AP Art History 1st Semester

27. Anavysos Kouros Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble with remnants of paint

- "Kouros" statues were idealized statues of young men common throughout Ancient Greece. They were used as grave markers or set up near graves as votive statues or set up outside temples. - This statue is representative of the development of naturalism and the movement away from abstraction. Greeks elevated the human body and the human mind to the highest status. There was more emphasis on capturing realism than in Egyptian culture. The artist depicts toned muscles, especially in the strong legs and abdomen. It also would have been painted to make it seem more lifelike. - It is very idealized and follows the Greek Cannon. For the artist, it was seen as a mark of expertise if they would sculpt a human body that actually looked realistic. - The artist uses heroic nudity to show the figure's self control and physical excellence - The headdress and left leg in front are similar to those of Egyptian statues, suggesting that the greeks were both influenced and inspired by the Egyptians

Merovingian looped fibulae Early medieval Europe. Mid-sixth century C.E. Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.

A fibula is a pin or brooch used to fasten garments and to show the status of the wearer. They were made popular by Roman military campaigns. They have a cross and a fish on them, alluding to Christianity. Animal imagery was common. COMMON TO WHOM? WHY? Warriors would wear them to keep their cloaks on, while others would wear it to show status. Cloisonne and chasing techniques were important to the Frankish people.

39. Frescoes - House of the Vetti. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Rome c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco

A house is a stage on which the rituals of daily life and social hierarchy would be performed. During the time of the Roman republic (fifth through first centuries B.C.E.), ranking aristocratic families (patricians) used domestic display as a way to reinforce social position and as a way to advance their own fortunes, as well as those of their dependents and clients, within the community.

35. Temple of Athena Nike Architect: Kallikrates 425 B.C.E. Athens; Classical Greece The Acropolis

Built to commemorate the Greek victory over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. Many images of victory on the temple. Amphiprostyle: having 4 columns in the front and 4 in the back.

38. Athena from the Pergamon Altar Great Altar of Zeus Asia Minor (represents-day Turkey) Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E. Marble

Gigantomachy Describes the battle between the gods and the giants; the giants, as helpless victims, were dragged up the stairs to worship the gods. The gods' victory over the giants offers a parallel to Alexander the Great's defeat of the Persians. Deeply carved figures overlap on another masterful handling of spatial illusion. Dramatic intensity of figures, movement; heroic musculature. Athena grabs Alkyoneos by the hair and drags him up the stair to worship Zeus. Nike on right crowns Athena in victory. Gaia: earth goddess, looks on I horror and pleads for the fate of her sons, the giants.

35. Helios, Horses, and Dionysus (Heracles?) Classical Greece From the Parthenon - East Pediment The Acropolis 447 - 410 B.C.E

Parthenon sculptures, also called the Elgin Marbles - from the east pediment of the Parthenon. Shows the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus, and other deities watching the event. Two seated figures are the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Sculpture comfortably sit in the triangular space of the pediment.

7. Jade cong Liangzhu, China. 3300-2200 B.C.E. Carved jade.

The Cong represents power, our relationship with nature, the spiritual world, or what happens after death. Congs were considered a luxury good for the rich, and found next to their graves. The circle center represents the afterlife. The Cong has half human/half animal figures located on it, on the side created out of circles and lines connected together. Carved by rubbing course sand against the Jade.

48. Good Shepherd Fresco - Catacomb of Priscilla Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco

The Good Shepherd fresco is a restrained portrait of Christ as a shepherd. This is a pastoral motif in ancient art that can be traced back to the Greeks. The symbolism of the Good Shepherd is that Christ rescues the individual sinners in his flock that go astray, and that he cares for everyone who wants to be a part of his flock.

23. Tutankhamun's Tomb, intermost coffin. New Kingdom 18th Dynasty. c. 1,323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones.

The innermost coffin is painted to look like King Tut in god form. Gods were though to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli. The crook and flail that he holds are the symbols of the king's right to rule. The goddesses Nekhbet (vulture) and Wadjet (cobra) are inlaid with semiprecious stones, along with Isi and Nephthys. This work came AFTER the Amarna Period.

12. White Temple and its Zuggurat (2 images) Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 35000-3000 B.C.E. Mud Brick.

- A Ziggurat served as a mountain for the gods. It was raised so that the gods wouldn't have to come all the way down to earth - worshipers and priests would meet them halfway. - Worshipers and processions would approach the temple through bent-axis approach. This suggests approaching a god should be difficult/meditative. This also created opportunity for a parade and created a social hierarchy. For example, the questions were raised: Who gets to go on the platform? Who gets to go in the temple? - Ziggurats served as the center of city life. They were the visual focal points of the city were visible over the defensive walls of the city. This references both the power of the city and the theocratic political system (a god(s) are recognized as ruler(s)) - Ziggurats were made from mud brick because stone was rare. It took 1500 laborers working long hours for 5 years to build it. Religious belief probably inspired the participation in its construction, but there was forced/slave labor used.

Forbidden City Beijing, China. Ming Dynasty. 15th century C.E. and later. Stone masonry, marble, brick, wood, and ceramic tile

- Chinese architecture is based on courtyard style houses that express the Chinese philosophy about family and position, the Forbidden City was named as such because only the royal court could enter. -The exterior walls of the courtyard residence (Fig. 28.2) kept the crowded outside world away and framed an atrium in which family members resided in tranquility. -In the forbidden City, the emperors seat is in the hall of supreme harmony, facing south, the Forbidden City is the largest and most complete Chinese architectural ensemble in existence with 9,000 rooms and 30 ft high walls to keep outside people out and the royalty inside. -Each corner of the rectangular plan has a tower representing the four corners of the world, yet the focus is on the Hall of Supreme Harmony (throne room). -Yellow tiled roofs and red painted beams placed on marble foundations unify the structure into an artistic whole. (Fig. 28.3)

Borobudur Temple Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendra Dynasty. c. 750-842 C.E. Volcanic-stone masonry

- Located in Java, Indonesia, this Buddhist temple contains 504 life-size Buddhas, 1,500 stupas, and thousands of feet of narrative relief sculptures. - It is meant to be circumambulated on each terrace. There are six concentric square terraces topped by three circular tiers with a great stupa at the summit. - The temple is iconographically complex and intricate and has many levels of meaning, both literally and figuratively. The lower stories represent the world of desire and negative impulses, the middle areas represent the world of forms and the idea that people have to control their negative impulses, and the top story is a world of formulas in which the physical world and worldly desire are expunged. - This site is pyramidal in form and is aligned with the four cardinal points on a compass, and was carved out of volcanic stone found locally on the island.

45. Trajan's Column Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Column completed 113 C.E. marble (column)

- Much of the architecture and decoration of the forum emphasizes the power and military victories of emperor Trajan. Trajan's column is a column decorated with reliefs that depict the emperor's victorious military campaigns in Dacia. It once stood amid Trajan's Forum. There was also an equestrain statue of Trajan that was once located in the center of the forum - represented Trajan as a triumphant military figure. (2-4C) - Burial chamber of Trajan, whose ashes were placed in the base. - 128 feet high, 625 -foot continuous narrative cycle that wrapped around the column telling the story of Trajan's defeat of the Dacians. - 150 episodes; 2500 figures; 23 registers. - Crowded composition. Low relief, few shadows to cloud what must have been a very difficult object to view in its entirety. - Column meant to be entered; visitor to wander up the interior spiral staircase to the viewing platform at the top where a heroic nude statue of the Emperor was placed (now St. Peter has replaced him). The view would impress visitors with Trajan's accomplishments, including his forum and his markets. - Two Roman libraries containing Greek and Roman manuscripts flanked the Column.

42. Head of a Roman Patrician Republican Roman c. 75-50 B.C.E. Marble

- Only patrician (wealthy) families could have these. They would parade them through the streets during the person's funeral as a "death mask". - The parade was meant to highlight the person's role as a patrician and the busts highlighted the old age of the person (the oldest male of each patrician family would sit in the senate). - After the parade, the busts would be kept in the family's residence as a reminder of the lineage of ancestors and their everlasting power and wealth. - Veristic verism was used by the sculptors to depict someone just as ugly as they were (or uglier). This caused the busts to express little vanity and allowed the dead to be remembered as wise, knowledgeable, and having longevity. -The bust was created in the style of verism. In this style, the features of the individual are exaggerated to emphasize their wisdom, experience, and humility. Although features are altered, the ancestor is still easily identifiable. -These busts were essentially death masks of important ancestors that were kept and displayed by the family. -The masks would have been used in parades at other funerals in order to honor the individual's role as a patrician and portray deceased ancestors. -The realistic portrayal of the individual shows the influence of Hellenistic art.

50. Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis Early Byzantine Europe. Early sixth (500's) century C.E. Illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum)

- Shallow settings - Fluid movement of decorative figures. - Richly colored and shaded. - Two rows linked by a bridge or pathway. - Text placed above illustrations, which are on lower half of page. - Written in Greek - The illustrations on both of these pages were done to aid the reader reflect the meaning and teachings in the religious stories. Therefore, the images are DIDACTIC - created to teach. One page shows Jacob leading his family and wives and then wrestling with the angel who strikes his hip and then blesses him. The bridge connects the two levels. The other page is also a narrative that has multiple scenes, showing Rebecca aiding Eliezar (Abraham's servant who is searching for a bride for Isaac) with his camels at the well. She quenches the thirst of the camel driver and his camels. (3-2C)

The Court of Gayumars, folio from Shah Tahmasp's Shahnama Sultan Muhammad. c. 1522-1525 C.E. Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper

- The Court of Gayumars is from an important manuscript called the Book of Kings. The Book of Kings was made for the Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Tahmasp. (7.4E) - The painting includes Islamic text and design, and also Chinese landscape. Gayumars himself is represented to have the features of a Mongol. This shows the cross-cultural exchange of ideas about art. (7.1B) - The painting depicts a court at the beginning of history. Gayumars was thought to be similar to Adam, in that he was one of the first beings on the earth, and a noble king. This painting associates Shah Tahmasp with known heroes, which include divine heroic kings. (7.1D) - Sultan Muhammad took three years to paint the Court of Gayumars, due the details and scale of the painting. Because of such detail, Sultan Muhammad had to have used fine brushes, which were made of squirrel hairs at the time. (7.4E)

Great Stupa at Sanchi Madhya Pradesh, India. Buddhist; Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty. c. 300 B.C.E. - 100 B.C.E. Stone masonry, sandstone on dome

- The Great Stupa and Sanchi was a buddhist temple and burial mound that was associated with the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Ashoka was the first emperor who started adopting Buddhist ideas and caused conversion in his emperor. - This stupa was shaped in a hemispherical mound which was meant to represent the burial mound do the Buddha where his relics would have been deposited. Worshipers would enter through gateways and circumambulate the Stupa. People were supposed to be able to purify themselves through proximity to the relic and get closer to nirvana and rebirth. - The mound was undecorated but the gateways were intricately carved with figures such as fertility deities or narrative scenes. The Buddha is never depicted as a human, but sometimes by his feet or symbols (wheel, umbrella, tree). - Yakshi figures are also present on the gates. They are fertility goddesses- they kick the tree and it blooms with fruit. This is meant to represent the earthly realm of buddhism.

The Kaaba Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Islamic. Pre-Islamic monument; rededicated by Muhammad in 631-632 C.E.; multiple renovations. Granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread

- The Kaaba is located in Mecca, which is the spiritual center of Islam. It is said to have been built by Ibrahim and Ishmael for God. - During a period of lapse in Islam tradition, the Kaaba was originally a space for pagan religions and filled up with pagan idols and statues, which had to be cleaned out by the prophet Mohammad. - The Kaaba is the destination place of the hajj, the pilgrimage all Muslims are obligated to take. While there, Muslims circumambulate the Kaaba seven times counterclockwise in order to fulfill their hajj. - A large mosque and gathering space was built around the Kaaba in order to make the hajj easier for Muslim believers.

Ryoan-ji Kyoto, Japan. Muromachi Period, Japan. 1480 C.E.; current design most likely dates to the 18th century. Rock garden

- The aesthetic here associated with the Tea Ceremony and its central, minimalist principle of "wabi" (restraint and understatement allowing freedom for taste, imagination). These aesthetics squared with the Zen influence among the upper classes. - Rock placement was a major element of creating gardens. It was originally a job for the priestly class, but at the time this temple complex was created, the "river people" were called on to provide design and labor. - Rocks can be associated with the "kami" of Shinto belief and also the mountains of Hindu and Buddhist scripture. The placement of them can be related to the canons of Chinese and Japanese painting. - The dry garden was meant to be seen from a covered walkway by monks, become a subject for meditation. The emptiness is consistent with Buddhist beliefs. - The wet garden and landscape probably originally part of a palace complex. The site was originally created by a powerful family, and a retired emperor once lived at the complex among the monks which demonstrates a connection to political power.

Pyxis of al-Mughira Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory

- This Pyxis is a cylindrical box that was used for cosmetics. It was kept in a room of a palace and was given a central place as a symbol of the wealth and importance of its owner. - It was a gift to 18-year old al Mughira (the son of the Caliph) as a coming-of-age present. Ivory objects were bestowed upon members of the Royal family (esp. sons) and were later given to Caliphic allies in hopes they would convert to Islam. - Ivory allowed for ornate carvings and was also popular during roman times because it was so elegant, smooth, and easily carved. - The Pyxis is decorated with four eight-loBed medallions which are surrounded by figures and animals. One medallion shows lions attacking two bulls. The lions symbolize the victories of the Umayyad. Another medallion shows men on horseback picking dates which represents land under Abbasid control. - Pyxis were highly portable and the tradition continued into the Byzantine empire and spread to Al-Andalus.

Portrait of Sin Sukju (1417-1475) Imperial Bureau of Painting. c. 15th century C.E. Hanging scroll (ink and color on silk)

- This portrait is of an official name Sin Sukju who was honored for his service in court and his loyalty to the king in difficult times. Neo-Confucianism rewarded people who did service for the good of the state. (8.2B) - In the portrait, Sin Sukju wears leather shoes and his hands are concealed by sleeves. To show his rank, a badge of a peacock is depicted on his clothing. (8.3D) - The facial features of the portrait are unique to Sin SUkju. There is attention to individualized bone structure and wrinkles. This individualism is due to the Korean belief that the face revealed information about the person. (8.2B) - This is an example of an academic painting. Academic paintings were done by a professional artist, and was more exact and technically polished than a scholarly painting. (8.3C)

Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat, and the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia Hindu, Angkor Dynasty. c. 800-1400 C.E. Stone masonry, sandstone

-Angkor Wat was the captial of medieval Cambodia and was built by Suryavarman II. The temple was dedicated to Vishnu (this can be seen through the large amount of sculptures of Vishnu's reincarnations). It was built by various kings and each king often identified himself with the god he installed. There are both Hindu and Buddhist influences apparent. -The temple is designed as having one central pyramid that is surrounded by four corner towers. This style is called temple-mountain. These temple-mountains are meant to symbolize the five peaks of Mount Meru. Mout Meru is said to be a sacred mountain that is believed to be the center of the spiritual and physical universe in both Buddhism and Hinduism. -The gellery roofs are corbelled. This corbelling was a product of the influence of corbelled vaulting in India.

45. Basilica Ulpia - Apollodorus of Damascus, Forum of Trajan Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; Column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column)

-The Basilica of Ulpia was a central public space in the Forum of Trajan. It was used as a public space for business and law courts, as well as an assembly and market space. Its grand appearance helped display the wealth and power of Rome. (2-4) - 385 feet by 182 feet, with two apses; grand interior space. - Nave is spacious and wide with double colonnaded side aisles. Second floor had galleries or perhaps clerestory windows. The timber roof was 80 feet across. - Law courts held here; apses were a setting for the judges. - Said to have been paid for by Trajan's spoils taken from the defeat of the Dacians. - Ulpius was Trajan's family name.

Basin (Baptistère de Saint Louis) Muhammad ibn al-Zain. c. 1320-1340 C.E. Brass inlaid with gold and silver

-The basin was signed by the artist six times -Initially, it was used to wash a person's hands at official ceremonies. Later on, it was used by the French royal family and court for baptisms. -The exterior depicts scenes from the Mamluk court (we know this because the sultan's courtiers wearing clothing characteristic of their status and bearing symbols of their rank). There are also some hunting and battle scenes that contrast with one another. -The bottom of the basin was decorated with images of fish, eels, crab, frogs, and crocodile.

46. Pantheon Interior Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing

-The ceiling of the temple was filled with square coffers that may have once help bronze rosettes that were meant to represent stars and simulate the feeling of the heavens via the sky. (3-2) -The central open oculus of the dome is 30 feet across and allows for ventilation and the creation of a moving circle that travels across the interior of the structure during the course of the day. This feature further references the connection of the structure to the heavens and the gods. (3-2) -The structure was made possible via the Roman invention of concrete. The concrete was heavier towards the bottom of the dome to support the structure and lighter towards the top to allow for the height of the dome - thus, lightening the load of the ceiling. This was done by mixing in different materials into the overall concrete mixture. The weight is pressed into the ground via columns that support the structure's weight. (1-2 A)

45. Trajan's Markets Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; Brick and concrete (architecture)

-The forum also had a number of practical uses as well. At the side of the central plaza of the forum were the Trajan markets, a shopping center of about 150 stores. It was a multi-leveled mall. Semicircular building held several levels of shops. -Main space groin-vaulted; barrel-vaulted shops

The Ardabil Carpet Maqsud of Kashan. 1539-1540 C.E. Silk and wool

-This is a prayer carpet, the world's oldest dated carpet, from the funerary mosque of Shayik Safial-Din, and was probably made when the shrine was enlarged. -The medallion in the center is possibly representative of the inside of a dome with sixteen pendants. -Mosque lamps hang from two of the pendants, the larger one placed further away so that it would appear the same size as the smaller one. -Corner squinches also have pendants; this completes the feeling of looking into a dome. -This wool carpet was woven by ten people, although women were primary weavers then, the size and importance of the object indicated that only men were entrusted with this kind of work. (Fig. 9.7a and b)

Jowo Rinpoche, enshrined in the Jokhang Temple Lhasa, Tibet. Yarlung Dynasty. Believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641 C.E. Gilt metals with sempirecious stones, pearls, and paint; various offerings

-This statue is believed to have been blest by the Buddha and created in India during the Buddha's lifetime. It was originally brought to Tibet as part of a dowry. It depicts the Buddha Sakyamuni as young man (12). -The Jokhang Temple was founded in 647 by the first ruler of unified Tibet. This temple is also Tibet's oldest and central most Buddhist temple. -The name of the statue, Jowo Rinproche, and the temple in which it's enshrined, Jokhang Temple, is significant. "Jowo" means "lord" and "khang" means "house." Thus the statue is lord of the house. - The statue was lost during China's Cultural Revolution and subsequent invasion of Tibet from about 1950 to about 1960. In 1983 the lower part of the statue was found in a trash pile. The upper part was found in Beijing in 2003.

Night Attack on the Sanjō Palace Kamakura Period, Japan. c. 1250-1300 C.E. Handstroll (ink and color on paper)

-This work was painted almost 100 years after the civil war that it depicts with elevated viewpoint. -There are strong diagonals and swift active brushstrokes the emphasize and give a sense of movement and action in the work. -Many of the figures are depicted with only one stroke for the eyes, ears, and mouth. This signifies that they are not central to the events. -The scroll is read from right to left as it is unrolled. -The imperial palace is inflamed as the rebel forces attempt to seize power by capturing the emperor.

49. Santa Sabina - PLAN Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wood

-Three aisled basilica - no transept -Focus is on the apse at the end -Long, tall, broad nave; axial plan -Flat wooden roof; coffered ceiling thin walls support light roof. -As in Jewish tradition, men and women stood separately; the men stood in the main aisle, the women in the side aisles with a partial view Built by Peter of Illyria.

11. Terra Cotta Fragment Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. 1000 B.C.E. Terra cotta (incised)

1) Lapita art is best known for its cermamics, featuring intricate, repeating geometric patterns that occasionally featured anthropomorphic figures. 2) These patterns were incised onto the wet clay with a stamp before getting fired, stamps were used in conjunction with each other to create unique intricate designs. 3) Many Lapita ceramics were found in large vessels, supposedly pots or cooking utensils, or used to store food. 4) The term Lapita refers to an ancient Pacific culture that archaeologists believe to be the common ancestor of the contemporary cultures of Polynesia, Micronesia, and some areas of Melanesia. 5) Beginning around 1500 B.C., Lapita peoples began to spread eastward through the islands of Melanesia and into the remote archipelagos of the central and eastern Pacific

45. Forum of Trajan (4 images) Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; Column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column)

1) Roman forums were centers located in large cities that were used for business, economics, politics, religious reasons, and social activities. The tradition of the forum dates back to the Roman Republic. However, Julius Caesar was the first emperor to make a forum to symbolize his power as a ruler. The tradition of the forum as symbol of prestige continued after Caesar, as future emperors made their own forums to show their supremacy. The forum of Trajan is meant to honor emperor Trajan, and is the largest forum ever to be made. (2-4C) (2-4A) 2) Much of the architecture and decoration of the forum emphasizes the power and military victories of emperor Trajan. Trajan's column is a column decorated with reliefs that depict the emperor's victorioys military campaigns in Dacia. The Equestrain statue of Trajan that was located in the center of the forum to again represent Trajan as a triumphant military figure. (2-4C) 3) The forum also had a number of practical uses as well. At the side of the central plaza of the forum were the Trajan markets, a shopping center of about 150 stores. Within the main building of the forum, there was a Greek library on the West side, and a Latin library on the East side with scrolls stored on the walls of the libraries, and tables in the middle (similar to modern day libraries). (2-4) 4) The Basilica of Ulpia was a central public space in the Forum of Trajan. It was used as a public space for business and law courts, as well as an assembly and market space. Its grand appearance helped display the wealth and power of Rome. (2-4) 5) There were three main temples in the Forum of Trajan that served religious and government purposes: The Temple of Saturn, The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestal Virgins, and The Temple of Castor and Pollux. The Temple of Vesta served as the state treasury, and the Temple of Vesta honored the goddess Vesta. Women called the Vestal Virgins lived in the temple and kept the sacred flame of Vesta from going out. (2-4)

26. Athenian agora - Greece Archiac through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.-150 C.E. Plan

1) The agora was used in the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic eras as a public place of debate, place of worship, and marketplace, and played a central role in the development of the Athenian ideals. It provided a healthy environment where the unique democratic political system took hold. 2) This democratic society directly chose government officials (you had to be a man and athenian) many of whom stayed in office because they were voted in so many times (Pericles served 15 terms as general) 3) The Agora became the epicenter of athenian life, and hosted many culturally enriching sites. 4) The Stoa is a large hypostyle hall where political discussions took place, a market was held, and civic life was held. 5) Once a year, a great procession would make its way through the agora up to the sacred mount- this celebration was in honor of Athena and traveled up to the parthenon.

Virgin and child between Saints Theodore and George Early Byzantine Europe. Six or early seventh century C.E. Encastic on wood.

1. Allows for visual movement of the eye inward from Theodore and George to the Virgin and her child (Christ) and from the Virgin and child upward at the angels. 2. The architecture in the painting brings closer focus on the Saints, the Virgin, and the angels, separating the scene from the normal world. 3. Is an example of a byzantine encaustic icon, or a portable painting used for worship and spiritual growth, depicting a combination of holy figures and painted in a classical style. 4. The saints stare directly at the viewer as they live in a world similar to us, while the Virgin and Child look beyond. The angels are positioned above the other figures and look up at the hand of God and towards heaven.

Folio from a Qur'an Arab, North Africa, or Near East. Abbasid. c. eighth to ninth century C.E. ink, color, and gold on parchment

1. Arabic is read left to right, the script shown is Arabic, but it was created to be more artistic then scholastic. 2. Written in Kufic script: "strong uprights and long horizontals". 3. Letters of the alphabet were written differently by Qur'anic scribes, and other professional copyists. The calligraphic style used by these early scribes of the Qur'an is known today as Kufic. 4. People would often only get the chance to read this once, so clarity of the writing was key, however because of the artistic characteristics, it was likely the readers had already memorized the Qur'an and used the whole book as a "mnemonic device".

Longmen caves Luoyang, China. Tang Dynasty. 493-1127 C.E. Limestone

1. Buddhism, born in India, was transmitted to China intermittently and haphazardly. Starting as early as the 1st century C.E., Buddhism brought to China new images, texts, ideas about life and death, and new opportunities to assert authority. 2. The Central Binyang Cave was one of three caves started in 508 C.E. It was commissioned by Emperor Xuan Wu in memory of his father. 3. Imagine being surrounded by a myriad of carvings painted in brilliant blue, red, ochre and gold (most of the paint is now gone). Across from the entry is the most significant devotional grouping 4. The Buddha's monastic robe is rendered to appear as though tucked under him (image above). Ripples of folds cascade over the front of his throne.

51. San Vitale - Exterior (5 images) Ravenna, Italy. Early Byzantine Europe. c. 526-547 C.E. Brick, marble, and stone veneer; mosaic

1. Built by Emperor Justinian in the city of Ravenna, Italy - about 4 hours north of Rome on the Adriatic Sea (east coast of Italy). 2. A major theme of this mosaic program is the authority of the emperor in the Christian plan of history. 3. The mosaic program can also be seen to give visual testament to the two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: as heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. 4. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith, and head of the religion. He is depicted celebrating the Eucharist.

2. Great Hall of Bulls Lascaux, France. Paleolithic Europe. 15000-13000 B.C.E. Rock Painting

1. The caves in which the cave paintings were painted in were not actually where the people lived because they led migratory lifestyles following animal herds. They would communicate through paintings because there was no writing. 2. These cave paintings could be interpreted as giving the people "hunting magic" that would provide them with a successful hunt. 3. Some believe they tell stories about certain hunts and give advice/tips. Others believe that the paintings are animal worship or shamanism. 4. The paintings were painted in dark caves using lamps, charcoal, iron ores, plants, colors made with animal fat. They also overlapped each other because different accounts were added.

Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Masons, marble workers, mosaicists, and decorators working under the supervision of Ustad Ahmad Lahori, architect of the emperor. 1632-1653 C.E. Stone masonry and marble with inlay of precious and semiprecious stones; gardens

1. Built by Shah Jahan in honor of the death of his favorite wife, who died during the birth of their 14th child. Mumtaz Mahal was placed in the middle of the tomb, and Shah Jahan was interred next to her. Essential Knowledge 8-2b. 2. The building and its surrounding gardens are meant to impose a sense of harmony through use of symmetrical elements. The minarets act similar to a picture frame, drawing our eye to the dome but also shelter the monument. Persian motifs and some Hindu elements such as the colors (white =pure, red = warrior) are used in the tomb as well. Essential Knowledge 8-2c. 3. There are many Islamic elements. There are intricate floral and geometric patterns in the inlays on the façade. The onion shaped dome is common in mosques. Also the Islamic feature of one large arch flanked by two smaller arches is apparent in the front of the tomb. Also there are 8 levels of the tomb, similar to the 8 levels of paradise in the Qur'an. Essential Knowledge 8-2d. 4. The white marble used in the walls and reflective water in front cause the tomb to look as if it was floating or in heaven. The gardens surrounding the tomb represent a funerary garden like the ones in heaven. Essential Knowledge 8-2e.

Mosque of Selim II Edrine, Turkey. Sinan (architect), 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone

1. Built by the Sultan Selim II, son of Süleyman the Magnificent, between 1568 and 1574. Edirne was one of Selim II's favorite cities. He was stationed here as a prince when his father campaigned in Persia in 1548 and he enjoyed hunting on the outskirts of the city. Located in the Balkans, within the European lands of the Ottoman Empire, Edirne had been a capital of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century before Istanbul and was effectively the second city of the Empire through the 17th century. The first major city that Europeans traveling to the Ottoman Empire reached—so building a large complex here offered the Sultan an opportunity to use architecture to impress the Ottoman Empire's greatness upon visitors 2. It is composed of a mosque, two symmetrical square madrasas (one of which served as a college for studying the hadiths, or traditions of the Prophet Muhammad), and there was a row of shops (arasta) and a school for learning the recitation of the Quran located to the west and added during the reign of Sultan Murad III. 3. The mosque's nearly square prayer hall is approached through a porticoed courtyard, making the central block of the complex rectangular. The approach to the north façade of the mosque is dramatic: the aligned gates of the outer precinct wall and forecourt focus the eye upwards toward the dome, which could also been seen from a distance. The ethereal dome seems weightless as it floats above the prayer hall. All of the architectural features are subordinated to this grand dome. The dome rests on eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches that are in turn supported by eight large piers. Muqarnas are the faceted decorative forms that alternately protrude and recess and that are commonly used in Islamic architecture to bridge a point of transition—in this case, the broad base of the dome above and the slender piers below. Note that the muqarnas steps outward it rises, creating a corbelled effect, and allowing for a more open space below. The squinches are the architectural support, decorated by the muqarnas, transition from the dome down to the eight piers. 4. Influences: The mosque's epigraphic program—its inscriptions, was developed after the devastating defeat that the Ottoman fleet suffered at Lepanto in 1571 against the navies of the Christian Holy League. This loss prevented further Ottoman expansion along the European coast of the Mediterranean. The mosque's inscriptions focus on a central difference between Islam and Christianity. Certain passages from the Hadiths were included to emphasized Muhammad's position as a messenger both and intercessor. 5. The placement of the pencil minarets at the four corners of the prayer hall focus attention on the volume of the Dome. Polychrome exterior is composed of stone mixed with brick that compliments the geometric volumes that define the exterior forms of the building. The dome's octagonal shape was probably influenced by the tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh, which Sinan had seen while on Süleyman's Baghdad campaign. The tomb had a large octagonal dome of 25 meters, which at one time was surrounded by eight turrets, which we can see echoed at Edirne. Sinan's dome, at just over 31 meters.

52. Hagia Sophia (3 images) Consantinople (Istanbul), Turkey Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.

1. Constructed during the rule of Emperor Justinian I and serves as a symbol of the greatness of the Byzantine Empire - Justinian's "new Rome". Largest Christian church at the time - displayed wealth and power and glory to God. 2. Inspiration for the columns used in the construction of the building come from the Classical Ionic order but features uniquely Byzantine treatment in the capital of the column. 3. The church has been burned down several times during riots against the emperor and damaged by earthquakes in the region and has had to be repaired because of it's importance to the history of the region (Istanbul, Turkey). 4. Two scholars were hired to figure out how to vault the dome roof of the building: creation of a centrally planned building in a basilica setup. The dome is essentially grounded on a pendentive that takes the load of the dome and distributes the weight on to stone piers and several several smaller half domes.

46. Pantheon (2 images) Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing

1. Dedicated to all the god (PAN.THEON) - interior alcoves in the rotunda once held statues of 7 Roman gods. (1-4 B) 2. The space is a mix of circular and square motifs with the square panels of the floor mirroring the square ceiling coffers and ultimately, contrasting with the roundness of the overall architecture. (1-4 A) 3. The ceiling of the temple was filled with square coffers that may have once help bronze rosettes that were meant to represent stars and simulate the feeling of the heavens via the sky. (3-2) 4. The central open oculus of the dome is 30 feet across and allows for ventilation and the creation of a moving circle that travels across the interior of the structure during the course of the day. This feature further references the connection of the structure to the heavens and the gods. (3-2) 5. The structure was made possible via the Roman invention of concrete. The concrete was heavier towards the bottom of the dome to support the structure and lighter towards the top to allow for the height of the dome - thus, lightening the load of the ceiling. This was done by mixing in different materials into the overall concrete mixture. The weight is pressed into the ground via columns that support the structure's weight. (1-2 A)

Travelers among Mountains and Streams Fan Kuan. c. 1000 C.E. Ink and colors on silk

1. Fan Kuan is known as having been an unconventional artist having lived in the mountains as a Daoist hermit. The landscape painting he created is often denoted as a primary example of the Northern Song grand style of landscape painting. The landscape depicted shows two mountains bisected by the Yellow and Yangzi rivers (the two main rivers of China). Even from early Chinese history, mountains have been regarded as sacred and known as the home of the immortals. 2. Landscape paintings came out of a period of political upheaval during the tenth century when nature became synonymous with virtues. For example, Fan Kuan's painting in the curriculum framework is meant to show his ideas of man's amicable existence in a large but organized universe. 3. The development of the monumental landscape painting coincided with the development of Neo-Confucianism which emphasized self-cultivation as a path to self fulfilment and to the formation of a virtuous and harmonious society overall. 4. Neo-Confucianism emphasizes observing things in a light of their own. In this painting, several different aspects of the landscape are brought together in one composition creating an image of a moral and organized universe.

16. Standard of Ur from the royal tombs (2 images) Summerian. c. 26000-24000 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis, lazuli, and red limestone. "War" and "Peace" sides

1. Found in one of the largest graves in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, this piece shows the general representation of power to the Egyptians. THIS WORK IS SUMERIAN! 2. Usually the art of the ancient Near East is associated with power because many powerful city-states and cultural power were rising, which was seen specifically in this work. EK 2-1A 3. Read from bottom to top, the two main panels depict "war" and "peace". 4. The "war" panel shows one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army at war with a man held captive. 5. The "peace" panel depicts animals and other goods brought in procession to a banquet which includes the same successful priest-king as the "war" panel.

Chartres Cathedral Chartres, France. Gothic Europe. Orignal construction. c. 1145-1115 C.E.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass

1. The church was associated with the Virgin Mary. A relic of the tunic of the Virgin Mary was gifted to the church. This tunic was believed to be what she wore when she gave birth to Christ. It was thought to have healing and protecting powers which drew many visitors. 2. The church was burned to the ground, however the tunic remained unharmed. This was a sign to the people to build a new church. Only the Westwork of the previous church survived. 3. The new church was built on the foundation of the previous church. It's design sought to create heaven on earth. The interior is dark, however light from the stained glass windows shines through and reflects off the walls. The light is supposed to represent divinity and is considered to be the least material of god's earthly creations. 4. The gothic elements of the design include ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and flying buttresses.

32. Tomb of the Triclinium Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco

1. Funerary contents in the Etruscan culture tell us the most about their civilization. For example, the elite members performed funerary rituals and we are able to see how they changed based on time and location. 2. The city where this tomb was found was one of the most powerful and important cities in Etruscan times and is specifically known for its painted chamber tombs. The tombs were also made out of subterranean rock. The walls of this tomb reveal important information about funeral processes but also the unique Etruscan way of life. 3. The tombs hold the remains of the person but also grave goods and offerings. This tomb is called the Triclinium tomb because of the fresco painted on the wall of a three-couch dining room. The back wall included a scene of many people enjoying a dinner party, people are eating while reclining (Kline figures). The diners are dressed very well which implies high status. Dancers and music appear all over the walls which show the happy tone and the accompany of games and which was a tradition. 4. The tone of the frescos are happy and festive. In Etruscan culture they celebrated the life of the dead and sought to share a final meal with the deceased. They also were trying to emphasize the importance of the person who died. 5. Etruscans got much of their wealth from long trading networks where they traded metal and mineral oils.

21. Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1473-1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite. (2 images)

1. Hatshepsut herself was the first "female king/pharaoh" of Egypt and the temple has a whole mythology detailing the story of her divine birth (divine births gave pharaohs the right to rule by having received it from the gods). 2. Hatshepsut took power at the beginning of the New Kingdom after a period of disunity in Egypt and believed that returning to the style in which earlier pharaohs had themselves depicted would allow the kingdom to see her as a stable and unifying leader. 3. There is no word in Egyptian for a female ruler because women rarely had that kind of power. The sculptures of Hatshepsut depict her as more masculine with broad shoulders, a flatter chest, and a deemphasized waist. 4. Her nephew/stepson attempted to have all the images of Hatshepsut systematically destroyed after her death. This was originally thought to have been because she had possibly usurped someone of their rightful position as ruler and had forcibly taken away power. A more modern interpretation of this is that there was jealousy surrounding her right to rule by other members of the royal family. YOU NEED MORE HERE ABOUT THE ACTUAL TEMPLE.

28. Peplos Kore from the Acropolis Archiac Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, painted details

1. It is a sculpture of a young female with open eyes, an archaic smile, braided hair, a damaged nose, and a broken left arm. There are also holes in her head which may have originally held a crown. (2-5B) 2. They were usually created as votives or offerings to goddesses, but this particular sculpture might not be an offering but an actual goddess herself. It might be the goddess Artemis who would have been holding a bow and arrows. (2-4C) 3. There are traces of red paint that are still visible. With a special camera, other bright colors and patterns can be seen. An example of this is her archaic smile which is an unnatural smile that is meant to show a sense of well-being. (2-4C) 4. The sculpture is done in marble. It was painted using the encaustic technique which is the mixing of colored pigments with wax so the color bonds well to the heated sculpture. (2-5B)

Church of Sainte-Foy Conques, France. Romanesque Europe. Church: c. 1050-1130 C.E.; Reliuary of Saint Foy: ninth century C.E.; with later additions. Stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstone, and enamel over wood (reliquary)

1. It is an important pilgrimage church, but is also an abbey where monks lived, prayed, and worked. Only parts of the monastery remain, but the church is still almost fully intact. It has barrel vaults and arches on the interior. (3-2B) 2. It is considered a pilgrimage church because of the shape - cruciform plan. This shape was symbolic of the cross and it also helped with large crowds of people. Pilgrims could enter on the west side and then circulate around. (3-2B) 3. The scene of the Last Judgement is depicted on the tympanum. Christ is sitting in the center and right is pointing upward while his left hand is pointing downward. This reminded everyone who was entering about all of the great things of heaven and the horrible things about hell. Many other saints are also depicted on the other sides of Jesus. (3-2C) 4. The reliquary of Sainte-Foy contains the remains of Saint Foy and is one of the most famous throughout Europe. It is covered in gold and different gems. The head stares directly at the viewer and it is thought to have originally been the head of a Roman statue of a child. People come from all over to pay respect to it. (3-2D)

15. Seated Scribe Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynastic. c. 2620-2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone.

1. It represents a figure of a seated scribe at work. The sculpture was discovered at Saqqara, north of the alley of sphinxes leading to the Serapeum of Saqqara, in 1850 and dated to the period of the Old Kingdom, from either the 5th Dynasty, c. 2450-2325 BC or 4th Dynasty, 2620-2500 BCE. It is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. 2. The scribe has a soft and slightly overweight body, suggesting he is well off and does not need to do any sort of physical labor. He sits in a cross-legged position that would have been his normal posture at work. His facial expression is alert and attentive, gazing out to the viewer as though he is waiting for them to start speaking. 3. The Seated Scribe was made around 2450-2325 BCE, it was discovered near a tomb made for an official named Kai and is sculpted from limestone.[1] Many pharaohs and high-ranking officials would have their servants depicted in some form of image or sculpture so that when they went to the afterlife they would able to utilize their skills to help them in their second life.

Dome of the Rock Jerusalem. Islamic, Umayyad. 691-629 C.E., with multiple renovations. Stone masonry and wooden roof decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome

1. The dome of the rock sits atop the highest point in Jerusalem, and is one of the earliest symbols of the power of Islam; however, the dome of the rock is not a mosque and it's original function is still debated. 2. This was once the holiest site for followers at Muhammad as the surrounding areas were at war and the Umayyad empire didn't have control over the Kaaba. 3. The dome sits over a large rock (hence, dome of the rock) which is where Isaac is said to have been prepared to sacrifice his son Ismael in the biblical story. It is also said to commemorate Muhammad's night journey where from the rock he went to heaven to meet prophets, experience hell, and even see God. 4. There are 12 columns in the octagonal space and there are breathtaking mosaics lining the wall. They contain no human figures or animals and are popular over the whole Byzantine empire.

Todai-ji Nara, Japan. Various artist, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School. 743 C.E.; rebuilt c. 1700. Bronze and wood (sculpture); wood with ceramic-tile roofing (architecture)

1. It's creation reflects the complex intermingling of Buddhism and politics in early Japan. It ushered a new era of Shoguns and helped found Japan's most celebrated school of sculpture. It was meant to show power and be amazing. 2. This site reflects the exchanging of cultures and traditions among different places. Buddhism made its way into China in the 6th century along the silk road trading route. Buddhism was originally presented to the imperial court and they were given a sculpture of the Buddha so Buddhism is associated with the imperial court in Japan. Buddhism then combined a lot with political ideas and changes. 3. This place was built to unite Japan under centralized rule and to promote spiritual unity. It cost a lot and took a lot out of Japanese citizens money which people weren't too happy about. It contains a huge bronze Buddha that was inspired by similar statues of the Buddha that had been commissioned. It took a lot of workers and copper. 4. The emperor that commissioned it was said to have sat in front of the Buddha and vowed himself to be a servant of the three treasures of the Buddhism: the Buddha, Buddhist law, and Buddhist monastic community. The site was destroyed and it shocked Japan but they made a project to rebuild it.

9. The Ambum Stone Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. c. 1500 B.C.E. Greywacke stone

1. It's one of the earliest known Pacific works, stone mortars and pestles from Papua New Guinea often depicted birds, humans, and animals. 2. Higher sculptural level than other prehistoric pestles; great level of figurative detail. Made of tough material (greywacke), requiring many weeks of chipping/hammering w stone tools. The artists were likely specialists due to their improved technique and better tools. 3. Animalistic features: Nose tip resembles fruit bat. Depicts a juvenile long-beaked echidna (spiny anteater). It's useful fat deposits were used by people before they were introduced to pigs. 4. The animal has human posture, showing the theme of animals behaving like humans. 5. Significance/function is obscure - unknown. It's considered sacred, likely was one of many spirit stones used for rituals/sorcery. The figure is credited with supernatural powers by present day people in the region, yet it might have not been the original function. Is also speculated whether it could have been a male fertility stone.

Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh Bichitr. c. 1620 C.E. Watercolor gold, and ink on paper

1. Jahangir had many artists follow him wherever he went and he wanted everything recorded. He sought to bring together things from different lands. 2. He is shown here seated on an hourglass throne as sands of time run out which means that he is near the end. He is surrounded by a halo of the sun and moon. This represents that fact that Jahangir is the source of all light. 3. Some cross-cultural influences are the fact that he sits on a Renaissance carpet and the figures of the small cherubs are copied from European paintings. The artist represents himself in the lower left hand corner and symbolically signs his name on the foot stool beneath Jahangir. The artist holds a miniature with two horses and an elephant. These might have been gifts from his patron. 4. James I of England is shown in the lower left corner. The Holy Man is handed a book by Jahangir (or the Holy Man is handing Jahangir the book). The Holy men were placed higher than everyone else.

Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui) Han Dynasty, China. c. 180 B.C.E. Painted silk

1. Lady Dai lived in the Hunan province in eastern China and died in 168 B.C.E. Her husband was a high-ranking official civil servant, but neither her husband nor son's tombs were well preserved. Essential Knowledge 8-1c. 2. The banner was found with over 100 objects in 1972. Her tomb was typical of a high official, full of beautiful silk robes, whereas a peasant would have homespun paper garments. Essential Knowledge 8-2b. 3. The banner is T-shaped and covers the inner coffin, where her body was still intact. The funeral banner was most likely used in a procession into the tomb and then laid on top of Lady Dai's coffin. It was meant to help the body with its journey into the afterlife. It shows yin symbols on the left, and yang symbols at right. In the center the two are mixed. Essential Knowledge 8-2c. 4. There are 3 regions on the banner. The top represents Heaven. There is a crescent moon on the left and 10 suns on right, and in the middle are two officers guarding the entrance to Heaven. The middle is earth with Lady Dai in the center. Painted is Lady Dai on a platform with her walking stick ready to go to Heaven. Around her are dragons that look like a ying and a yang. The underworld is seen in the bottom, which is full of low creatures. Essential Knowledge 8-3c.

Great Mosque Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785-786 C.E. Stone masonry

1. One of the oldest standing structures from the time period where Muslim's ruled the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal, and part of France) in the 8th century. (3-1, 3-1a) 2. The site first had a temple that was converted into a church by Visigoths in 572, then a mosque and then completely rebuilt by Umayyad descendants. When Damascus was overtaken by the Abbasids, prince Abd al-Rahman escaped to Spain and created a new capital, Cordoba. He wanted to recreate the grandeur from Damascus and sponsored extensive building programs, etc. that created this great temple. (3-2, 3-2a, 3-2b) 3. The building was expanded over 200 years. The building includes a large hypostyle hall, courtyard with a fountain, garden, covered walkway and a minaret (now encased in a bell tower). It was also made with roman columns (spolia). (3-2b 4. There is a famous mihrab (wall used to identify which direction Mecca is) in the prayer hall. The large archway is decorated with Kufic calligraphy and motifs of plants. Above the mihrab is a dome decorated with gold mosaic. (3-1b) 5. There are double arched columns made with voussoirs of alternating colors. The double arches enhance the interior space which had fairly low ceilings. There is an overall light and airy interior. (3-1b)

Bayeux Tapestry Romanesque Europe. c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen

1. The embroidery was commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half-brother of William the Conqueror. It tells the story in Latin of the Battle of Hastings along with William's conquest of England. Essential Knowledge 3-2c. 2. The story is bordered with designs that comment on the main scenes, and others that show scenes of every day life. These upper and lower registers contain fanciful beasts. Essential Knowledge 3-2d. 3. The Bayeux Tapestry has a neutral background and flat figures that are not shown with shadows. There is little evidence of perspective, and color is used in a non-natural manner. Essential Knowledge 3-2c. 4. The narrative tradition goes back to the Column of Trajan. The tapestry has 75 scenes and contains 600 people. Its long plot contributes to the great physical length of the tapestry, 230 feet. Essential Knowledge 3-1c.

30. Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes (2 images) Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone

1. Persia was the largest empire the world had seen up to this time. As the first great empire it need an appropriate capital as a grand stage to impress people at home and dignitaries abroad. Persepolis included a massive columned hall used for receptions by the Kings called the Apadana. The audience hall itself is hypostyle in its plan. The audience hall called the Apadana had 36 columns covered by a wooden roof. The audience hall held thousands of people and was used by the kings receptions. Two monumental stairways were adorned with reliefs of the New Year's festival and a procession of representatives of 23 subject nations. 2. The column capitals assumed the form of either twin-headed bulls, eagles or lions, all animals represented royal authority and kingship. The columns had a bell shaped base that is an introverted lotus blossom. Many cultures (i.e, Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians) are seen to have contributed to the building 3. The monumental stairways that approach the Apadana were adorned with registers of relief sculptures. The north and east stairways are decorated. The theme of that program us one that pays tribute to the Persian king himself as it depicts representatives of 23 subject nations bearing gifts to the king. 4. The walls of the spaces and stairs leading up to the reception hall were carved with hundreds of figures. The registers of relief sculpture depicted representatives of the 23 subject nations of the Perisan empire bringing valuable gifts as tribute to the king. The sculptures form a processional scene, leading scholars to conclude that the reliefs sculpture capture the scene of actual, annual tribute processions perhaps on the Persian New Year that took place at Persepolis. The two sets of stairway reliefs mirror and complement each other. Each program has a central scene of the enthroned king flanked by his attendants and guards. In the reliefs noblemen wearing elite outfits and military appeal are present. The relief program of the Apadana serve to reinforce and underscore the power of the Persian king and the breadth of his dominion.

49. Santa Sabina (3 images) Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wood

1. Santa Sabina represents a synthesis of pagan Byzantine culture and an emerging acceptance of Christianity. It was constructed under the emperor Constantine who was privately Christian and baptized on his death bed. Components of the church are clearly borrowed from traditional Roman architecture including the triumphal arch over the altar in this church. This type of arch was traditionally used to commemorate generals or emperors and their victories, but were now being used by the Christian community to celebrate the triumph of the church. (3-1.a) 2. The structure of the church is based on Roman basilicas to include more interior space for worshipers ar masses, give a sense of imperial authority to God, and incorporate a longitudinal axis in order to place focus on the altar. (3-1.c) 3. The cross shape that came with the use of the basilica structure is clearly symbolic in Christianity, and the transept of the cross shape was where the most prestigious members of the church sat for mass. (3-2.b) 4. The walls in Santa Sabina have very large windows and give a clear sense of light and space. The décor also incorporates columns repurposed from pagan structures. These factors not only give a sense of divinity through the use of lightness and ethereality in the decoration, but also represent a victory of Christianity over Paganism through the repurposing of the columns. (3-2.b)

39. House of the Vetti. (3 images) Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Rome. c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco

1. Serves as an example of Roman townhouses in Pompeii, Italy. They functioned as both domestic space and a business space. 2. Aristocratic families used the domestic space to reflect their social position through the size and decoration of the home. The business space confirmed the family importance, wealth, and social ranking. The Roman Republic was based on a patron-client relationship and the setup of the homes was meant to reflect this by having aristocrats receive clients in a domus (townhouse owned by the wealthy). 3. Freedmen (former slaves) also often occupied these homes and used them as a way to advance their social standing after leaving slavery. 4. Domestic decoration in the House of Vettii as well as other domus homes was meant to reflect the wealth and the education of the aristocratic class by having reproductions of famous artworks or having artwork similar to famous pieces. Each client would get an eyeful of the patron's household wealth. Guests could see all the way through to the peristyle garden in the rear.

1. Apollo 11 Stones Nambia. c. 25000-25300 B.C.E. Charcoal on stone

1. Seven painted stone slabs of brown-grey quartzite, depicting a variety of animals painted in charcoal, ochre, and white. The images are not easily identifiable to species level, but have been interpreted variously as felines. One of them in particular has been observed to be either a zebra, giraffe, or ostrich, demonstrating the ambiguous nature of the depictions. (1-2b) 2. The animal, which may be some sort of supernatural creature, suggests a complex system of shamanistic belief (someone who interacts with a spirit world). Apollo 11 then becomes a site of ritual significance. (1-2f) 3. The Apollo 11 stones are the oldest discovered representational art in Africa, but it is now well-established, through genetic and fossil evidence, that homo sapiens developed in Africa more than 100,000 years ago. (1-2b) 4. The geometric images are painted on stone rather than the inside of a cave. (1-1b)

40. Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun Pompeii, Italy Republican Roman. c. 100 B.C.E. Mosaic

1. The Alexander Mosaic was the floor of a house in Pompeii, in which it was pasted into cement. A million and a half pieces of colored pebbles make up the mosaic. The mosaic was made during the Roman Republic. (2.4A) 2. The mosaic is based on an ancient Greek painting that was lost in time. Literature tells art historians that the Greek wall painting was immensely beautiful, but the mosaic is the closest there is to the original. The Roman copy of a Greek painting shows the regard that the Romans had for Greek art. (2.4C, 2.5A) 3. The mosaic depicts the ruler of Persia, King Darius, fleeing from Alexander the Great's Greek army. King Darius looks terrified and is begging Alexander to spare his soldiers. This speaks to the power of the Greek Empire under Alexander's reign. (2.1A, 2.5B) 4. There is incredible realism in the figures of the mosaic. The artist uses light and dark to create 3D forms. The anatomy of the bodies is realistic, and the horses are foreshortened to create perspective. (2.4C)

Dedication Page with Blanche of Castle and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocolypse from Bibles moralisées. Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 C.E. Illuminated manuscript

1. The Bibles Moralisees were originally commissioned by Blanche of Castile while she was serving as monarch of France 2. Used as the private Bibles of the royal family and thus served a major role in the Biblical and religious education of the future kings. 3. Commissioned in preparation for the marriage of Blanche's son which further highlights their importance to the family, they depict opulence. 4. Bibles also feature many gothic elements. The figures seen in the illuminated text have long, elongated bodies and necks that were characteristic of the gothic art period. 5. Lastly, the figures show a move towards greater realism and thus away from many Byzantine conventions.

41. Seated boxer Hellenistic Greece c. 100 B.C.E. Bronze

1. The Greeks were employed by the Romans to create works of art even after they were conquered by them. 2. This figure is less idealized than traditional Greek works that showcased contrapposto. 3. 2-4C Hellenistic refers to the period after Alexander the Great and was particularly representative of the Hellenistic period as it explored the different aspects of human form and condition explored through art - great emotion, shows more movement, greater variety of expression from sadness to joy. - Themes in Hellenistic art previously untouched, such as childhood, old age, despair, anger, etc. Sweeps the range of human emotion and subject matter - does NOT have to be a Greek god! Employs negative space more freely and is often "sculpture in the round" (not meant to be placed against a wall). 4. 2-4C The Boxer, unlike previous statues, is not a perfect representation of a human body or condition, in fact there is an emphasis on this Boxer's defeat. His posture is slumped, and his ear have been beaten badly, the ties of leather around his knuckles show us that he has been in battle. 5) The blood drops are also indicative of the boxer's defeat, his pained expression and hunched defeat even though he is muscular, energies the viewer with pathos, or, emotionally.

25. Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster

1. The Lamassu were guardian figures that stood at the gateways to the city and its citadels. It would have been impossible to approach the citadel without seeing them. (2.1A) 2. They were created at the height of Assyrian civilization. They were an expression of the power of the Assyrian king. They are comparable to Sphinxes in the Egyptian tradition. (2.1B) 3. The perspective of the Lamassu is different depending on where someone views it. From the side, the legs appear to be walking with the viewer and is welcoming. From the front, the figure is static and formidable. (2.1) 4. The face of the Lamassu has wavy hair, connected eyebrows, earrings, and an elaborate beard. The wings form a decorative panel which show power and prestige. (2.1) 5. The figure is carved out of a monolithic stone. There are inscriptions that talk about the power of the Assyrian empire. (2.1A)

Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St Luke incipit page Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, pigment, and gold)

1. The Lindisfarne Gospels were created by monks who devoted their time to making these books. The depiction of the Gospel writers (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), is comparable to the monks, the writers of these Gospels. (3.1A, 3.2C) 2. They were written in black ink even though at the time, brown ink was more commonly used and was cheaper. Black ink was harder to make, and therefore more expensive, but the monks decided that it enhanced the importance of the gospels. (3.1B) 3. The intricate swirls and designs of the Lindisfarne Gospels were meant to be meditative and contemplative. The purpose of the gospels were to be meditated on. (3.1B) 4. The clothing of the figures is very similar to Roman robes and Greek drapery. However, they are less realistic in these gospels. This is important because that means that the style of the figures are originally pagan, but is being reused for a Christian gospel. (3.1A, 3.1C)

33. Niobides Krater Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. c. 460-450 B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique (with white highlights)

1. The Niobid Painter was probably inspired by the large frescoes produced in Athens and Delphi. This krater was decorated with two scenes in which the many figures rise in tiers on lines of ground that evoke an undulating landscape. 2. The main side of the vase shows eleven figures placed at different levels, but only two of them are recognizable. Heracles is in the center holding his club and bow, with his lion skin over his left arm, and Athena is located on the left. Around them several warriors are represented in varying poses. 3. The B side of the vase illustrates a legend that is rarely represented, and is what gave the painter his name. This side depicts the massacre of the children of Niobe by the deities Apollo and Artemis. 4. The vase was created using a red-figure technique. The red-figure technique developed in Athens around 520 BC and remained in use until the late 3rd century BC. It replaced the previously dominant style of black-figure vase painting within a few decades. The decorative motifs on red-figure vases remained the color of the clay; the background, filled in with a slip, turned black.

47. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Late Imperial Roman. c. 250 C.E. Marble

1. The Romans are the victors the enemy are the Goths. The Romans are portrayed as noble, capable warriors - idealized soldiers. The Goths are shown as tattered and fearful - barbaric. 2. Very compact - filled with action and drama - a dense carpet of figures layered and pressed together. Figures on the top are larger; as your eye moves downward figures become smaller and more compact. 3. In the center is the obvious hero on his horse opening up his arms. He is calm and composed like a good leader. He doesn't have a helmet which shows he is invincible, all powerful, and needs no protection. He also has the symbol of Mithras on his forehead - the Persian god that was followed by many soldiers and the main rival to Christianity among the mystery cults in Rome at the time. - Light and dark variations animate the surface. 4. Sarcophagus made for a powerful and wealthy patron due to its intricacy, size and exquisite carving. Turning away from Greek high classical art and becomes less concerned with individuality and the elegance of the human body.

10. Tlatilco female figurine Central Mexico, site of Tlatico. 1200-900 B.C.E. Ceramic

1. The Tlatilco Female Figurine was a female ceramic figure. Ceramics were widespread for only a few centuries before the Tlatilco figurines. (1.1B,1.2C) 2. Motifs of maize, ducks, and fish are found on the ceramics. The makers of these figurines lived in farming villages. The inhabitants of Tlatilco grew maize and hunted in the lake to sustain themselves. (1.1B, 1.2B) 3. The figurine emphasizes wide hips, spherical upper thighs, intricate hair, and a pinched waist. The majority of these figurines were female, but when men were depicted as men who wore costumes and masks. The two connected heads of the female express an idea of duality. (1.2E) 4. These figurines were found while excavating graves. Inside the graves, the Tlatilco figurines were found in large quantities, suggesting a religious significance to them. (1.2B) 5. The Tlatilco Female Figurine and others like it were made exclusively by hand, without the use of molds. They were made by pinching clay and shaping it by hand. The details were created by a sharp instrument that cut linear markings into the wet clay. (1.2D)

White and Red Plum Blossoms Ogata Korin. c. 1710-1716 C.E. Ink, watercolor, and gold leaf on paper

1. The image seems both abstract and realistic at the same time. Its background> subtle grid of gold leaf everything with an ethereal glow. The stream's swelling metallic curls and spirals are a make-believe of flowing water, and its sharply tapered serpentine contour lines angle the picture plane in an unnatural upward tilt. 2. Kôrin depicted only the lower parts of the trees, as if viewed from very near: the tree with red blossoms thrusts upward from the ground and out of sight; the white pushes leftward out of view and then, two slender branches appear to spring back diagonally downward from the top corner and jab upward 3.Meaning: The stream symbolizes the rhythmical flow of water 4. Context: Edo period>application of tarashikomi, a technique in which colors are blended by dripping one over another that is still wet, which is used here to depict the tree trunks.

Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh) Isfahan, Iran. Islamic, Persian: Seljuk, Il-Khanid, Timurid and Safavid Dynasties. c. 700 C.E.; additions and restorations in the 14th, 18th, and 20th centuries C.E. Stone, brick, wood, plaster, and glazed ceramic tile

1. The mosque's location is unique as it is in the center of the old city, and shares walls with other buildings. Due to its size and numerous entrances, it formed a pedestrian hub, connecting the many paths crisscrossing the city. The mosque facilitated public mobility and commercial activity and served as more than a place for prayer alone. 2. The core of the structure is from Seljuk Turks in the 11th century, and later chnages/additions were made during Il-Khanid, Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar rule. Under the reign of Malik Shah I, the mosque grew to its current four-iwan design (an iwan is a vaulted space that opens on one side to a courtyard). 3. The interior is decorated with geometric designs in stucco and sumptuous tile-work which contrast the earthy tones of the exterior. 4. When Shah Abbas I, a Safavid dynasty ruler, moved the capital of his empire from Qazvin to Isfahan in the late 16th century, he created a new imperial and mercantile center. The link amongst political, commercial, social, and religious activities is clear in the layout of Isfahan's covered bazaar, which connects the Safavid center to the Great Mosque.

29. Sarcophagus of the Spouses Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E. Terracotta

1. The outside is a portrait of the married couple, whose ashes were placed inside. The couple has a symbolic relationship; the man has a protective arm around the woman, while the woman is seen feeding the man. This reflects the high standing women had in Etruscan society. Essential Knowledge 2-5a 2. Although the Etruscan's have many influences from the Greeks, the joint sarcophagus is unique to Etruscan burial because the Greeks were buried individually, separate from their partners. Tombs were also not apparent in burials of Greeks either. Enduring Understanding 2-4 3. The bodies of the figures are placed at an angle where their legs are forced into an unrealistic L-turn. The bodies have broad shoulders but are shown with little anatomical modeling, as well as emaciated hands. Essential Knowledge 2-4c 4. The couple is seen reclining. There is an ancient tradition of reclining while eating, and their sarcophagus represents a banquet couch, which the couple rests on. Enduring Understanding 2-4

13. Palette of King Narmer Pre-dynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E Greywacke stone

1. The palette depicts King Narmer as he is uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. His name appears on both sides of the palette and is so valuable that it has never been permitted to leave the country (2-3) 2. On the front of the palette, Narmer is shown wearing the crown of Lower Egypt (red crown) and looking at the dead bodies of his enemies. In the center there are lions with elongated necks which symbolize unification (would have held the makeup). At the bottom of the front side there is a bull knocking down a fortress. This symbolizes Narmer killing his enemies. (2-3B) 3. On the back of the palette is Narmer wearing bowling-pin shaped crown of Upper Egypt (white crown). The king's protector, Horus, is also pictured holding a rope and a papyrus plant around a man's head. These are symbols of Lower Egypt. (2-2A) 4. The palette was used to prepare eye makeup which was used to protects their eyes from the sun. It was probably commemorative or ceremonial. (2-2) 5. This palette is divided into registers, to divide the subject into different scenes and show the importance of certain components of the scene. The pharaoh is shown much larger than all other figures, and represented in composite view. This method of portraying bodies was meant to give the viewer the most information possible about the subject, and was also based in the idea that you had to represent all parts of a figure for the person to be complete in the next world. (2-2.a, 2-3) 6. The pharaoh is much larger than all other figures and is also shown in an idealized form with broad shoulders, small hips and waist, and a muscular form. His enemies are shown trampled under his feet or beheaded. On the top of this piece there is a cartouche, or a place to put the pharaoh's god name after his death. (2-3.b) 7. This piece was made to celebrate the success of the pharaoh in uniting upper and lower Egypt into one kingdom. Cats with long necks that bend like serpents represent the union of Egypt as one of the animals wears the crown of upper Egypt and the other one of lower Egypt. The pharaoh wears a crown combining the two styles. (2-1) 8. The goddess mother of the pharaohs is present to show the divinity of the pharaoh. The god Horus - ruler of the earth, is also present to demonstrate that order on earth, or ma'at, is brought by the pharaoh's divinity and his connection to Horus. (2-2)

44. Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater) (2 images) Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman. 70-80 C.E. Stone and concrete

1. The real name of the Colosseum is the Flavian Amphitheater, named after the Emperor Vespasian, who converted the area into a public space from the previous emperor's private lake. It gained the name Colosseum because of a colossal statue of Nero that used to stand in that area. Essential Knowledge 2-4c 2. Romans were able to build the large structure through use of a concrete core, brick casting, and travertine facing. Also there was interplay of barrel vaults, groin vaults and arches. Essential Knowledge 2-4c 3. The façade contains multiple types of columns from different cultures and time periods. The first story is Tuscan, second floor Ionic, third floor Corinthian, and the top a flattened Corinthian. Each floor was thought of as lighter than the order below. Enduring Understanding 2-4 4. Later in time, especially in the Middle Ages, much of the marble was pulled off the Colosseum and used in other buildings. Enduring Understanding 2-4 5. The area was meant for entertainment, especially wild and dangerous spectacles. Often, there were animal hunts and fights, gladiator battles, and naval battles. Enduring Understanding 2-4

Terra cotta warriors from mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China Qin Dynasty. c. 221-209 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta

1. They were found in the Mausoleum of the first Quin emperor of China. He aimed to conquer both life and death. He was known for being a "military genius" and for his methods of massacre and destruction. 2. He wanted an underground army to protect him in the afterlife which was parallel to his existence in this world. Precious gemstones were used to represent the stars, the sun, and the moon. Lots of wealth can be seen in the tomb because of gold, silver, and jade. 3. It united China after warring states and created the Qin Dynasty. Each soldier has a unique face and clothing which shows high craftsmanship. Their frames were constructed using an assembly production system which paved the way for mass production and commerce. 4. The artisans that worked on the tomb were locked in it forever so they would not disclose the fact that there were a ton of jewels inside of it. The emperor started the construction when he was only 13.

37. Winged Victory of Samothrace Hellenistic Greek. c. 190 B.C.E. Marble

1. The statue was found on an island north of the Aegean which is called Samothrace. 2. Meant to stand in or above a fountain cascading water around rocks below, similar to a figurehead of a boat. Wet drapery look imitates the water playing on the wet body. Show visible wind on her body. Dramatic twist and contrapposto of the torso. Monumental figure - very large. Her missing right arm may have raised a victory crown or held an open hand in greeting; perhaps she was landing on the prow of a ship. The bow at the base is a battleship with oarboxes and traces of a ram - probably built to commemorate a nay victory in 190 B.C.E.; Nike is a symbol of victory. (2-5b) 3. This image has an enormous impact on Western art because of the lack of the previous reserved, high classical style. There is voluptuousness and a windswept energy that is full of motion and emotion. This is what the Hellenistic style looked like. She moves in several directions at the same time, is grounded by her legs but strides forward, and her torso lifts up. (2-4b & 2-4d) 4. The statue is a reminder of the sculptures from the Parthenon frieze, but instead of the quiet, relaxed attitude of the gods on Mount Olympus, there is energy to natural forces that the goddess is responding to. The wet drapery look imitates the water playing on the wet body and shows evidence of invisible wind on her body. (2-4c)

14. Statue of Votive figures from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq) Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inland with shell and black limestone

1. The statues were found beneath the floor of a Sumerian temple, the Square Temple at Eshnunna, modern Tell Asmar, Iraq. Essential Knowledge 2-1a 2. The statues of votive figures are of different heights, denoting hierarchy of scale. The tallest and largest figure held the highest importance. Essential Knowledge 2-2a. 3. Votive figures represent mortals, placed in a temple and praying (possibly to the god Abu), and stood continually in prayer attentive to god in place of people of elite class. Inscribed on the back is "It offers prayers". Enduring Understanding 2-1 4. The bodies of the figures are stylized, with their pinkies in a spiral, chin a wedge shape, and ear a double volute. Essential Knowledge 2-2a 5. The male figures have a bare upper chest, wear a skirt from the waist down, have a flowing beard in rippling patterns, and wear a belt. The females are shown with their dress draped over one shoulder. Priest figures are also represented with female robes. Essential Knowledge 2-1a.

6. Anthropomorphic stele Arabian Peninsula. Fourth millennium B.C.E. Sandstone.

1. The stele was found in Saudi Arabia, an area with extensive trade routes, and is one of the earliest works from Arabia. 2. It is thought to be associated with religious or burial practices, and was probably used as a grave marker. 3. Anthropomorphic is a term to describe something that resembles a human. This figure is abstract, but clearly human. The broad shoulders suggest strength, and the rectangular figure signifies that this was is a man. 4. It was created by carving sandstone with a harder type of rock.

Lakshmana Temple Khajuraho, India. Hindu, Chandella Dynasty. c. 930-950 C.E. Sandstone

1. The temple is a Hindu temple and has all the elements, like a porch, mandapa, antarala, and garbhagria. It has two rows of sculpture on the outside, some of which depict erotic scenes. 2. The top of the doorway has seven panels all dedicated to the God Vishnu. Even inside their are four sculptures dedicated to Vishnu. A row of sculpted elephants peek out from the base as if they are holding up the building. 3. The main sculpture of Vishnu has 3 heads and four arms. The center head is of a human and the two on the side are a boar and a lion. 4. The temple is equally as tall as it is long and is placed on a platform. The shape of the temple reflects the appearance of the mountains.

17. Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and the Great Sphinx (2 images) Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2550-2490 B.C.E. Cut limestone.

1. The three great pyramids were grave sites for three rulers (Khufu, Menkaure, Kharfe) with mortuary temples attached for offerings to the deceased pharaohs. The pyramid was considered a place of regeneration and honor for the ruler. 2. The pyramids are guarded by a great sphinx which has a heard of a human and body of a lion. It is carved in situ from a huge rock to symbolize the sun god. Cats are also royal animals in Egypt which is why it is in front of royalty. 3. They were made of limestone and all the pyramids tips (ben-bens) were solar reference to the sun god. The sun rays were a ramp to climb to the sky. UNCLEAR... 4. Khufu's pyramid was the largest and he had a ton of boats in his tomb so he could transport to places. (THE JOURNEY OF THE AFTERLIFE WAS SEEN AS A JOURNEY ACROSS THE NILE.) Kharfe's pyramid was the middle size and the great sphinx was directly outside of it. Menkaure's pyramid is the smallest of the three and the sculpture of King Menkaure and his queen is found inside.

4. Running Horned Woman Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria. 6000-4000 B.C.E. Pigment on rock.

1. There are more than 15,000 rock paintings and engravings in Tassili. The art depicts herds of cattle and large wild animals such as giraffe and elephant, as well as human activities such as hunting and dancing. (1-2B) 2. Although the styles and subjects of north African rock art vary, the images usually depict both wild and domestic animals and human figures who are adorned with recognizable clothes and weapons. (1-2E) 3. Composite view of the body. The dots may reflect body paint applied for ritual. The entire site was most likely painted by different groups of people over time. (1-2B) 4. The area was once grasslands but climate change turned it into a desert. (1-1A)

35. The Acropolis (6 images) Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble

1. There was an older temple to Athena in that same area that was destroyed when the Persians invaded. The Persians destroyed and burned down the temple and the Athenians took a vow to never rebuild it but a generation later they decided to rebuild the Athenian temple. The Delian League, a tax money fund, may have been what paid for it. It was a sacred area that was dedicated to Athena. Eventually housed the city-state tax money, storehouse, and treasury, full of valuable things and functioned as a symbol of the city's wealth and power and point of awe. 2. Mathematics and building skills and search for perfect harmony and balance were all important to the Greeks so the Parthenon demonstrates all these things. Its architectural perfection is an illusion based on subtle distortions that correct the imperfections of human sight. For example, the columns bulge out fractions of an inch towards the center in order to create the illusion of a perfectly straight column. The Parthenon is a doric temple with ionic elements. There are massive column outside with shallow, broad flutes going directly down and a simple little flair at the top and four ionic columns in the west end of the temple. The triglyphs and metopes were covered in sculptures depicting stories or Greeks battling against enemies. There was a frieze inside the porch depicting a procession of the people of Athens towards the Parthenon (a historical representation rather than mythological or religious) that ran along the outside of the Temple which was an ionic feature. (2-4c, 2-5b) 3. The Acropolis represents the birth of democracy as there was a shift in government in the 5th century that made it easier for the Greek people to participate in their government. Many more governmental buildings are based upon the outward architecture of the Parthenon to embody that same sense of democracy and its roots. (2-4d)

31. Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo (3 images) Etruscan Master sculptor Vulca. c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa; terra cotta sculpture

1. This Etruscan temple was made out of mud brick with a stone foundation, and the modified "Tuscan" Doric unfluted columns were made out of wood. These materials were less permanent than the materials used by Greek and Roman societies and therefore, this structure is no longer in existence. (2-5) 2. Clay statues were displayed on the roof of the temple, portraying a scene of the god Apollo struggling with Heracles for a tripod. These figures are meant to be representative of ideal humans, and are designed to be viewed from a distance. The figures have archaic smiles, and use drapery in contrast to Greek figures which were often nude. (2-4.c) 3. Figures on the roof of the temple are comparable to Greek kouros statues in some ways but show distinct aspects of Etruscan art. None of the figures are nude on the Etruscan temple, but some scholars believe Kouros statues were meant to be depictions of the god Apollo, and the Etruscan art on the roof of this temple depicts Apollo. The Etruscan statues are less realistic due to their placement on a temple roof, and are relatively flat because they were generally only viewed from a frontal perspective. (2-4) 4. This temple differs from Greek temple composition in several ways, including the fact that it has a colonnade only on the front, has exposed beams, and has a much smaller staircase which is also only in the front of the temple. Overall the structure is not as impressive or imposing as Greek or Roman temples. There is a front porch on the temple, and the interior sanctuaries are dedicated to Zeus, Athena, and Hera. (2-4)

5. Bushel with Ibex motifs Susan, Iran. 4200-3500 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta.

1. This beaker was discovered under a temple mound. It is considered prehistoric (before the rise of Mesopotamian city-states) and many like it were found buried in cemeteries along the fertile river valley in Susa. 2. This beaker is decorated with numerous animal forms such as a mountain goat, dogs, and birds. The geometric patterns that adorn the clay are stylized and very detailed. Included is a "stitching" pattern whose significance is unknown. 3. There are no records of written language or belief system, perhaps these figures are symbols for fertility which would have been greatly important to the people of this time. 4. Although some scholars argue this was made on a small wheel, most agree that it is in fact made and painted by hand. The careful attention to detail and geometric elements of the figures embody the shape of the pot as seen in the mountain goat's round horns and the elongation of the dogs and birds above.

22. Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters New Kingdom (AMARNA PERIOD), 18th Dynasty. c. 1353-1335 B.C.E. Limestone.

1. This is a (once) painted limestone relief showing Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and their three daughters. Nefertiti's throne has symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. The carved sun represents the god Aton. (2-1a) 2. Akhenaton changed the state religion from worship of Amun to Aton. The society is now monotheistic, and the art changed to reflect this shift. (2-3a) 3. The shift in state religion created more artist experimentation. Akhenaton and his family are represented in a new canon, characterized by low hanging bellies, slack jaws, smoother curved surfaces, thin arms, epicene bodies and heavy lidded eyes. (2-1a) 4. The royal family has a private relationship with the god Aton, giving them the power. The priests now had no political power. (2-3b)

20. Temple of Amun-re and Hypostyle Hall Karnark, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; hall: c. 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mud brick. (3 images)

1. This is a massive temple complex that was the principal religious center of the god Amun-Re in Thebes during the New Kingdom. It held not only the main precinct to the god Amun-Re, but also the precincts of the gods Mut and Montu. (2-2b) 2. One of the greatest architectural marvels is the hypostyle hall. Like most of the temple decoration, the hall would have been brightly painted. With the center of the hall taller than the spaces on either side, the Egyptians allowed for clerestory lighting. (2-3a) 3. Not many ancient Egyptians would have had access to this hall. One would enter the complex through a massive sloped pylon gateway into a peristyle courtyard. The further into the hypostyle hall, the more restricted the access became. (2-3b) 4. The columns in the hall are large, and tightly packed together, admitting little light into the sanctuary. They are elaborately painted and carved in sunken relief. The tallest columns have papyrus capitals and have a CLERESTORY to allow some light and air into the darkest parts of the temple. (2-3a)

Alhambra Granada, Spain. Nasrid Dynasty. 1354-1391 C.E. Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding

1. This palace was a fort built by the last Muslim dynasty in Spain, the Nasrid Dynasty. 2. They covered every open space with design, no matter the size or shape. Decoration was very important to the structure, even some of the arches were fake and were only there for the purpose of decoration. 3. There are many poems that decorate the walls, along with the repeated phrase "God is the only victor". 4. The Alhambra is located at a point where they are able to see over the whole city. It was added to the center of the city and became a military fortress because of the unique ability to see over all of the city.

43. Augustus of Prima Porta Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E. Marble

1. This represents the ideal view of the Roman emperor. It was used as propaganda and was supposed to communicate Augustus's power and ideology. He shows himself as a military victor and a supporter of Roman religion. (2-4C) 2. The statue stands in a contrapposto pose and he is wearing military regalia. His right arm is outstretched which symbolizes that he is addressing his troops. It has a big similarity to 'Doryphorus'. (2-4C) 3. At his right is a figure of cupid riding a dolphin. The dolphin symbolizes Augustus's victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra which allowed him to become the sole ruler. Cupid symbolizes the fact that Augustus is a descendant of gods. Cupid is the son of Venus and Augustus's father claimed to be a descendant of Venus. (2-5B) 4. The breastplate that the stature is wearing also has a lot of symbolism. Two of the figures are a Roman and a Parthian. The Parthian is returning military standards. This is a reference to a victory of Augustus. On the side there are female personifications of countries conquered by Augustus. (2-4C)

18. King Menkaura and Queen Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke

1. This sculpture depicts King Menkaure with a woman who might either be his queen or his mother. The woman is depicted in a protective pose, with her hand on the king's arm. She is also shown as having power, as seen through her stepping forward with her left foot along with Menkaure as well as the fact that she is almost the same height, once again indicating her powerful role in the court. (2-1, 2-3B) 2. The statue was originally made in order to embody King Menkaure's ka when he died, a practice that was extremely common in Egypt at this time. This would give his soul a place to inhabit once he entered the afterlife. (2-2, 2-3A) 3. The sculpture was made out of greywacke, a very hard and difficult stone to work with, especially considering the limited technology of the time. The fact that it was made out of greywacke emphasizes its importance to King Menkaure and the Egyptian people. (2-3)

34. Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) Severe Style (Early Classical) Greece Artist: Polykleitos. Original Bronze 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy (marble) of a Greek original (bronze)

1. This statue is called "Spear Bearer" (Greek: Doryphoros) because of the empty hand which in Greek times was carrying a spear. He is a young Greek athlete. He has a closed stance and a contrapposto weight shift of his hips and shoulders. His left arm and right leg are relaxed and his right arm and left leg are tense. 2. After the Peloponnesian War, sculpters started to turn away from idealistic figures and more to humanized statues. Gods were portrayed extremely detailed and were human-like. The fourth century opened up the expressions of emotions through sensuous and languorous statues as well as heads that are 1/8th proportionate to the body. Doryphoros is perfectly proportioned showing the Greek canon (rule) for the body. An example of heroic nudity (male nudity being seen as positive/ pride in nudity, so that viewers can admire the perfection). 3. This work is a CANON (a rule of mathematical proportions that is applied to the human form and the relationships of parts to the whole.) He has a blocklike solidity, broad shoulders, thick torso, and a muscular body. He was thought to have been placed in a gym in sparta for soldiers as the ultimate IDEAL human form. It portrays one who is both a warrior and an athlete. He is young, muscular, and well-toned, showing the Greek ideal.

19. The Code of Hammurabi Babylon (modern Iran). Susain. c. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt.

1. This stele shows the king of Mesopotamia, Hammurabi, being given a rope, a rod of kingship, and a ring (tools for which to measure law) by the sun god, Shamesh. Shamesh is the figure seated and Hammurabi is standing to the left. 2. The stele contains 300 laws written in the Akkadian language (accessible language) below the bas-relief of Hammurabi and Shamesh, as well as Hammurabi's right to be kind and an ode to his glories. It also is one of the earliest examples of codified presumption of innocence and the need to provide evidence. The relief was carved into basalt, as stone from volcanic ash that is incredibly hard. 3. These codes of law are significant because they are one of the earliest codes of law ever written. 4. This stele was used to show the divine approval given to Hammurabi by Shamesh which adds to the authority of Hammurabi and by extent his laws. This stele would have been posted somewhere in Babylon so that it's citizens would know the code of law (an example of religion being used to justify and support the rule of the leader).

The David Vases Yuan Dynasty, China. 1351 C.E. White porcelain with cobalt-blue underglaze

1. This style of vases usually is associated with Chinese culture. This particular style was created during the reign of Mongolian monarchs. 2. They are created using Kaolin clay. The production of porcelain was monitored by the king, and outsiders could not easily learn how to make it. The clay and glaze was fired at high temperatures (1500 degrees) 3. The mongol empire allowed for the Silk Road trade which allowed for the creation of porcelain. 4. A majority of these vases were used for export or sold in local markets. These particular vases are based on bronze vases that were used in rituals. Dragon, phoenix, and floral motifs are incorporated into the design.

24. Last judgement of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. c. 1,275 B.C.E. Painted papyrus scroll

1. This work was originally found in the tomb of Hu-Nefer. Hu-Nefer was a scribe, and would have been considered high status. 2. The illustration comes from the Book of the Dead, which is a collection of spells, prayers, and charms. 3. The scroll shows Anubis, the jackal headed god, leading Hu-Nefer to his judgment. Anubis weighs Hu-Nefer's heart on a scale against the feather of truth, while Thoth, the god of scribes, records the results. A creature that is part crocodile, leopard and hippo sits ready to devour Hu-Nefer's heart if it is not pure. Hu-Nefer's heart is true, and Horus, the falcon headed god, presents him to Osiris, the judge and god of the underworld. 4. The scroll is made of papyrus, which is a paper-like substance that grows in the Nile Delta. 5. If his heart was not proven true, he would have been devoured by the devourer, and would not continue into the Afterlife. But since his heart is true, he is led into the Afterlife to be closer with the gods - specifically Osiris. These scrolls were made to prefigure their ascension into the Afterlife in order to influence the gods.

48. Orant Fresco - Catacomb of Priscilla Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco

1. Unlike PAGAN Roman mosaics, which are made out of rock, ROMAN Christian mosaics are often of gold or precious materials and faced with glass. The catacombs beneath Rome have 4 million dead and extend about 100 miles. This particular catacomb contains the tomb of seven popes and many early Christians martyrs. 2. The Greek Chapel is named for two Greek inscriptions painted on the right of the niche. The three niches are for the sarcophagi. It is decorated with paintings in the Pompeian style, which consisted of sketchy painterly brush strokes. 3. The orants figures were part of a fresco which was located over the tomb niche set over an arched wall in the cemetery of a family vault. The figure is compact and the dark shape, sets a sharp contrast with the light background. Other notable aspects include tensing angular contours, emphatic gestures and the fact that the figures stand with their arms outstretched in prayer. 4. The Good Shepherd fresco is a restrained portrait of Christ as a shepherd. This is a pastoral motif in ancient art that can be traced back to the Greeks. The symbolism of the Good Shepherd is that Christ rescues the individual sinners in his flock that go astray, and that he cares for everyone who wants to be a part of his flock.

Röttgen Pietà Late medieval Europe (Germany). c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood

1. When looking at the Rottgen Pieta you are meant to feel something like terror or distaste. It is meant to intrigue you because that is what Gothic art does. This is very different from previous representations of Christ because in the past he was portrayed as divine and never suffering. 2. This representation of Christ was a shift into showing Jesus suffer the way humans suffer, to make him more like us. Francis of Assisi stressed Jesus' humanity and poverty, like us. Several faith writers talked about Mary holding her dead son and then artists started to catch on. 3. It emphasizes that God understands how we feel and how hard the pain is of being a human. In the Rottgen Pieta you can see that is skin is taut around his ribs to show he led a life of hunger and suffering, like a human. 4. Mary is also traditionally shown as pretty, happy, grateful, wise and older but in Pietas she is shown as grieving and obviously upset about her only sons crucifixion and death which shows her humanity as well. 5. All pietas were devotional images that were intended for contemplation and prayer. Meant to give humans a more personal connection to God because Mary and Jesus are human-like.

3. Camelid Sacrum in the shape of a canine Tequixquiac, Mexico 14,000-7,000 BCE Sacrum bone

1. While the artist of this work did not have the means to change very much about the bone, they did model their design off of a dog, something that was common in their environment. (1-2F) 2. The sacrum bone was very symbolic and important in many cultures, as it was thought to hold up the spine, thereby connecting the brain in the head to the second brain. The second brain was located at the bottom of the spine and was thought to be important in the afterlife. (1-1B) 3. The time period of the creation of the mask is important because it is around the time that humans began to domesticate dogs. Animism, the idea that all natural objects have souls, became more popular as domesticated animals became more common, and this mask would have related to that idea. (1-2F) 4. While the exact function is not known, it is believed that the mask was used during ceremonial rituals. This is because the mask looks like a face, perhaps relating to animism, and seems to serve no other practical function. (1-2C, 1-3A)

Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan Artist unknown; based on oil painting by Lui Chunhua. c. 1969 C.E. Color lithograph

1. Work was painted at the height of the Cultural Revolution, when fine art was condemned as feudal or bourgeois; artists had to serve the Communist Part and, above all, the dominant figure of Mao Ze-Dong. 900,000,000 images generated and spread across China to emphasize his heroism. 2. Depicts Mao going to Anyuan to support workers in a strike there, an event which brought him great support from ordinary people. Artist contributed image anonymously, without recompense to aid the party. 3. Socialist Realism became the dominant style of Communist art first in Russian in the late 30s and 40s and then elsewhere; rejection of traditional Chinese media as feudal and elitist; rejection of modernism as bourgeois individualist and too difficult to use to convey clear messages. 4. Socialist art went away and went back to realism and propaganda (looks really tall and in charge , towering over the landscape)

Buddha Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Gandharan. c. 400-800 C.E. (destroyed in 2001). Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint

1.The site was very close to an important branch of the Silk road which made the site an ideal location for merchants who practiced Buddhism to stop during their journeys. Buddhism spread so vastly because you didn't need to be in one place to worship because sites like this were all around which allowed Buddhists to practice their religion always. 2.The bottom of the Buddha the Buddha's feet were carved in round which allowed the worshipers in interact with the sculpture and walk around it (circumambulate). The design of the Buddha's was influenced by India, Central Asia, and some ancient Greek art like flowy robes and curly hair. 3. Each Buddha represents something: smaller Buddha represents Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha and the larger Buddha represents Vairocana, universal Buddha. The Buddha's also were originally painted and covered in gold. 4. The Taliban forces were ordered to destroy the Buddha's in 2001 and they succeeded so only the outlines remain. The direction to destroy the Buddha images was motivated, in part, by the Taliban's extreme iconoclastic campaign as well as their disdain for western interest and funding that had gone to protecting the images while there was an intense and growing need for humanitarian aid in the region.

8. Stonehenge (2 images) Wiltshire, U.K. Neolithic Europe. c. 2500-1600 B.C.E. Sandstone

Experts describe the site as a very accurate solar calendar. One bluestone placed outside of the circle is said to be where the sun rose on the summer solstice if one were standing in the center of the henge. Its creation was a great feat; the stones weigh up to 50 tons. Also could've been used for ceremonies for rituals, but during the second phase of its construction, WHEN THE MEGALITHIC TRILITHONS AND HENGE WERE ERECTED, it was used for burial.

50. Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis (2 images) Early Byzantine Europe. Early sixth (500's) century C.E. Illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum)

First surviving illustrations of the stories from Genesis 1) The creation of religious manuscripts such as this one was a very time consuming process. The pages are purple vellum which is treated animal (calf) skin, suggesting a royal institution, and all the writing and illustrations were done by hand using silver script. The care and detail taken with such manuscripts makes them very important and accessible by only the very wealthy. (3-2) - Only partial manuscript survives 48/192? pages. 2) The style of the illustration is very classical and shows the training of the artist in Greek and Roman tradition. Foreshortening, shadowing to show depth, contrapposto and the Roman style columns and arches on bridge are all examples of classical elements in this piece. (3-1C) 3) The perspective used in this illustration is typical of the Byzantine period but different from the classical intuitive perspective of the previous period. Here, all the figures are the same size regardless of which section of the narrative they are from. Also, the perspective on the bridge is unique, the columns that would appear closest to the viewer are smaller than the columns from earlier in the narrative, opposite how they would appear using true linear perspective. (3-1B) 4) The illustrations on both of these pages were done to aid the reader reflect the meaning and teachings in the religious stories. Therefore, the images are DIDACTIC - created to teach. One page shows Jacob leading his family and wives and then wrestling with the angel who strikes his hip and then blesses him. The bridge connects the two levels. The other page is also a narrative that has multiple scenes, showing Rebecca aiding Eliezar (Abraham's servant who is searching for a bride for Isaac) with his camels at the well. She quenches the thirst of the camel driver and his camels. (3-2C) 5) The image of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well also demonstrates the shift in art style between the classical period and early medieval art. The Roman water goddess personifies the spring and contrasts with the Christian story. Other classical elements include Rebecca's outfit of heavy drapery and simplified clothing, typical of early Christian art. The presence of the walled city, which is a symbolic element is not shown in a spatially accurate way, which is typical of medieval art. (3-1C)

36. Grave stele of Hegeso Attributed to Kallimachos. c. 410 B.C.E. Marble and paint

In the Geometric period, the Greeks used kraters (like the Dipylon Vase) to mark graves. During the Archaic time period, the Greeks used kouroi to mark graves. This grave stele is from the classical period. It was erected in the Dipylon cemetery in Athens. It commemorates the death of Hegeso inscription identifies her and her father. Genre Scene: a scene from every day life. Hegeso is examining a piece of jewelry from a jewelry ox handed to her by a standing servant; it may represent her dowry. The jewelry was painted in and is not visible.

48. Catacomb of Priscilla - Greek Chapel (3 images) Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco

The Greek Chapel is named for two Greek inscriptions painted on the right of the niche. The three niches are for the sarcophagi. It is decorated with paintings in the Pompeian style, which consisted of sketchy painterly brush strokes.

49. Santa Sabina - Interior Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe (Early Christianity) c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wood

The thin walls in Santa Sabina have very large windows and give a clear sense of light and space. The décor also incorporates columns repurposed from pagan structures (SPOLIA). These factors not only give a sense of divinity through the use of lightness and ethereality in the decoration, but also represent a victory of Christianity over Paganism through the repurposing of the columns. (3-2.b) -Flat wooden roof; coffered ceiling thin walls support light roof.

35. Victory Adjusting her Sandal From the Temple of Athena Nike; Acropolis Classical Greece c. 410 B.C.E. Marble

There are a series of Nikes in the Temple of Athena Nike at the Acropolis. The most famous sculpture is Nike Adjusting her Sandal. The sculpture shows her possibly taking her sandal off as she is in a sacred space and she is depicted with a sensual eroticism as her clothing slips off her shoulder and clings to her form. The image is graceful and modeled in high relief. Deeply incised drapery lines reveal the body and the wet drapery. The asymmetrical composition offers perfect balance in the curve of her shoulder and the lifting of her right leg. (2-4b, 2-5b)

38. Great Altar of Zeus and Athens at Pergamon (3 Images) Asia Minor (represents-day Turkey) Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E. Marble

The gigantomachy was supposed to represent the Pergamene victory over the Gauls. There was a deliberate architectural connection made to Athens because they had already gloriously defeated the Persians and the Parthenon was already a highly regarded monument. The frieze of Athena battling Alkynoeos is a reference to the Athena from the east pediment of the Parthenon and Zeus is a reference to Poseidon from the west pediment of the Parthenon. The gigantomachy shows that the Greeks had fear, but they could overcome chaos. The battle represented the victory of Greek culture over the unknown, chaotic forces of nature and the military victory over cultures that they thought were chaotic and didn't understand.

35. Plaque of the Ergastines c. 438-432 B.C.E. From the Ionic Frieze of the Parthenon The Acropolis, Greece

This is a scene from the Panathenaic Frieze depicting the Panathenaic Procession, held every four to honor Athena. First time in Greek art showing a depiction of a human event on a temple. The higher up the relief placement, the more 3-dimensional the relief was carved so it could be seen better from below. The Procession began at the Dipylon Gate, passed through the agora and ended up at the Parthenon. Athenians placed a new peplos (outfit) on a small statue of Athena. Six Ergastines, young women in charge of weaving Athena's peplos, are greeted by two priests. Isocephalism: the tradition of depicting heads of figures on the same level. New possible theory: not the Panathenaic Procession but the story of the legendary Athenian king, Erechtheus, who sacrificed one of his daughters to save the city of Athens; told to do so by the Oracle of Delphi.

39. PLAN - House of the Vetti. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Rome c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco

Two brothers owned the house; both free men who made money as merchants. Narrow entrance sandwiched between several shops. Large reception area (atrium), open to sky with catch basin (impluvium) in center; cubicula radiate around the atrium. Very few exterior windows. Peristyle garden in rear (private area of house). Exterior lacks windows -interior light comes from the atrium and peristyle courtyard.

Under the Wave of Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), as known as the Great Wave, from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji Katsushika Hokusai. 1830-1833 C.E. Polychrome woodblock print; ink and color on paper

• Considered to be the most iconic work of Japanese art, Under the Wave off Kanagawa is seen as a great business investment in that it is easily mass-produced, sold at cheap prices, and depicts a sacred mountain to the Japanese that many admire. • Although at first glance the work looks very Japanese, additionally, it is inspired by the linear perspective used in Dutch art and the European influence through the use of Prussian blue. • The work primarily plays with the perspective to make Japan's biggest mountain appears as a small triangular mound within the wave. • The work was created at a time when Japanese trade was heavily restricted, but it is seen as an inspirational work for many artists working in Europe later in the 19th century.

Gold and jade crown Three Kingdoms Period, Silla Kingdom, Korea. Fifth to sixth century C.E. Metalwork

• Worn by the royalty in the Korean Silla Kingdom, it was initially found in a tomb which refers to its importance in the culture. • Rituals part of the Shamanic, the crown shows cultures coming together of the mainland tribes in China, who were well-known for gold. • The crown shows the idea behind the Buddhist sacred tree with items hanging from it. • It is a Shamanic crown in which the kings wears it for crossing over o the Afterlife so he can communicate with the dead.