AP Art History Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Art

THE PARTHENON:

It's amazing that the Parthenon is still standing. Survived almost perfectly until the 17th century. Wars, religion, pollution, etc... It has been a Pagan Temple to the Greek Gods, A church (East Pediment busted out for an apse), a mosque (minaret built and later destroyed) and was almost blown to bits when Venetian mortars hit the center of the temple (which is where the Ottoman Turks stored their gunpowder). The whole building was built based on the mathematical equation x = 2y + 1 (number of columns, space in between columns size of the cella, etc)

Athena Parthenos, in the cella (naos) of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 438 BCE.

Model of Chryselephantine statue. The original would have stood 38 ft tall, and made of gold and ivory. Created by Phidias and fitted with helmet, spear, and shield, she holds the winged Nike (representing victory (most likely over the Persians)). At one point Pericles says, if the Greeks go broke, they could always melt down this monument. Obviously this happened at one point (although no one knows who did it)

Classical

480-450 BCE Severe Style CLASSICAL PERIOD: The beginning of the classical period coincides perfectly with the defeat of King Xerxes and the Persians around 480 BCE. This period would last approximately 80 years and would see the first truly differentiated western art that would define all other western art. Despite future interactions, near and middle eastern art would eventually be dominated by the Islamic faith. This was the time of Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus, and Socrates. Called the "Severe-style" in part because of the seriousness of the content (not smiling like archaic figures). At this point, sculptures were put into action, as opposed to simply standing still. Whether driving a chariot, hurling a lightning bolt or tossing a Frisbee, sculpture would cease to be static. Note: Copies are almost all of what's left of many pieces. Most originals would have been completed in bronze using a hollow-casting method. These would have been much more durable than their marble copies (notice on the discobolis, there's a tree stump imposed on the leg and hip for stability).

The Romans

50 BCE - 350 CE The Monarchy (750-500 BCE) The Republic (500-27 BCE) Early/High/Late Empire The Roman empire was one of the most vast with the largest number of cultures, languages, and races. Roman art and architecture is the most conspicuous remains of ancient civilization in the world, with many churches, amphitheaters, houses, and shops made or altered from Roman builders. In the beginning, Romulus and Remis (less so Remis) set up Rome around 750 BCE as a small village, part of the Etruscan Region of Italy, next to the Tiber River. From there, it would be understatement to say, it grew. Map: Showcases lands in three continents and trade would take them to India and China as well. Color coded by region conquered in terms of time. The Roman reign is typically split into five aspects: The Monarchy - Discussed in the Etruscan chapter, Etruscan kings ruled Rome until their overthrow around 500 BCE The Republic - From the expulsion of the last Etruscan king to the defeat of Mark Antony in the civil war that ended the Republic (509-27 BCE) Early Empire (27 BCE - 96 CE) High Empire (96-192 CE) Late Empire (193-337 CE) GOVERNMENT AND GREEK INFLUENCE: When the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan King, they established a new Roman Republic gov't, which vested power in a senate and two consuls. Note that they also made a rule that a dictator could be appointed under extraordinary circumstances. FOR ART'S SAKE: It wasn't until 211 BCE that the Roman army conquered the Greek city of Syracuse, that the Romans fell in love with Greek art and thus their insatiable appetite grew... They would continue their conquests and the influence of Greek art would grow as well, although note, that Etruscan art had it's own influence on the Romans.

Severe Style

480-450 BCE (Early Classical) This is considered from the Severe Style, which was the transitionary period between Archaic Greece and Classical Greece also considered "Early Classical". It's meant to denote the more severe look of the figures, as opposed to the smiling figure of the Archaic.

Groin Vault (Cross vault):

Joining of two arches or barrel vaults, need less buttressing because the cross-sections give more support (even weight distribution).

Roman, The Battle of Issus mosaic, 80 BCE, Pompeii (House of the Faun), ~9ft x 17

During Greek times, mosaics (tesserae) were typically only flooring. By Roman times, mosaics are solid enough to adorn walls and even ceilings. In addition to mosaics, Romans were also known for popularizing private portraiture and still life paintings This mosaic's representation of things like light, reflection, and foreshortening are some of the greatest examples of a style that will dominate western art for centuries to come. Notice how the horses are depicted from all different angles. How bout the soldier on the ground, holding a shield which has his reflection in it. Shadows are all over the ground, giving weight and depth to the figures.

BUTTRESSING

EXTERIOR SUPPORT FOR INTERIOR ARCHES

PHILOXENOS OF ERETRIA, Battle of Issus, ca. 310 BCE. Roman copy (Alexander Mosaic) from the House of the Faun, Pompeii, Italy, late second or early first century BCE. Tessera mosaic, approx. 8' 10" X 16' 9".

Pliny (Roman historian) says there is a Greek painting by Philoxenos which this mosaic was modeled after. No way to know for sure and there is always some mix-up with AP when it comes to dates and origin. Tesserae is a style of mosaic where tiny pieces of glass are cut and used instead of pebbles. Supposedly near 1.5 million pieces of tesserae in this mosaic

THE ACROPOLIS -

on top of a rocky outcropping (one of many in Greece) in Athens. Acro (high or upper) and polis (city) were typically meant for defensive purposes but the Athenian Acropolis doubled as a sacred space as well (specifically to Athena).

SYMMETRIA

suitable in measure; proportionate. The idea that all parts of something fit together perfectly in relation each other. TOTAL AND COMPLETE BALANCE

Greek HUMANITY AS THE "MEASURE OF ALL THINGS":

superior to all other living creatures and nature. It is IN HUMANITY THAT THE POTENTIAL FOR GREATNESS LIES. This led to WESTERN CONCEPTS SUCH AS DEMOCRACY (demos - the people) along with substantial contributions to arts, literature, and science. WHAT THIS MEANT FOR ART SPECIFICALLY WAS THE SEARCH FOR THE IDEAL (PERFECT) FORM (FIGURE). The Greeks were very formulaic in their approach. This was the same for architecture. Unlike the Egyptians who were concerned about the lasting quality of their statues, Greeks used easier to carve materials (marble, clay, etc.), in order to get the perfect human figure.

Virtus

virtuous and

Fenestrated

Combination of groin vaults (fenestration here refers to architectural elements in a row).

Greek, Classical - Porch of the Maidens, Erechtheum - 421-405 BCE

Greek Classical, Porch of the Maidens, Erechtheum, Athens Housed the wooden statue of Athena. One of the only Greek temples that was not symmetrical and balanced. The reason was to incorporate several geographic features including tombs of ancient Greek kings (Erectheun), the spot where Poseidon's trident was struck into the ground and the olive tree that Athena made grow as part of the contest to see which deity could claim Athens as their city (this is supposedly where she battled Poseidon for the soul of the city). The most striking feature is the south porch where caryatid columns can be viewed. Notice the knee. Why would that be an important feature to point out in terms of classic Greek sculpture CARYATIDS: According to Vitruvius, Caryatid comes from the women of Caryae a Peloponnesian village which sided with the Persians, thus were sentenced to a life of hard labor by the Greeks. What might the male version of a Caryatid be (think male who had to do hard labor)? Atlantids. IRONIC NOTE: knowing the women of Caryae helped the Persians might seem like total treason, yes? Well, starting in 430 BCE, as a result of the rift between Athens and Sparta (and other Greek city-states), the Peloponnesian Civil War began. It was eventually won by the Spartan cohort, thanks in large part to...(dramatic pause... seriously this is super dramatic...) THE PERSIANS!!! That's right, one of the most prevalent theories of the triumph of Sparta is that they had help from the Persian Empire. Regardless, the reconstruction of the Acropolis represents the High Classical Period of Ancient Greek culture and from this point forward, the public realm of democratic, Greek art would SHIFT, towards...

Typical Greek Style Temple

Greeks believed GREAT ARCHITECTURE COULD BE CONSIDERED A SCULPTURE, great architecture could be considered a sculpture, not just a structure to house sculptures. These temples had the power to evoke emotion and built on a hill to emphasize the "elevated" nature of the building. They were based on MAN'S DOMINANCE OVER HIS SURROUNDINGS, using balance, order, numerically rational geometric principles, and the idea of perfection (IDEALISM) Greek temples were built around the CELLA (or Naos) where the representation of the deity was placed. Note: no windows. The pronaos (porch) was out front and supported by several columns or by the antis (extended walls). Sometimes there was also an opisthodomos (back porch) to balance out the pronaos. Prostyle (front columns), amphiprostyle (front and back columns), and peristyle (front, back and side columns) were usually laid out with peripteral colonnades (single row) but sometimes, in more complex temples, two rows of columns (dipteral) were used. Stereobate is the base(s) that the temple was built upon where there were typically steps and the stylobate is the level on which columns are constructed.

Influence on Greek

Greeks borrowed many artistic traditions from Egypt and Mesopotamia, but no other culture has had more influence over later traditions OF WESTERN CULTURE than the Greeks, specifically in terms of their architecture, their treatment of the human form, and of course democracy.

Phidias' Sculptural Program

Note: While Phidias would have had innumerable assistants and apprentices to help with all the sculptural façade, he is explicitly responsible for the entire decoration of the Parthenon and many of the other temples/buildings on the Acropolis. On the outer reliefs located in the metopes of the doric frieze, several scenes were depicted in many cases to show the Greek conquest over the Persians and other victories (both literal and metaphorical). One was the triumph of MAN OVER CENTAURS (reason over primal urges) the DEFEAT OF THE AMAZONS (man's dominance over women (patriarchy over matriarchy)), the GODS TRIUMPH OVER THE TITANS (man over the primitive gods), and the GREEKS OVER THE TROJANS (triumph over outside cultures)

Peplos Kore, from the Acropolis, Athens Greece, c. 530 BCE

Notice traces of encaustic paint on the Peplos Kore. Most Greek stone statues were painted. Kore, refers to the young female (clothed) version of the Kouros. The Peplos Kore is typical of most Ancient Greek female sculptures; fully clothed, yet more naturalistic than most of it's predecessors. It was originally named for the simple Peplos dress (simple linen clothing pinned at the top), but now it is being debated as to whether she's actually wearing a more complex gown, typical of a Goddess, like a Chiton (shown above). It was discovered at the Acropolis, Athens Greece, c. 530 BCE. Among all of the female sculptures found on the Acropolis, she was the only one dressed in this manner. This theory of the figure being a deity is furthered by the holes drilled into her head, which some researchers believe were holdings for a crown or diadem. Because she may have been a goddess, her function may have been very different than a typical Kore, which would have been as a votive offering. If we knew what her damaged left arm had been holding, then we'd know which goddess (probably Artemis or Athena). Her head may have had a crown or diadem, which would also show her god-like status, along with earrings. It was most likely destroyed, much like many other sculptures, by the Persians. Same Archaic Smile as the Anavysos Kouros Encaustic: Mixing paint with melted wax and painting that onto the surface of a 3 dimensional or 2-dimension surface. Under specific types of lighting, you can see certain designs that would have been painted in, including a pattern of animals running vertically down the lower section of her dress (sphinx, goats, horses, etc.).

PYTHAGORAS

Part of the justification for the Greeks obsession with perfection can come from looking at the work of the Greek philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras. He and his students believed that harmony and mathematical precision could be found in nature, including in the rotation of the planets. It's this obsession with finding these harmonies that possessed the Greeks to create super precise architecture and sculptors. I'm sure their paintings were also an attempt at perfection, unfortunately there are few if any that have survived to this day.

Nike alighting on a warship (Nike of Samothrace), from Samothrace, Greece, ca. 190 BCE. Marble

"Un Bel Composto", Baroque Art, & In Situ Nike alighting on a warship (Nike of Samothrace), from Samothrace, Greece, ca. 190 BCE. Marble, figure 8' 1" high. Louvre, Paris. The original content was the Nike setting down on a ship at sea, in the act of crowning a victorious sea captain. The original setting was on the second tier of a water fountain with rocks below and water splashing up, as on the ocean. The position of the fountain was in a harbor and it may have faced in a way that the wind off the water mimicked the folding and blowing of her dress. NOTE: NOT ACTUALLY ON THE PROW OF A SHIP but on top of a fountain most likely in front of a temple-setting This has all the markings of the baroque style and in the original setting, shows how these sculptures are meant to interact with nature and be almost a performance piece, as opposed to sitting on a pedestal in a museum, library, or temple. Gone is the high classical style, there is now a wind-swept dynamic movement and emotion. There is also a continuation of this sensual, voluptuous rendering of the female form, which contrasts sharply with the more conservative Classical Greeks. Dramatic and fitted with the wet-drapery style of Phidias. EXPRESSIVE FORCE. A partial inscription on the base of the statue includes the word "Rhodios" (Rhodian), indicating that the statue was commissioned to celebrate a naval victory by Rhodes, at that time the most powerful maritime state in the Aegean which in itself would date the statue to 288 BC at the earliest. This theory however has been called into question recently and no conclusive proposals have been made.

The Early Empire

(27 BCE - 96 CE) EARLY EMPIRE: With the murder of Julius Caesar, Rome plunged into a state of civil war (44 BCE) until Octavian (Augustus), grandnephew and adopted son of Caesar, defeated Cleopatra and Mark Antony in 31 BCE. Egypt became another Roman province and Augustus was given basically total control over Roman politics, religion, and everyday life for the next 40 years. The time known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace) would last for 2 centuries (Early thru High Empire). AUGUSTUS AND THE POWER OF IMAGES: Today, politicians think very carefully about how they will be photographed. Think about all the campaign commercials and print ads we are bombarded with every election season. These images tell us a lot about the candidate, including what they stand for and what agendas they are promoting. Similarly, Roman art was closely intertwined with politics and propaganda. This is especially true with portraits of Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire; Augustus invoked the power of imagery to communicate his ideology. WHY DO YOU THINK IMAGERY LIKE THIS WOULD BE EVEN MORE EFFECTIVE BACK THEN vs. TODAY? -There was no internet, no newspapers, and no printing press... painting and SCULPTURE were the only forms of visual communication. This piece, found in Augustus' wife's home in Primaporta is likely one of many copies (this one happened to survive) place all around the empire. The original was likely bronze. What happened to most bronze statues over time?

The Republic

(509-27 BCE) EVER HEARD "HIS/HER FACE IS A MAP OF THE WORLD"? WHY...honestly...WOULD YOU WANT TO BE DEPICTED THIS WAY? PORTRAITURE: What do you think; were these realistic depictions or were features exaggerated to show seriousness, experience, loyalty, etc....? You decide. Remember that during this time period, we had aristocrats who held elected office...what types of traits would be important for a politician? Seemingly wrinkled and toothless, with sagging jowls, the face of a Roman aristocrat stares at us across the ages. In the aesthetic parlance of the Late Roman Republic, the physical traits of this portrait image are meant to convey SERIOUSNESS OF MIND (GRAVITAS) and the VIRTUE (VIRTUS) of a public career by demonstrating the way in which the subject literally wears the marks of his endeavors. While this representational strategy might seem unusual in the post-modern world, in the waning days of the Roman Republic it was an effective means of competing in an ever more complex socio-political arena. This type of portrait was considered Veristic (hyper-realistic; Verus is latin for "truth");. Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated, often to the point of absurdity (yet believable). THE SECOND IMAGE: This stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ANCESTRAL IMAGINES as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. The imagines were essentially death masks of notable ancestors that were kept and displayed by the family. In the case of aristocratic families these wax masks were used at subsequent funerals so that an actor might portray the deceased ancestors in a sort of familial parade (Polybius History 6.53.54). The ancestor cult, in turn, influenced a deep connection to family. For Late Republican politicians without any famous ancestors (a group famously known as 'new men' or 'homines novi') the need was even more acute—and verism rode to the rescue. The adoption of such an austere and wizened visage was a tactic to lend familial gravitas to families who had none—and thus (hopefully) increase the chances of the aristocrat's success in both politics and business. This jockeying for posi

Phidian style

(aka Wet-Drapery Style Modeling) Characterized by a lightness of touch, attention to realistic detail, contrast of textures, and fluidity and spontaneity of line and movement

Hellenistic Period

323-31 BCE Hellenistic Period: Focus was on representing perfect proportions with an emphasis on movement (Baroque - drama and movement) Lasted from Alexander's death in 323 BCE until 30 BCE, when Queen Cleopatra and Mark Antony committed suicide as a result of the loss of Egypt to Rome (Augustus). The root term here was Hellas (what Greeks would have called Greece back then), and refers to the largest iteration of the Greek empire. Ironically, despite the fact that the Greek empire was at it's largest, many art historians consider this period to represent the slow decline of the Greeks until they are conquered by the Romans. Small city-states were replaced by a more cosmopolitan ("citizen of the world") environment with Alexander's generals and noblemen taking over large areas of his empire (Antioch in Syria, Alexandria in Egypt - Ptolemaic rulers, and Pergamon, etc...). Greek was the language of all these areas, however most would eventually be taken over by the Romans. Much from this time period focuses both on Greece (proper) and Anatolia (East, modern Turkey)

Late Classical Period

400-323 BCE The Peloponnesian War , Disillusionment, & Art as a reflection of the times Praxiteles, Cnidian Aphrodite, ~350 BCE; LYSIPPOS, Apoxyomenos (Scraper). Marble copy, ca. 330 BCE, 6' 9" high The Times: After the Peloponnesian war (which started around 430 BCE, Sparta (who...cough...had help from the Persians) took control of Greece from Athens but later the Macedonians would conquer the united front of Greece. While Philip II of Macedonia would be the original conqueror (not the first time a "Philip" of history will be awesome), his heir Alexander the Great was thusly a ruler of the Greek peninsula and conquered areas including Persia, Egypt, and even reached the Indus Valley. As a result of the Peloponnesian civil war, Greek art became somewhat disillusioned and pessimistic, with artists less focused on ideal portrayal and more on real-world likeness, exaggerated features, sexuality, and emotion. Praxiteles' Cnidian Aphrodite: Praxiteles made sculptures that were sensuous in nature. Before now, Greeks didn't depict women nude unless they were slaves or servants, never a noble woman or goddess. Although she shields her pelvic region (venus pudica - becomes a convention of female nudes where they suggestively shield their private parts. The word "pudica" comes to us by way of the Latin "pudendus", which can mean either external genitalia or shame, or both simultaneously.), she is not embarrassed and is in the everyday act of undressing in order to take a bath. Here, she placed her clothing onto a large vase. Praxiteles' sculptures were given humanizing qualities, that separated them from the cold, aloof gods of earlier classical Greece. PEOPLE CAN IMAGINE APHRODITE AS A REAL WOMEN (coincidentally, this statue was one of the most often copied of any Greek sculptures) Lysippos: Established a different canon of proportions from that of Polykleitos. 8 heads tall instead of 7 along with slimmer bodies. The 8 heads made the subjects look even taller because head to body proportions relate to overall size. throughout this course, we will need to make connections between art and the mood/sentiment of the time period - ART IS A REFLECTION OF THE TIMES as the saying goes -- Knowing what we know about what is happeni

Archaic Period

600-480 BCE Homer is writing the Illiad and Odyssey, city states are attaining more power and prestige—PARTICULARLY SPARTA AND ATHENS; trade is flourishing. Perception of human beings are becoming more and more fascinated by the actual human form. From the Geometric period onward, we see a movement toward ever more optically-realistic forms. Working toward greater and greater naturalism and idealism until Hellenistic period. A lot of this movement happens during the Archaic period This is one of the best examples of early, life-size sculpture. Kroisos is a Kouros (youth) which would have been placed on the grave of deceased Greek (also used as votive offerings and also representations of gods). There were thousands of these, non-individualized and idealized to try and fit the conception of the perfection of man. Daedalus (artist renowned for ancient Greek statuary, possible Minoan) traveled to Egypt and was inspired to create monumental sculptures similar to the Egyptians. Therefore you have artworks that look similar to...

Etruscan Art

700-489 BCE Orientalizing Art: 700-600 BCE Archaic Art: 600-480 BCE Classical & Hellenistic: 480-89 BCE LOCATION: Primarily located between the Tiber and Arno rivers. You can see the proximity to Rome. ORIGINS: Before the small village of Rome became "Rome" with a capital R (to paraphrase D.H. Lawrence), a brilliant civilization once controlled almost the entire peninsula we now call Italy. This was the ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION, a vanished culture whose achievements SET THE STAGE NOT ONLY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANCIENT ROMAN ART and culture but for the Italian Renaissance as well. Etruscans were the first "superpower" of the Western Mediterranean who, alongside the Greeks, developed the earliest true cities in Europe. They were so successful, in fact, that the most important cities in modern Tuscany (Florence, Pisa, and Siena to name a few) were first established by the Etruscans. Yet the labels 'mysterious' or 'enigmatic' are often attached to the Etruscans since none of their own histories or literature survives. This is particularly ironic as it was the Etruscans who were responsible for teaching the Romans the alphabet and for spreading literacy throughout the Italian peninsula. The term Tuscany comes from the Etruscan name, although no one knows where the name Etruscan (or the people) come from. INFLUENCE: Etruscan influence on ancient Roman culture was profound. In fact, hundreds of years after the Etruscans had been conquered by the Romans and absorbed into their empire, the Romans still maintained an Etruscan priesthood in Rome (which they thought necessary to consult when under attack from invading 'barbarians'). TRADE: Early on the Etruscans developed a vibrant artistic and architectural culture, one that was often in dialogue with other Mediterranean civilizations including Greeks, Phoenicians and Egyptians in the Mediterranean. With these other cultures, they exchanged goods, ideas and, often, a shared artistic vocabulary. They amassed a large amount of wealth but because they never joined together (think of them as different small city-states), they were easily conquered by the Romans. ARTIFACTS AND THE AFTERLIFE: Unlike the Greeks, however, the majority of our knowledge about Etruscan art comes lar

Orientalizing Period

700-600 BCE Transition from Geometric to Archaic During the 7th century trade and development with Greek city-states increased considerably. Trade with the Near East (specifically the Phoenicians who helped the Greeks develop their alphabet), such as Mesopotamia, Syria and also Egypt was evident, so much so that this phase was considered the Orientalizing period. Orientalizing here refers to the Greeks positioning themselves (orienting) in a global setting (EXPLAIN THE REFERENCE TO ORIENT - LATIN "ORIENT" refers to that which is EAST). DURING THIS TIME YOU SEE INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS NAMES BEING ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR ARTWORKS. PROGRESSION OF FIGURAL DEPICTION - Mantiklos Apollo: No one knows whether the statue is Mantiklos himself (and no one know who Mantiklos is anyway), if it's a young Apollo (if there was a bow and arrow in his hands, then yes) or just a youth represented as a gift to Apollo. Where else do we see the pinched waist? How bout the elongated neck? Summary of this phase: Greece is back on it's feet and now strong enough to orient themselves with the rest of the world.

Greek Geometric Period

800-700 BCE "Out of the Dark (Ages)" SETTING: From the defeat of the Mycenaeans by the Dorians (11th), to the late 9th Century BCE, the dark ages of Greece. Writing was lost, money/economy was replaced by barter, cities disappeared, sophistication of art declined, trade with outsiders ceased. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE WOULD TELL TALES OF THE GOOD OLD DAYS OF THE TROJAN WAR, before the Dorian invasion. Near end of Dark Ages period, art starts becoming more complex and sophisticated again. Early 8th century saw the Olympics and the Greeks begin to trade again with other cultures. GEOMETRIC PERIOD: Referred to because of the common use of geometric patterns in the art. Dipylon Krater: From the Dipylon cemetery. In this case the person was wealthy or high up in society (lots of people involved in the process. Would have signified the importance of the person buried their and given some information about their life. Meander: The reason for the term geometric period was for the ornate and sometimes abstract decoration on pottery and other Greek artworks. The meander is the maze like decoration at the top of the krater shown here. The figures are composed of triangles and the warriors are depicted with the shields as the main portion of their bodies. THIS KRATER AND OTHER GEOMETRIC PIECES REPRESENT THE REBIRTH OF BOTH FIGURAL REPRESENTATION AND NARRATIVE IN ART WITHIN GREECE. Think of the geometric period as "Greece getting back on it's feet"

High Empire

96-192 CE Rome was at its largest geographically and at its height in terms wealth and the creation of public artworks/architectural structures. Having conquered so many other cultures in the hopes of "civilizing" them, Romans set out for idealism in city planning, as well as art and architecture. Above is an ideal Roman City Ground-plan (for a Roman colony, to Rome itself) WHAT WAS THE NAME OF THE 250 PUBLIC OPEN AREA, SO IMPORTANT TO THE ATHENIANS? The Agora Two main roadways divide the city into quarters. The market (forum) and other public buildings were typically near the center. Although this showed a great sense of uniformity in city-planning, in most cases, once this plan was fully populated (and Roman cities were growing fast), cities branched out uncontrollably and with no formal structure. Unfortunately Rome itself outgrew this ideal plan and streets became labyrinths with buildings popping up everywhere. To help manage this, the emperors often built forums, or markets, as central hubs for shopping, legal matters, recreation, worship, and other daily rituals. In Rome, there were 5 main forums (Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva (Domitian), and Trajan). Trajan's forum was built into the Quirinial Hill

Roman, Imperial - Augustus of Prima Porta - c. 1-50 CE(marble)

AUGUSTUS OF PRIMAPORTA: One of Augustus' most famous portraits is the so-called Augustus of Primaporta (the sculpture gets its name from the town in Italy where it was found in 1863). At first glance this statue might appear to simply resemble a portrait of Augustus as an orator and general, but this sculpture also communicates a good deal about the emperor's power and ideology. In fact, in this portrait Augustus shows himself as a great military victor and a staunch supporter of Roman religion. RECALLING THE GOLDEN AGE OF ANCIENT GREECE: Augustus stands in a contrapposto pose. The emperor wears military regalia and his right arm is outstretched, demonstrating that the emperor is addressing his troops. We immediately sense the emperor's power as the leader of the army and a military conqueror. Delving further into the composition of the Primaporta statue, a distinct resemblance to Polykleitos' Doryphoros, a Classical Greek sculpture of the fifth century B.C.E., is apparent. WHAT DOES THE SIMILARITY TO THE DORYPHORUS SAY ABOUT AUGUSTUS? That is to say that both Augustus and the Spear-Bearer are portrayed as youthful and flawless individuals: they are perfect. The Romans often modeled their art on Greek predecessors. This is significant because Augustus is essentially depicting himself with the perfect body of a Greek athlete: he is youthful and virile, despite the fact that he was middle-aged at the time (considering life-spans he was actually pretty old) of the sculpture's commissioning. Furthermore, by modeling the Primaporta statue on such an iconic Greek sculpture created during the height of Athens' influence and power, Augustus connects himself to the Golden Age of that previous civilization. THE CUPID AND DOLPHIN: Is Augustus all there is to this sculpture? Definitely not! The sculpture contains even more symbolism. First, at Augustus' right leg is cupid figure riding a dolphin. The dolphin became a symbol of Augustus' great naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, a conquest that made Augustus the sole ruler of the Empire. The cupid astride the dolphin sends another message too: that Augustus is descended from the gods. Cupid is the son of Venus, the Roman goddess

Greek Classical, Parthenon East pediment sculptures, left side, 448-432BCE

Aka The "Elgin Marbles" MAKE THIS ABOUT THE ARRANGEMENT Greek Classical, Parthenon E ped sculptures, left side, 448-432BCE; Greek Classical, Parthenon e ped sculptures, r side Both Pediments: The pediments themselves were of Athena beating Poseidon for the right to be deity of Athens (W pediment) and the birth of Athena (E pediment). Each pediment was only 36 inches deep. East Pediment - They believe this scene was made up of many gods including Artemis, Aphrodite (right side) and Heracles or Dionysus on the left. Despite being almost all headless, you can see the detail in their clothing and the liveliness the sculptor has given them. You also have Helios' horses on the left side coming up with the sunrise and on the right, the horse of the moon goddess Selene. Both horses head are ingeniously created to mirror and mimic the triangular shape of the pediment. BASED ON THE VISUALS ABOVE, WHAT IS MOST LIKELY THE BIGGEST CHALLENGE PHIDIAS FACED IN DESIGNING AND CREATING THESE SCULPTURES???

Baroque

An artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements Theatricality, Action, drama, dynamism, idealism, naturalism, over-the-top virtuosity

from the roof of the Portonaccio Temple, Veii, Italy, c. 510-500 B.C.E., painted terra-cotta, 5 feet 11inches high

Aplu (of Veii) Terra Cotta Subtractive or Additive? Placement & Narrative Artist - Vulca? This was a rooftop sculpture of an Etruscan temple. Notice how similar this statue is to Greek archaic pieces. Etruscan art was known to have more movement for it's time than Greek art. During this time period, there were Greek colonies in Southern Italy, thus the readily available influence. SCULPTURE: Perhaps most interesting about the Portonaccio temple is the abundant terracotta sculpture that still remains, the volume and quality of which is without parallel in Etruria. In addition to many terracotta architectural elements (masks, antefixes, decorative details), a series of over life-size terracotta sculptures have also been discovered in association with the temple. Originally placed on the ridge of temple roof, these figures seem to be Etruscan assimilations of Greek gods, set up as a tableau to enact some mythic event. ​​APOLLO OF VEII: The most famous and well-preserved of these is the Aplu (Apollo) of Veii, a dynamic, striding masterpiece of large scale terracotta sculpture and likely a central figure in the rooftop narrative. His counterpart may have been the less well-preserved figure of Hercle (Hercules) with whom he struggled in an epic contest over the Golden Hind, an enormous deer sacred (golden horns) to Apollo's twin sister Artemis. Whatever the myth may have been, it was a completely Etruscan innovation to use sculpture in this way, placed at the peak of the temple roof—creating what must have been an impressive tableau against the backdrop of the sky. AN ARTIST BY THE NAME OF VULCA?: Since Etruscan art is almost entirely anonymous it is impossible to know who may have contributed to such innovative display strategies. We may, however, know the name of the artist associated with the workshop that produced the terracotta sculpture. Centuries after these pieces were created, the Roman writer Pliny recorded that in the late 6th century B.C.E., an Etruscan artist by the name of Vulca was summoned from Veii to Rome to decorate the most important temple there, the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The technical knowledge required to produce terracotta sculpture at such a large scale was considerable and it

THE DARK AGES:

Before that however, the Mycenaean's (Proto-Greeks) were in control. Despite being a sophisticated culture, they were conquered by the Dorians around 1,100 BCE because the Dorians were using iron while the Mycenaean's were still using bronze. From 1,100 to 800 BCE Greece has few if barely any written records and experienced what many called a "Dark Ages" period of turmoil and upheaval. Knowledge was passed down through word of mouth and no consolidated civilization takes control during this period.

Greek gods

Central to their focus on the perfection of humanity, Greeks believed the Gods were essentially human but immortal, thus much of their art depicting gods were represented as ideal humans and vice

Doric and Ionic Columns Differences and Similarities

Elevations of the Doric and Ionic orders. Names come from the Doric language (Dorians) of West Greece and the Ionian area of eastern Greece and Western coast of Asia Minor. 3 parts to both: THE PLATFORM, THE COLUMN AND THE ENTABLATURE COLUMNS: the shaft (typically fluted), the capital, and the base (ionic only). All Greek columns are made of drums (separate pieces held in place by metal rods inside the columns) and narrow towards to the top. - Doric are typically stumpier with a 1 to 6/7 base to height ratio - Ionic columns are more slender with a 1 to 9 ratio CAPITALS: two parts The Echinus: Doric is cushion-like, while the ionic looks like a double-wrapped scroll (rolled portion - volute). The Abicus: square block supporting the entablature. ENTABLATURE has 3 parts: The architrave (bottom, main weight bearer and distributor), the frieze (middle) and the cornice (top). - Ionic: Architrave is subdivided into 3 horizontal bands with a flat frieze. - Doric: flat architrave but frieze is broken into triglyphs and metopes. The cornice has two parts: the horizontal band above the frieze and the raking (diagonal) cornice creating the roof and framing the pediment. The difference in styles makes the Doric look much heavier, sturdy, and simple. The Ionic looks more ornate, lighter, and has more room for relief decoration.

VITRUVIUS:

Fortunately, an ancient Roman architect by the name of Vitruvius wrote about Etruscan temples in his book De architectura in the late first century B.C.E. In his treatise on ancient architecture, Vitruvius described the key elements of Etruscan temples and it was his description that inspired Renaissance architects to return to the roots of Tuscan design and allows archaeologists and art historians today to recreate the appearance of these buildings.

Various metopes from Parthenon (man vs. centaur) and the Ionic Frieze (Panathaneic Procession)

Ionic Frieze - Not a depiction of the Gods only but a human and realistic representation. The Athenians put themselves into the visual realm of the legends of Greek storytelling. What's another example of humans and gods interacting in art? Hammurabi? In this case however, normal Athenians (not just the ruler) are represented. Isocephaly - A compositional device where the heads of all figures are approximately on the same level. Parthenon (man vs. centaur)

Peplos Kore vs Menkaure

Let us count the ways these two gentlemen are alike... Stepping forward on the left leg Hands at the sides Weight evenly distributed across hips Frontality ...More importantly (and much harder), how are they dissimilar? Differences: One big difference is the block on the back. Greeks weren't concerned with eternal permanence and more concerned with the illusion of movement. Also, he's nude. Greeks were not ashamed of nudity and most Olympians performed in the nude. It was only at specifically non-athletic events that they wore a certain amount of clothing. Mantiklos: Compared to the Mantiklos Apollo, hopefully you can see some major differences, showing the great strides Greek sculptors are taking during this time. Hips have girth to them (wider waist), the head is proportional in size to the body, the hair flows around the shoulders, the head is more ovular, etc... The Smile: he is smiling which would occur in every archaic Greek sculpture from this point forward, even in the most inappropriate of settings. Why would they plausibly do this? Discovery: It's worth noting that the figure was originally discovered in 1936 and an attempt to steal the figure away from Greece was made, unsuccessfully. This attempt was due to forgeries being very popular.

Barrel Vault (Tunnel vault):

Long hallways (before, if one stone fell, the rest would) but now windows could be installed. Buttressing is required.

House of the Vetti, Pompeii - (atrium & plan) - c. 62-79 CE (cut stone, fresco)

OVERVIEW: The House of the Vettii is a Roman townhouse (domus) located within the ruined ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. The remains constitute a nearly unparalleled resource for the study of the Roman world. DOMUS ARCHITECTURE: Despite the fact that there has been a debate raging for centuries over the form and function of Roman houses, many agree that beyond a typical dwelling, these residences were places of daily ritual and even establishments of carefully crafted social structure. During the time of the Roman republic ranking aristocratic families (patricians) used domestic display as a way to reinforce social position and as a way to advance their own fortunes, as well as those of their dependents and clients (clientes), within the community. Since Republican society operated on the basis of this patron-client relationship, the domus played a key part in the reinforcement of social hierarchy as the patron (patronus) would receive his clients in the atrium of his domus each business day. While visiting with the patron, each client would get an eyeful of the patron's household wealth, thus applying implicit pressure on the patron to ensure that his house was tasteful and fashionable. THE PATRON-CLIENT SYSTEM: The patron/client system had changed somewhat by the time of the brothers Vettii and it is unclear to what extent the patron-client system factored in their lives or in their own domestic sphere. In his treatise on Roman architecture, the first century B.C.E. author Vitruvius outlines the key elements, proportions, and aesthetics of the Roman house, creating what has been treated as a canonical recommendation for domestic architecture of the period. He did however formulate that there were many variations in the plans, as seen by the example slides (top right showing a typical Roman layout, next animation showing the Vettii layout) Standard plan of an ancient Roman Domus: The standard house (domus) plan has several key architectural elements. Generally entered from the street via a narrow doorway (fauces), the large centralized reception hall (atrium) is flanked by wings (alae) and often bounded by bedrooms (cubicula). The office of the head of household (paterfamilias), known as the tablinum, links

Hellenistic - Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon (Asia Minor) - c. 175 BCE (marble)

One of the four generals whom Alexander left his empire to discovered a hill in Pergamon (modern Turkey) upon which to build an acropolis, which would later be the central location of the entire Pergamene empire. By the time it was given to the Romans as part of the conquest of the Greek empire, Pergamon was an incredibly wealthy outpost and connection between the West and East. It's location on the acropolis was near the theater, with a view of the surrounding area rivaled only by the view from The Oasis Restaurant (just kidding, Pergamon probably more impressive). Altar itself would have been at the top of the monumental staircase, whereby you would witness the frieze as you walked up. Reconstructed west front of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, Turkey, ca. 175 BCE. Staatliche Museen, Berlin. The High reliefs would have gone all the way around the base of the altar (almost 400 ft long) with over 100 figures. Shows true departure from earlier Greek statuary, with insane movement and extreme emotionality with the figures. It depicts the gigantomachy, the war between the Gods and the Giants (metaphor for Greeks vs Persian/Gauls/Everyone not Greek). Where else have we seen the depiction of the Gods defeating the Titans? Parthenon metopes. What connection are the elite of Pergamon making with Athens? Athena battling Alkyoneos while Gaia (Mother Earth and mother of the giants looks on helplessly), detail of the gigantomachy frieze. Alkyoneos has been lifted from the earth, disempowering him while Nike crowns Athena in her victory as one of her snakes bites her foe. FORM: How would you describe the overall compositional shape of this section of the reliefs sculptures.

Corinthian Capitals.

POLYKLEITOS THE YOUNGER, Corinthian capital, from the tholos, Epidauros, Greece, ca. 350 BCE. Archaeological Museum, Epidauros. Also, Choragic Monument of Lysikrates, Athens, Greece, 334 BCE Corinthian capitals were not used on the outside of Greek architecture (not simple or "ideal") until the 2nd century BCE. It's characterized by two levels of acanthus leaves followed by flowers and branches stemming out above. Used much in Hellenistic Greece and Rome. Solved problems with corner columns.

Greece, Kallimachos (attribution) - Grave Stele of Hegeso - c. 410 BCE (marble, paint)

PRIVATE ART - Note on this piece: This is an incredibly intimate portrait. Much like the family portrait of Akhenaton and Nefertiti with Children in terms of informality but much more realistic, with a quiet, solemn, almost domestic mood. Remember this piece when learning about the Dutch painter Jan Vermeer. We are getting to look into the personal space and life of a private citizen in an almost voyeuristic way. Also: represents a shift away from public works back to private commissions.

The decorative schema of the House of the Vettii

Provides important evidence for trends in domestic decoration in the final years of Pompeii's occupation. Since Vesuvius caused significant destruction, the chronology of the wall paintings and other decorations in the House of the Vettii has been a topic of debate since the house's discovery. Most art historians point to the house's decorative schema as being representative of a key transitional phase, between the Third and Fourth styles of Pompeian wall painting. Some scholars consider it among the finest examples of the Fourth Style at Pompeii. Two of the panels were in the course of being painted at the time of destruction, while the other three are richly appointed with Fourth Style wall painting. The largest of these, a dining room, is decorated in panels of red and black. The central panel pictures that were likely set into the walls do not survive. Overall the scheme of wall painting in the house of the Vettii suggests an attempt at forward-looking interior decoration on the part of the owners. Overall the evidence furnished by the House of the Vettii offers key insights into domestic architecture and interior decoration in the last days of the city of Pompeii. The house itself is architecturally significant not only because of its size but also because of the indications it gives of important changes that were underway in the design of Roman houses during the third quarter of the first century C.E.

Polykleitos - Doryphorus (Spear Bearer), aka the Canon, ~450 BCE

Pythagoras and his followers believed that true harmonic proportions governed everything in the world. In this vain, Polykleitos believed harmonious proportions existed for humans themselves. PERFECTION & HARMONY WITH NATURE: Polykleitos created the statue with the idea that the human figure could be created using harmonious and exact proportions and be, in a sense, perfect. He did not call it the spear bearer, he called it the canon (a set of rules). He created this piece to be a demonstration piece for a document (TREATISE) he wrote in which he had created an entire set of proportions for the human male figure. The document has been lost, but his piece remains as a copy by Romans. So we cannot just recreate the proportions. The document was accepted by artists of the time as coming closer to the ideal male form than anything had before Be able to use this piece as an example of high classical sculpture--1. A male nude2. As realistic as possible (realistic and idealized)—differentiate between the idealized of Classical and naturalistic of Hellenistic3. Contrapposto stance - "s" curve4. Arms are free from body5.Calm facial expression (universal face) Greeks were set on finding the mathematical relationships in all of nature. He is once again nude, not because he would have battled nude, but it's meant to show the perfection of the human form. Found in Pompeii Polykleitos turned away from the stiff representations of Archaic humanity. Weight-bearing to relaxed counterbalance in the composition. A gentle "S" curve and his head is even turning to one side. CONTRAPPOSTO Notice how it is very similar to the Kritios boy while taking each gesture a step further. The implied movement is much greater here and the stark contrast between the left-side limbs and right-side limbs is evident. The contrapposto in this sculpture is even greater than in previous figural art. Polykleitos turned away from the stiff representations of Archaic humanity. He introduces the weight-bearing to relaxed counterbalance never before seen in a human composition. There is now a gentle "S" curve and further accentuated by Doryphorus' head turning to one side.

Greece, Niobid Painter (anonymous) - Niobides Krater - c. 460-450 BCE (clay, red-figure technique)

Red figure meant the artist created the background in black and used the red paint for the figures themselves. This meant it could be done with a paint brush instead of a metal tool for incising. Huge revolution for drawing and painting.

Dome

Round arch rotated around the circumference of a circle. An oculus allows in light.

Greece, Phidias(Athens) - Plaque of the Ergastines - c. 447-410 BCE

Significant portion of the Ionic Frieze on the Parthenon. The Panathenaic Procession went from the Dipylon Gate, through the Agora, and came to end at the Parthenon, where a statue of Athena, normally kept in the Erecthium would have a new peplos placed on her. This is the PLAQUE OF THE ERGASTINES, originally part of the Ionic frieze, it shows the 6 Ergastine women giving the peplos that they have woven for Athena to a high priest. Possibly not the Panathenaic Procession but the story of Erectheus who sacrificed one of his daughters in order to save Athens. In addition to the peplos that the life-size statue of Athena would have worn in the procession, there was a second, almost 40-foot peplos meant for the monumental statue of Athena inside the Parthenon temple. While it may not have actually been placed on the statue (not as if there were cranes back then), it was part of the processional and had to placed on a sailboat mast (which would have likely resembled a parade float by our modern standards)

Greek Hellenistic, Seated Boxer, 50 BCE;

Social Realism: the realistic depiction in art of contemporary life, as a means of social or political comment. Walk through it. Earlier Greece, the wealthy were paying for portraits and were isolated from poverty and the ills of slavery. In the more cosmopolitan Greece of Hellenistic times, young and old, wealthy and poor, locals and foreigners intermingled on a daily basis. This type of art is very rare however and not until the late 19th century will you see this subject matter be depicted on a wide scale. Note: These are not individual portraits for people that we know of; they are studies of human form. Bronze often gets melted down. This is a Greek original. There's even copper inlaid into the bronze to represent bruises and blood. Pathos: the quality or power in an actual life experience or in literature, music, speech, or other forms of expression, of evoking a feeling of pity, or of sympathetic and kindly sorrow or compassion.

Portonaccio Temple, Veii, Italy, c. 510-500 B.C.E.

TEMPLE IMPERMANENCE: Among the early Etruscans, the worship of the Gods and Goddesses did not take place in or around monumental temples as it did in early Greece or in the Ancient Near East, but rather, in nature. Early Etruscans created ritual spaces in groves and enclosures open to the sky with sacred boundaries carefully marked through ritual ceremony. Around 600 B.C.E., however, the desire to create monumental structures for the gods spread throughout Etruria, most likely as a result of Greek influence. While possibly inspired by Greeks, Etruscan religious architecture was markedly different in material and design. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GREEK AND ETRUSCAN TEMPLES? These colorful and ornate structures typically had stone foundations but their wood, mud-brick and terracotta superstructures suffered far more from exposure to the elements. Greek temples still survive today in parts of Greece and southern Italy since they were constructed of stone and marble but Etruscan temples were built with mostly ephemeral materials and have largely vanished. Other differences from Greek temples included a lighter structure with less (farther spaced) columns, deeper porches, and typically three cellas for their Gods. Etruscan temples were not works of art but merely housing for the art. You can also see the inclusion of monumental sculpture on the roofline which would have instead gone in the pediment and entablature of Greek temples. Cella typically for the three main gods: Tinia, Uni, and Menrva EVIDENCE: How do we know what they looked like? Etruscan temple design had a huge impact on Renaissance architecture and one can see echoes of Etruscan, or 'TUSCAN' columns (doric columns with bases, typically unfluted, and no entablature decoration (triglyphs and metopes)) in many buildings of the Renaissance and later in Italy. But if the temples weren't around during the 15th and 16th centuries, how did Renaissance builders know what they looked like and, for that matter, how do we know what they looked like? dedicated to the goddess Minerva (Roman=Minerva/Greek=Athena) at the CITY OF VEII about 18 km north of Rome. The tufa-block foundations still remain and their nearly square footprint refle

Etruscan, Tarquinia Italy - Tomb of the Triclinium - c. 480-470 BCE (tufa, fresco)

TOMB OF THE TRICLINIUM: Name given to an Etruscan chamber tomb dating c. 470 B.C.E. and located in Tarquinia, Italy. The Tomb of the Triclinium is composed of a single chamber with wall decorations painted in fresco. Discovered in 1830, the tomb takes its name from the three-couch dining room of the ancient Greco-Roman Mediterranean, known as the triclinium. A BANQUET: The rear wall of the tomb carries the main scene, one of banqueters enjoying a dinner party. The original fresco is only partially preserved; although it is likely that there were originally three couches, each hosting a pair of reclining diners, one male and one female. Two attendants—one male, one female—attend to the needs of the diners. The diners are dressed in bright and sumptuous robes, befitting their presumed elite status. Beneath the couches we can observe a large cat, as well as a large rooster and another bird. MUSIC AND DANCING: Scenes of dancers occupy the flanking left and right walls. The left wall scene contains four dancers—three female and one male—and a male musician playing the barbiton, an ancient stringed instrument similar to the lyre (Next slide). Common painterly conventions of gender typing are employed—the skin of females is light in color while male skin is tinted a darker tone of orange-brown. They are also depicted playing many games, which is in keeping with many Mediterranean customs. The tomb's ceiling is painted in a checkered scheme of alternating colors, perhaps meant to evoke the temporary fabric tents that were erected near the tomb for the actual celebration of the funeral banquet. The actual paintings were removed from the tomb in 1949 and are conserved in the Museo Nazionale in Tarquinia. As their state of preservation has deteriorated, watercolors made at the time of discovery have proven very important for the study of the tomb. INTERPRETATION: The convivial theme of the Tomb of the Triclinium might seem surprising in a funereal context, but it is important to note that the Etruscan funeral rites were not somber but festive, with the aim of sharing a final meal with the deceased as the latter transitioned to the afterlife. This ritual feasting served several purposes in social terms. At its most basic

Roman Temples and Aquaducts

Temples: How have the Greek and Etruscan two influenced the Roman Temple? Large Porch with columns only in front (Etruscan), other columns connected to the wall, called...? Engaged columns It's made of stone (many others made of concrete), overlaid with stucco to make it look like marble (Greek) Ionic columns with decorated frieze (Greek) Aquaducts: Roman aqueducts were one engineering marvel that was accompanied by Greek-like mathematical precision. Each large arch on the Pont-du-Gard spans 82 ft and carries water some 30 miles from source to city (100 gallons per citizen, per day). The aqueduct is no longer used today and you can see tourists walking across the top portion.

Greek, Archaic through Hellenestic - Athenian Agora (site plan): 600-150 BCE

The Greek Agora is the most ancient referent of the western public space, along with the Roman Forum, the predecessor of our squares. It was both a MARKER, THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT, A CENTER OF WORSHIP, A WORKSPACE, AND A VENUE FOR ENTERTAINMENT. But more than that, it was the birthplace of democracy (though exercised only by free men) and the space where wise intellectuals such as Socrates, Plato, Euripides, Sophocles, etc., so influential in the development of our civilization, discussed their ideas. However, the Agora of Athens was not a rigid space and changed throughout more than 5000 years of history, particularly under the influence of the Hellenistic and Roman times. The first major renovations came after the Persians destroyed much of it before the Greeks repelled them in 480 BCE. Even after Philip II and Alexander the Great of Macedonia centralized military power to the East of Athens, the Agora was still considered the center of academic and philosophical life in the Greek Empire. Over the centuries it was covered by earth and invaded by houses and churches, to the point that until 1880 no one knew where the Athenian agora really was located. When they finally localized it, they determined that it was approximately 24 acres large and over 360 modern houses had to be purchased and demolished in order to excavate the site. Amongst the shops and temples, many stoas (or colonnaded walkways) were available for people to socialize and travel from one venue to the next in the shade and shelter of Greek architecture. In addition to the architectural structures, the Dromos or Panathanaic Way is the first road featured in the 250 Note on Democracy: While it may sound great, this was not true democracy as we appreciate today. Only wealthy white men were allowed any influence when it came to governing. Women, inhabitants of other ethnicities, slaves, and poor people were excluded. In many cases, women were never even allowed to leave the house. At Greek symposiums, a sort-of formal male only gathering for drinking, relaxing, and discussing ideas, wives were not allowed in but men often brought prostitutes.

Propylaiam (looking southwest), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, 437-432 BCE.

The Propylaia (looking southwest), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, 437-432 BCE. Why would the center columns be slightly farther apart than the rest? Why would Athenians use both Doric and Ionic features in the Acropolis?

Greek Classical, Temple of Athena Nike, Athens, c410BC. Kallikrates;

This temple which would have been at the foot of the Propylae, was Ionic and contained a relief sculpture of the Goddess Athena Nike (essentially Victory in battle). Because it was on the edge of the Acropolis, the Greeks built a parapet with a balustrade that had many reliefs. This parapet had many representations of Nike (Victory) including this one of her adjusting her sandal. Notice again how well the cloth was depicted, in this case in an almost transparent nature (she's basically naked). Athena Nike is off-balance (contrapposto) with an accentuation of the drapery and this is very revealing (almost sensual for this space; most for the Acropolis) Chain-folds: the use of drapery with such weight as to fold in and over each other

Etruscan, Sarcophagus of the Spouses, from Cerveteri ~ 520 BCE Terra Cotta

The Sarcophagus of the Spouses was found in the ancient Etruscan city of Caere (now Cerveteri, Italy). The sarcophagus was discovered during the course of archaeological excavations in the Banditaccia necropolis of ancient Caere during the nineteenth century and is now in Rome. From the Agora video what do we know about the Greek forums and banquets? WHAT SEEMS STRANGE ABOUT THE CONTENT OF THIS PIECE COMPARED TO GREEK ART? WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT ETRUSCAN CULTURE AND THE ROLE OF WOMEN? THE COUPLE The sarcophagus depicts a reclining man and woman on its lid. The pair rests on highly stylized cushions, just as they would have done at an actual banquet. The body of the sarcophagus is styled so as to resemble a kline (dining couch). Both figures have highly stylized hair, in each case plaited with the stylized braids hanging rather stiffly at the sides of the neck. In the female's case the plaits are arranged so as to hang down in front of each shoulder. The female wears a soft cap atop her head; she also wears shoes with pointed toes that are characteristically Etruscan. Both figures have elongated proportions that are at home in the archaic period in the Mediterranean. BANQUETS: This is a depiction of a couple reclining together on a single dining couch while eating and drinking, which in Greek culture, only the men would be allowed at banquets, not so in Etruria. The use of this setting shows that Etruscans enjoyed revelry and the social life. Much of their art depicted scenes of people eating, drinking and having fun. Etruscan funerary art—including painted tombs—often depicts scenes of revelry, perhaps as a reminder of the funeral banquet that would send the deceased off to the afterlife or perhaps to reflect the notion of perpetual conviviality in said afterlife. The fact they included a woman also shows that Women had many other rights in Etruscan society that frightened and appalled Greek and Roman men including: owning property, attending sporting events, and many were literate. TECHNICAL ACHIEVEMENT Terracotta artwork was the standard for decorating the superstructure of Etruscan temples and the coroplastic (terracotta) workshops producing these sculptures often displayed a high level of technical achieve

IMPERFECT PERFECTION:

The building was irregular, for example the stylobate and entablature rises slightly in the center and all the columns actually lean in a little bit (perfection based on the correction of our visual perception according to Vitruvius). Supposedly, the outermost columns, if extended up into the atmosphere, would meet (intersect) 1.5 MILES up in the air. Also, despite being a doric temple, small portions of the interior levels had ionic aspects including the ionic columns in the opisthodomos and an ionic freeze on the interior entablature before entering the temple. The Ionic frieze shows the Panathanaic parade which was a celebration of Athena that took place once every year with an even larger festival taking place every four years (to my understanding). Iki and Kalli: Much like Polykleitos and the Doryphorus, they tried to create the most idealized proportions for a temple and supposedly wrote a treatise (same as Polykleitos) The influence on today's architecture is easy to see, all you need to do is walk around Washington DC's mall for a while.

ANCIENT AEGEAN:

The historical Greek culture that we are familiar with today owes much the Ancient Aegean civilizations of 2,600 BCE through to the Greek Dark Ages (starting around 1,100 BCE), specifically the Cyclades Islands, the Minoans of Crete, and the Mycenaenans of the Peloponnesian Peninsula. While I had you read about those cultures in order to create some historical context for later Greek accomplishments, we are going to skip the Aegean's for the sake of time (no 250 pieces, although we will look at at least one Minoan artwork in relation to Ancient Greek art.

Roman portrait bust, Head of a Roman Patrician, 75-50 BCE

Veristic or Verism. Meant to shown the seriousness of the figure, specifically focusing on their gravitas and virtue. These were political statements, in an attempt to create a reputation for the person depicted. They were based on the tradition of the Imagines, which were funerary masks, meant to signify the importance or status of a particular family.

Roman, Imperial - Colosseum, Flavian Amphitheater - 70-80 CE (stone, concrete)

What natural geographic element did the Greeks need in order to build an amphitheater? What does the answer mean in a larger sense about the evolution of architecture as a result of the perfection of concrete? Conceived and started under Emperor Vespasian (who succeeded Nero), it was completed after his death in 80 CE (his son Titus opened it). It was originally a man-made lake for Nero, but reclaimed (with great political fanfare along with Nero's house) for public use for gladiator battles and other large-scale events. It was originally named the Flavian Amphitheater after Vespasian's Roman lineage but acquired the nickname The Colosseum, not because of it's size, but because the colossus of Nero (also could have been the Sun God) statue was originally right next to it. Vespasian afforded the coliseum with the spoils from his sack of Jerusalem and it's believed that Jewish prisoners from the revolt were used in the construction of the amphitheater. Considering it's size, it was built relatively quickly. The Coliseum would be ruined by fires, earthquakes, and as a result of quarrying it's natural resources by later cultures (some of the Travertine exterior was used in the decoration of St Peters for example). The coliseum was left standing during Christian dominance because it was sacred ground... many Christians were martyred there during the gladiatorial games. What was considered the perfect proportions according to Roman architects? 5:3 The building itself was approximately 16 stories tall (160 ft) with 80 gateways all numbered (much like modern-day sports arenas). Patrons would enter through gateways based on social hierarchy and the amphitheater could hold up to 50,000 spectators (compare this to Jerry-World (Cowboy Stadium) which seats 80k or our new soccer stadium which only seats 21k). The façade itself is comprised of arches constructed over three of the four large horizontal bands. The following columns were placed onto each band based on which style of column supported the most weight. Doric (Tuscan) on the bottom, Ionic, and then Corinthian on top. The ironic part is that the columns were "engaged", meaning they had little load-bearing quality. The top layer (not visible here) were pilasters, or

Why do politicians often want strict control of how they are photographed?

They want control in order to influence the peoples' perception of them. They want to be seen as strong (whether physically, psychologically, intellectually), resolute, attractive. They want to create an idealized version of themselves, specifically focused on their agenda. How many of you have posted one photo online but kept another off, because it didn't fit with how you wanted to be perceived.

Triumphal arche

Triumphal arches (a tradition started over 200 years earlier) were erected for many different positive Roman events, and not simply for militaristic triumphs. They were also constructed to celebrate major milestones in Roman history, or in some cases the completion of municipal projects (roads, buildings, etc). Columns are engaged much like the Coliseum and contain composite Ionic and Corinthian capitals with large relief paintings of winged victories (Greek) filling the spandrels (the area between the arch's curve and the framing columns and entablature). A large dedicatory passage fills the attic. Coffers - sunken decorative panels. Roman Arch of Titus relief panel, Spoils from the temple in Jerusalem: Titus was the son of Vespasian, opener of the Colisuem to the public, and emperor after his father. The scene here depicts the triumphal procession with the booty from the temple at Jerusalem--the sacred Menorah, the Table of the Shewbread shown at an angle, and the silver trumpets which called the Jews to Rosh Hashanah. The bearers of the booty wear laurel crowns and those carrying the candlestick have pillows on their shoulders. Placards in the background explain the spoils or the victories Titus won. These few figures, standing for hundreds in the actual procession, move toward the carved arch at the right. Strong sense of movement and depth as a result of high and low relief. Also, a great sense of movement based on the gestures and angles of the bodies carrying the booty. Relief showing the triumph of Titus: This scene depicts the actual triumphal procession with the toga-clad Titus in the chariot, but with the addition of allegorical figures--the winged Victory riding in the chariot with Titus who places a wreathe on his head, the goddess leading the horses (identified by some scholars as Roma, others as Valor [Virtus]), and the semi-nude Genius of the People. Because the reliefs were deeply carved, some of the forward heads have broken off. This was the first known instance of divine beings interacting with humans in a Roman historical relief. This motif would be used by Romans hereafter even on monuments of living emperors.

Gravitas

great or very dignified seriousness

Roman Architecture

What were the two types of threshold architecture have we looked at thus far? Post and lintel & Corbelled Arch-ways Concrete - A combination of water, aggregate (pebbles, stones, sand, etc.), and cement (powdery substance of lime and/or clay) Romans were the first to perfect concrete building, using wooden frames and specialized ingredients. They could create complex frames and many different types of archways. Concrete typically had a rough finish, so they would also add a layer of stucco to look like marble (called revetment). This is not just revolutionary for the TYPES of construction but also the economics. It costs way more to quarry and cut marble, limestone, travertine, and even tufa. It is also more expensive because you need a specialist who knows how to cut the stone without cracking or ruining it. With the right recipe and a little practice, anyone can mix and pour concrete.

Styles of Painting in Rome

When Pompeii erupted on August 24th, 79 CE, it trapped an immeasurable amount of art and cultural evidence of the Republic and Early Empire of Rome. Besides the making of a blockbuster movie, why else might this have been good (for archeologists and historians)? 1st Style: One thing the eruption did keep completely intact were the wall paintings in Pompeii houses. This style, also called the MASONRY STYLE because the painter tried to make it look like marble. Some relief too. Similar to faux wood in modern furniture. PRIMACY OF THE WALL 2nd Style: After 80 BCE many walls took on this second style where artists tried to create ILLUSIONISTIC 3-DIMENSIONAL WALL MURALS (antithesis of the first style: Hide the Wall). Here's an example but this time they incorporated linear perspective, an artistic device where artists use a real or implied horizon line and imaginary vanishing points with orthogonal lines created the illusion of depth. In others, the artists didn't use it very well but they used it none the less. Many people attribute Italian Renaissance artists with inventing linear perspective, which is not the case. One might say they perfected it however. What other kinds of perspective did you read about in the section on second style painting? Atmospheric Perspective 3rd Style: The third style abandons illusionistic art for a more stylized concept. Artists created linear designs (that looked like super fragile, ornate architectural forms) with monochromatic fill, then a small picture (almost as if separately framed and placed on the wall) were painted. They could not be confused for windows. A term associated with this style and the 1st style is the "Primacy of the Wall", which alludes to the idea that the wall should be showcased and not hidden behind illusionistic art. 4th PAINTING STYLE: Combination of all three styles, and the style used when Pompeii erupted. Monochromatic backgrounds were laid out but fantastical, almost surrealistic scenes were painted in the center portions. In the Ixion Room, the artist abandoned the elegance of the 3rd style and it looks almost like a bad collage of garish colors and mythological/ architectural scenes.

Tullia Minor

Wife of Tarquinius Superbus who plotted with him to overthrow her father; audacity of Etruscan Women

S-CURVE

a concept within contrapposto and typically characterized extreme serpentine twisting and uneven weight distribution.

776 BCE - FIRST OLYMPICS

brought all city-states together to form Greece (HELLAS) as a whole.

High Classical

c. 450-400 BCE Greek, Parthenon reconstruction After the Persians were defeated the Athenians rebuilt the Acropolis, including the Parthenon Note: In the video on the Agora, the narrators mention General Pericles who was elected and ruled over Athenian politics for 30 years and was pivotal in the defeat of the Persians. General Pericles used funds received from all corners of Greece (the Delian League), which were supposed to be used to fund the war effort. (#Embarrassing). This was part of what led to the divide with Athens, Sparta and the rest of Greece (Peloponnesian War). The Athenians thought of themselves as better than the rest. This can be seen time and again in the design of the Acropolis. They include themselves in the Ionic Frieze and west pediment (judging the contest between Athena and Poseidon). Really full of themselves (but also the center of democracy, academics, theology, economics, the list goes on). The Acropolis and the Parthenon became a symbol of power and authority. Note on the pre-Classical Acropolis: The Greeks fled Athens with the progression of Xerxes army around 480 and the entire city was looted, burned, and/or otherwise destroyed. When the Athenians finally returned, they ceremoniously and respectfully buried many sculptures and unusable architectural elements directly within the hill of the Acropolis before reconstructing everything. This is where archeologists of the mid-19th century discovered such Archaic works such as the Calf-Bearer, Kritios Boy (both pictured) and THE PEPLOS KORE.

CONTRAPPOSTO

is an Italian term that means counter-pose. It is used in the visual arts to describe a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs.