individual homesteads built around an enclosed courtyard. Homes built of mud and grass, framed on wooden poles. There is constant maintenance of the courtyards, as it is a reflection on the residents of each community (e.g. "hardworking"). Pre-European times: Organized into chiefdoms that were independent of one another. Chiefs were military leaders, economic leaders, and political leaders. Unmarried men were warriors and laborers. Monogamous or polygynous (one male, more than one female) Much of the relationship was between the husband and his in-laws. Someone would first approach the bride's father with a monetary offer. After discussion amongst the bride's family, the offer was accepted and the couple underwent a "trial period" before marriage took place. After marriage, the husband would continue to assist his in-laws. If the relationship with the in-laws was good, the husband might marry his wife's sister. Gender divisions of labor Males: Construct or repair homesteads Females: Maintain the courtyard and garden Some evidence of same-sex relationships Males: Unmarried warriors had homosexual relations with apprentice warriors (in the absence of women). Later, they typically went into heterosexual marriages. Females: Sometimes formed between co-wives; these sexual relationships were kept secret from their husbands. Sometimes female-female relationships were formalized through rituals - this potentially increased her position within a community and trade network. They would consult "poison oracles" and ask the spirits about when they should go on raids, how many casualties there would be, or whether the timing was right. Raids would give them tools, weapons, and food. Traditionally, they lived on the banks of streams, but because of a sleeping sickness outbreak (spread by a tse-tse fly), they were moved into settlements near roads. This placed them in closer proximity to their neighbors (and witchcraft). Streams were an important part of Azande culture. It was used to measure distances, the length of a journey, or to identify locations (e.g. birthplace). The relocation disrupted their cultural beliefs, as they were no longer living near streams.
Levels of Political Organization
4
Tricksters
"Ture" Trickster tales served to maintain order within society and provided examples of the consequences that occurred if moral rules were not followed. Ture would pursue what he wanted (e.g. food ) and would often fail at these attempts due to poor judgment or questionable values, or motives - wanting something belonging to others or just to have it; being "greedy". One example: "when he obtains a secret formula for putting out fires, he sets his own house ablaze just so he can extinguish it." Lesson: "Don't attempt another's behavior without that person's skill."
Indigenous Knowledge
"the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area." "IK systems are also dynamic: new knowledge is continuously added. Such systems do innovate from within and also will internalize, use, and adapt external knowledge to suit the local situation." "IK is stored in peoples' memories and activities and is expressed in stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language and taxonomy, agricultural practices, equipment, materials, plant species, and animal breeds. IK is shared and communicated orally, by specific example, and through culture. Indigenous forms of communication and organization are vital to local-level decision-making processes and to the preservation, development, and spread of IK."
biomedical paradigm
(system in which physicians are trained) should be understood as part of the culture.
Violence Against Women Act
1 in 3 Native American women will be raped in their lifetime 39% will be subjected to domestic violence 10 times more likely to be murdered than other American women 52% of violent crimes on reservations are not prosecuted.
Anthropologists have listed four types (levels) of political organization
1. Band 2. Tribe 3. Chiefdom 4. State Today, none of the first three (band, tribe, chiefdom) are organized at these levels anymore, as they have been incorporated into larger political units. With very few exceptions, there are no longer any politically self-governing bands, tribes, or chiefdoms in the world.
Museums
1. Curators are responsible for the overall content and use of collections. 2. Collection managers ensure that the museum's collections are preserved. 3. Museum educators are increasingly realizing that biological and social factors need to be considered if we are to reduce human suffering.
Max Weber defined three related dimensions of social stratification
1. Economic status, or wealth, encompasses all of a person's material assets including income, land, or other types of property. 2. Power: The ability to exercise one's will over others - to get what one wants - is the basis of political status. 3. Prestige: The basis of social status - refers to esteem, respect, or approval for acts, deeds, or qualities, considered outstanding.
Types of reciprocity
1. Generalized: Usually between close kin; no clear expectation of return, at least not in the short term (e.g. parents giving necessities, or gifts, to their children). 2. Balanced: Given with the expectation of an immediate, or limited-time trade. (e.g. Bartering)
3 types of distribution
1. Reciprocity 2. Redistribution 3. Market or commercial exchange
4 Types of Practitioners
1. Shaman 2. Sorcerers and Witches 3. Mediums 4. Priests
Universal Features of Cultural Systems
1. Subsistence and the physical environment: For example, foraging 2. Demography: Population, fertility, mortality 3. Technology: Material culture used to manipulate the environment 4. Economy: Social relationships that regulate the production, consumption, and exchange of goods 5. Social structure: Pattern of relationships in a society; status, family, marriage, gender 6. Political Organization: Power relationships 7. Religion: Spiritual beliefs
Theories on Universality of Religion
1. The Need to Understand 2. Reversion to Childhood Feelings 3. Anxiety and Uncertainty 4. The Need for Community 5. Need for Cooperation
State
A form of sociopolitical organization based on a formal government structure and socioeconomic stratification. Subsistence: Intensive agriculture and herding- development of more permanent settlements (e.g. cities) Demography: States tend to be large and populous; made up of cities and towns Economy: Mostly market exchange Taxation, Laws Political organization: Class based hierarchy Certain systems are found in all states: Population control: Fixing of boundaries, establishment of citizenship, and censusing Judiciary: Law, legal procedures, and judges Enforcement: Permanent military and police forces Fiscal (Financial): Taxation to support government officials and numerous other specialists Religion: More organized
Chiefdom
A form of sociopolitical organization intermediate between the tribe and the state. Usually made up of more than one community, but not as large as an entire society, or language group. (Example: Hawaiian or Polynesian chiefdom's) Developed ~6,500 years ago, but few survive today. Subsistence: Horticulture, intensive agriculture, and/or herding Demography: Thousands of people living in many villages Economy: Reciprocity and redistribution Regulation of these villages is through an office (a permanent position) held by the chief. Social Structure: Rank society, not egalitarian Though they are kin-based, they have differential access to resources (some people had more wealth, prestige, and power than others did). Political organization: The status of a chief was usually ascribed, and typically the oldest son of the oldest child of the oldest child...and so on... Social relations based on kinship, marriage, descent, age, generation, and gender - the same as in bands and tribes. This is a key difference between chiefdoms and states! (States will bring nonrelatives together and expect them all to pledge allegiance to a government). Permanent political structure.
Indigenous peoples
A group with a long-standing connection with a home territory that predates colonial or outside societies prevailing in the territory.
Tribes
A territorial population that is organized into kin and non-kin groups who can potentially integrate into a larger unit. Subsistence: Horticulture and/or herding Demography: Larger than bands; small communities of varying sizes. Organized through kinship groups, such as clans. Social structure: No socioeconomic stratification (i.e. class structure) Some groups also exhibit gender stratification (an unequal distribution of resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom between men and women) Common language and culture Economy: Reciprocal system Political organization: Egalitarian (i.e. all members are equal) No reliable means of enforcing political decisions they might have village heads or "Big Men" who have limited authority. In terms of "status" - this refers to the social positions people occupy in society. Some statuses are ascribed - meaning that people have little, or no choice about occupying them (e.g. age). Achieved statuses are the opposite in that they are based on choices, actions, efforts, or circumstances and can be positive or negative (e.g. Big Man, healer). Religion: Religious elders One example of a tribal group is the Yanomami of South America. They have patrilineal, exogamous groups. The only Yanomami leadership position is that of village head. In South Pacific societies, such as in Papua New Guinea, there is a "Big Man" - A male who was a more exaggerated version of a village head, with one exception: The Big Man's leadership extended to many villages, not just his own. The Big Man achieved his status through hard work, acquiring wealth through pigs and other things.
Poison Oracles
Administering poison to an animal and asking questions to the spirit inside. The animal's behavior was interpreted by people who had special skills to understand the behavior.
Fetish
An object, which, according to a person's beliefs, has a supernatural influence, power, or abilities.
Religion
Any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons Our society tends to divide things into the "natural" and the "supernatural"; however, not all cultures do this (e.g. cultural views on illness and its origin/cause).
Reciprocity
Food sharing is an example of reciprocity - the non-simultaneous exchange of resources between individuals (Both kin and non-kin). You exchange resources with people in your group, but the exchange isn't immediate - you get a delayed reciprocation. Reciprocity is apparently unselfish in the short term, because individuals give up resources to others without any immediate return.
Priests
Full-time male specialists with very high status. Thought to be able to relate to superior or high gods beyond the ordinary person's control. Usually go to school, serve as apprentices, and may have some political power.
Divination
Getting the supernatural to provide guidance (e.g. use of tarot cards, ouija).
The Kaluli: Ceremony
Gisaro Celebration that involves neighboring longhouses. Presented as part of a larger ceremony (e.g. marriages or large gifts of meat) - conducted in response to another ceremony. The intention is to overwhelm listeners with powerful emotion - keeping the dancers, makeup, and costumes private throughout the ceremony. Dancing and singing takes place throughout the night. Sing songs that are considered "heartbreaking," which brings the audience to tears. In response to the sadness (emotional pain), the audience inflicts physical pain on the dancers by burning them with torches. Most important ceremonial event in Kaluli culture. It serves to understand the Kaluli worldview and the loss and sorrow that exists among it.
The Kaluli: Food
Giving and sharing food is one of the most important themes in Kaluli life and in forming relationships. It encourages friendship and shows fondness. Food is one of the ways people relate to children. Sharing food = Sharing affection Sharing food is expected. Food is the cornerstone of life - it plays such an important role in Kaluli life, that it extends beyond hunger. Without it, an individual is considered lonely. The myth of the boy who became a muni bird after his sister denied him food three times: His sister was obligated to share food with him, he begged for food and she denied him, as a result of this, he became a bird (was no longer considered her brother, or human).
The Kaluli: Marriage
Highly egalitarian society - no "big man" or formal authority. Villages are patrilocal. Exogamy is the type of marriage practiced by the Kaluli. Grooms (and brides) are usually unaware of the marriage plans that are being made by the elders. A bridewealth is paid and when everything is finalized, the groom is "surprised" by his friends with the marriage. Exchange between the two families is a lifelong affair that begins with the bridewealth (i.e. "payment"). A formal relationship is now established between friends and relatives of the bride/groom; including extension of food and hospitality. Sometimes a sister from the groom's family will be given to the bride's family as compensation. This is called "sister exchange" but is quite uncommon.
Technology
Highly functional for their particular environment. Not static (i.e. it changes) Relatively few possessions Includes cultural knowledge
Intervention of the Gods in Human Affairs
How much do gods intervene in our lives? When people face pain, ignorance, or life isn't fair, they may blame this on the intervention of the gods. Gods are asked to intervene on behalf of oneself, or for others, for good or for evil.
Typhoon Haiyan (Local name: Yolanda)
In November, 2013, typhoon Haiyan damaged much of the Visayan region of the Philippines 6,000-10,000 people were reported missing or dead Recovery efforts are ongoing
Substantial variation
In power, authority, and legal systems across these different groups and across various societies
Anxiety and Uncertainty
Malinowski acknowledged that all people feel uncertain and anxious at times Religion stems from the universal need to find comfort in times of stress. Other views: Religion is therapeutic and relieves stress, anxiety, and uncertainty. Religion provides a union with something greater than oneself. Religion gives a framework of values. Religion helps resolve conflicts. Religion provides a spiritual, deeper understanding of the world. There is support/proof that religion does relieve anxiety and stress; however there are still many nonbelievers. This could be because the number of nonbelievers in a country is related to fewer stressors in the environment- Greater economic development, less inequality, higher life expectancy, and/or lower disease load leads to fewer believers.
Four sacred mountains
Many Navajo people consider this area "home" for Navajos and even if they leave, they will always return. Much of the Navajo reservation lies between the "boundaries" of four sacred mountains: San Francisco Peaks in Arizona (West/Yellow) Blanca Peak in Colorado (East/White) Hesperus Peak in Colorado (North/Black) Mount Taylor in New Mexico (South/Blue)
Navajo Kinship and Clan system
Matrilineal Matrilocal Exogamous Clan system: Determined by your mother's clan which you are "born to" and "born for" your father's clan.
Wife beating occurs in 85% of societies worldwide. It occurs most when
Men control family labor Men have the final say in the home When divorce is difficult, or not an option, for women When women have no female work groups When a husband's family controls remarriage for a widow
Demography
Minimal population growth; the simplest political unit Fissioning used to control population size (Moving of people from one group to another/the fragmenting of a group) Low fertility
Oracles
Oracles provided a medium, a way to seek answers via an object or animal Consult oracles for everything: marriage, building a house, taking a trip, planning a raid, questions about future/health Poison (benge) was administered to chickens and then questions are asked: For example, "if this is true, benge (poison) kill the fowl" For the Azande, witchcraft serves to maintain social rules. If someone disobeyed, they could be affected by witchcraft.
Long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis
Over 20 species of macaques; the most widely distributed nonhuman primate worldwide. Old World monkey. Primarily frugivorous (fruit eater), quadrupedal (walks on 4 limbs), diurnal (day active) Highly adaptive; common crop pest M. fascicularis is currently classified as "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN Red List of Endangered Species 2012).
Mediums
Part-time religious practitioners who are asked to heal and divine when in a trance/possessed by spirits. Typically female; may have tremors, convulsions, seizures, or temporary amnesia.
Supernatural
Powers believed to be not human or not subject to the laws of nature.
Ghosts
Supernatural beings who were once human; souls of the dead.
Band
Small, kin-based group found among foragers. Members are related by kinship or marriage and are usually nomadic. Social Structure: Social organization based on: Nuclear family Band: Typically 20-100 individuals Political Organization: Local group, or community, acts as the political unit Egalitarian (i.e. all members are equal) Sometimes have a headman: An informal "leader" - A person who has gained status or has the qualities of a leader, but has no power within the group. Religion: Based on oral traditions Intimately tied in with nature Foragers today: Depend on outside assistance Have significant contact with outsiders Influenced by political and economic events in world system. Examples of a band society would be: The San (Bushmen) of Botswana The Inuit
Band, Tribe, Chiefdom
Social relations based on kinship, marriage, descent
State
Social relations based on non-relatives loyal to a government
Need for Cooperation
Some argue that religion keeps groups of people together; it unites them, which leads to greater cooperation. Participating in rituals provides communal feelings. People in groups will watch their behavior more closely to prevent harm from supernatural beings.
Structure or Hierarchy of Supernatural Beings
Some gods are ranked in power or prestige, some are not. Some societies have monotheistic religions: belief that there is only one high god and all other supernatural beings are subordinate to, or alternate manifestations, of this supreme being. Polytheistic religion: Belief in many gods, none are superior.
Chief
Someone who exercises authority on behalf of a multi-community political unit. Typically found in rank societies and is usually permanent and inherited. Duties of a chief might include: Regulating production of land or crops Regulating distribution and consumption Sponsoring feasts to 'give back' what they had received May have religious duties
Gods
Supernatural beings of nonhuman origin who are named personalities, often anthropomorphic (i.e. conceived in the image of a person), but can also be animals, the sun or moon.
Spirits
Supernatural beings of nonhuman origin, who are beneath gods, but closer to people. May be helpful, mischievous, or evil.
Ancestor Spirits
Supernatural beings who are the ghosts of dead relatives.
Witchcraft
The Azande attribute many things to witchcraft. Witchcraft substance, mangu, is believed to exist in certain people, who may not be aware that they have such powers. Believed to be passed down from father to son or mother to daughter, depending on whose soul (father/mother) is stronger, and particularly if they are a witch - these powers would be passed down also. Believe that witchcraft grows/increases as a person grows (an older person has more power than a child). Witchcraft is the reason for all misfortune - Azande believe that anything bad that happens (large or small) is due to witchcraft. (e.g. stubbed toe, cracked pottery, death) Witchcraft cannot be transmitted long distances, which is why they traditionally preferred to live away from their neighbors. Sorcery: Learned and deliberately practiced Witchcraft: Deployed by willpower
Philippine tarsier
The Philippine tarsier lives in secondary forest areas and is nocturnal (night active), vertical clinger and leaper, and insectivorous and faunivorous. Found in the Visayas and Mindanao. Common tourist attraction T. syrichta was recently placed on the "Top 25 Most Endangered Primates" list by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN Red List of Endangered Species 2015).
Power
The ability to exercise one's will over others.
Redistribution
The accumulation of goods or labor by a particular person, or particular place, for the purpose of subsequent distribution. (E.g. Our tax money goes to support the government, but comes back to us in the form of social services, education, health care, etc.)
Animism
The belief in souls Edward Tylor thought this belief in souls was the earliest form of religion
Some key characteristics of the achieved status of a Big Man
Wealth Generosity Physical fitness Bravery Supernatural powers The ability to gain the support and loyalty of others Big Men earned their status through hard work, it was not automatically given to them!
Life After Death
What happens after death? Join those who have also died, reincarnation, go to an underworld, punished/rewarded - again, there is a lot of variation in beliefs.
Human Perception
based on personal interaction/experiences with wildlife and cultural beliefs about them.
