AP Chemistry Semester 1 Review
Naming Binary Acids
1) Take root of second element, 1A) add "-hydro" prefix to the anion 1B) add "-ic" suffix" 2) Add acid as second word (EX: hydrochloric acid)
Solubility Rules
1. Soluble Compounds - Anions if a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be soluble: •Acetates •Chlorates •Perchlorates •Nitrates •Nitrites •Permanganates
Naming Molecular Compounds
1. The name of the element to the left is named first 3. The name of the second element is given an -ide, unless polyatomic ion. 4. Greek prefixes should be used before both elements (Ex: dihydrogen triphosphide) 5. no "mono" for first element (Ex: carbon dioxide)
Conditions of STP
273 K or 0 C, 1 atm
Bent (aka: trigonal planar - bent)
3 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: less than 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)
Trigonal planar
3 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond Angles: 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp2)
Solubility Rules (cont..)
3. Soluble Compounds with EXCEPTIONS If a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be soluble: ------Chlorides, Bromides, Iodides {Except those compounds of Ag (+1), Hg2 (+2), and Pb (+2)} ------Sulfates {Except those compounds of Sr (2+), Ba (2+), Hg2 (2+), and Pb (2+)
Bent (aka: tetrahedral - bent)
4 electrol domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: less than 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)
Trigonal pyramidal
4 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: less than 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)
Tetrahedral
4 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)
Solubility Rules (cont...)
4. Insoluble Compounds with EXCEPTIONS If a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be insoluble: ------Carbonates, Phosphates, Sulfites {Except those compounds of NH4 (+), and alkali metals cations} ------Hydroxides, Sulfides {Except those compounds of NH4 (1+), alkali metals, and Ca (2+), Sr (2+), and Ba (2+)}
Seesaw
5 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: 90 and 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)
T-shaped
5 electron domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)
Linear (aka: trigonal bipyramidal - linear)
5 electron domains; 3 lone pairs. Bond angles: 180 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)
Trigonal bipyramidal
5 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 and 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)
London-disperson forces
A temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
Bromate
BrO3 (−)
Fahrenheit to Celsius
C = (F - 32)/1.8
Oxalate
C2O4 (2−)
Acetate
CH3COO (−)
Hypochlorite
CIO (−)
Perchlorate
CIO4 (−)
Cyanide
CN (−)
Carbonate
CO3 (2−)
Exceptions to Hund's Rule
Chromium ([Ar] 4s1 3d5) Copper ([Ar] 4s1 3d10) molybdenum ([Kr] 5s1 4d5) Silver ([Kr] 5s1 4d10) Gold ([Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10)
Chlorite
ClO2 (−)
Chlorate
ClO3 (−)
Gold Foil Experiment
Conducted by Ernest Rutherford in which alpha particles that were shot at gold foil were deflected when they hit the positive center of gold atoms. The nucleus was discovered as a result of this experiment.
Dichromate
Cr2O7 (2−)
Chromate
CrO4 (2−)
Relationship of Energy to Work and Heat
Energy = heat + work
Heat
Energy used to cause the temperature of an object to rise
Celsius to Fahrenheit
F = 1.8 (C) + 32
Hydride
H (−)
Reduction Reaction
a reactant gains one or more electrons, thus becoming more negative in charge
Complete Ionic Equation
a reaction equation that shows all soluble compounds in their ionic forms (aka: it shows NaCl as Na+ and Cl−)
Precipitation Reaction
a reaction in which an insoluble substance forms and separates from the solution by combining two soluble substances.
Combustion Reaction
a substance (most often a hydrocarbon) combines with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water
VSEPR theory
a theory that predicts some molecular shapes based on the idea that pairs of valence electrons surrounding an atom repel each other.
Decomposition Reactions
complex substances are broken up into simpler substances (AB -> A+B)
Ionic Compound
composed of positive and negative ions that are combined so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal. (a metal and a non-metal)
Dipole-dipole
created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance
Electronegativity Trend
decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period
Ionization Energy Trend
decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period EXCEPTIONS: 2A-3A; 5A-6A
Pauli Exclusion Principle
no two electrons or protons or neutrons in a given system can be in states characterized by the same set of quantum numbers
Energy
the ability to do Work or transfer heat
Ionization Energy
the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
Dihydrogen Phosphate
H2PO4 (−)
Hydrogen Carbonate (bicarbonate)
HCO3 (−)
Formate
HCOO (−)
Polarizability
the ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can be distorted
Kinetic Energy
the energy an object has due to its motion
Electron Affinity
the energy needed to remove an electron from a negative ion to form a neutral atom or molecule
Lattice energy
the energy required to separate one mole of the ions of an ionic compound; q1q2/d
hydrogen phosphate
HPO4 (2−)
Hydrogen Sulfate (bisulfate)
HSO4 (−)
Mercury I
Hg2 (2+)
Oil Drop Experiment
Robert Millikan, suspended oil drops between charged plates, shot x-rays that put an electron on them, determined the smallest increment of charge difference needed to suspend the drops, and determined the charge on one electron
Sulfide
S (2−)
Thiosulfate
S2O3 (2−)
Thiocyanate
SCN (−)
Sulfite
SO3 (2−)
Sulfate
SO4 (2−)
Pi bonds
Side to side overlap of orbitals; this is in double and triple bonds. Double bonds have one sigma and one pi bond. Triple bonds have one sigma and two pi bonds.
Heat capacity
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a specified amount of a substance by 1°C or 1 K.
Mass Number
the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus
Kinetic Molecular Theory
the theory that all matter is composed of particles (atoms and molecules) moving constantly in random directions
Polyatomic Ions
tightly bound groups of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge
Molecule
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Synthesis (Combination) Reactions
two or more substances combine to form a more complex substance (A+B -> AB)
Density
varies with temperature and is an identifying property
gamma particle
no charge; , High energy that only lead and concrete can stop
Neutron
no charged particle in the nucleus that has a mass of about 1 amu
Electronegativity
(chemistry) the tendency of an atom or radical to attract electrons in the formation of an ionic bond
Enthalpy
(thermodynamics) a thermodynamic quantity equal to the internal energy of a system plus the product of its volume and pressure
Linear
2 electron domains, no lone pairs. Bond angles: 180 degrees (hybridizations: sp)
Solubility Rules (cont.)
2. Soluble Compounds - Cations if a compound contains one of the following Cations, it will be soluble. •NH4 (positive charge of 1) and Almost all of the Group 1A alkali Cations
Molar Volume of a gas at STP
22.4 L
Square Pyramidal
6 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)
Square Planar
6 electron domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)
Octrahedral
6 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)
Endergonic
A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed.
Molecular Equations
A reaction equation which shows all soluble compunds in their ionic forms, a chemical equation written using the complete formulas of reactants and products (aka the original equation)
Atomic Radius Trend
Across a period: decreases. Down a group: increases
Arsenite
AsO3 (3−)
Arsenate
AsO4 (3−)
Elements
Atoms or molecules bound together (on periodic table)
Borate
BO3 (3−)
Density Equation
Density = (mass)/(volume)
Iodate
IO3 (−)
Celsius to Kelvin
K = C + 273.15
Naming Ionic Compounds
Metals are written 1st, non-metals last. Change the ending of non-metal to "ide" unless it is a polyatomic ion. Ignore the subscripts.
Permanganate
MnO4 (−)
Nitride
N (3−)
Ammonium
NH4 (+)
Nitrite
NO2 (−)
Nitrate
NO3 (−)
Oxide
O (2−)
Peroxide
O2 (2−)
Hydroxide
OH (−)
Phosphide
P (3−)
Phosphate
PO4 (3−)
Compounds
Pure substance that includes more than one element
Intermolecular Interactions affecting Boiling/ Melting Points
The higher the intermolecular force, the higher the boiling and melting points
Intermolecular Interactions affecting Bond Strength
The higher the intermolecular force, the stronger the bond.
Hydrogen Bonding
The intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (Fluorine, Oxygen, and Nitogen) is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule.
Atomic Number
The number of protons and electrons in a stable atom.
Cathode Ray Experiment
This was JJ Thomson's experiment that led to the discovery of the electron and the development of the plum pudding model of the atom. The rays repelled by the negative electric field and the magnetic force causes the negative particle to move in circular motion.
Oxidation Reaction
a chemical reaction in which a reactant loses one or more electrons such that the reactant becomes more positive in charge
Neutralization Reaction
a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base interact with the formation of a salt and water (EX: HCl + NaOH --> NaCl (aka: the salt) + H2O (aka: water))
Molecular Compound
a compound made up of two non metals; sharing electrons
Phase Diagrams
a graph of pressure versus temperature that shows in which phase a substance exists under different conditions of temperature and pressure
Isoelectronic series
a group of ions all containing the same number of electrons Ex: Li(+), Be(2+), N(3-), O(2-), F(-))
Homogeneous Mixtures
a mixture in which substances are evenly distributed throughout the mixture
Anion
a negatively charged ion
Ion
a particle that is electrically charged (positive or negative) because it has gained or lost electrons. (protons not equal to electrons)
Cation
a positively charged ion
alpha particle
a positively charged particle that is the nucleus of the helium atom; affects mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2.
beta particle
affects atomic number by increasing by 1; this emission is helping when higher than belt of stability
Isotope
an atom that has the same number of protons (or the same atomic number) as other atoms of the same element do but that has a different number of neutrons
Net Ionic Equation
an equation that includes only those compounds and ions that undergo a chemical change in a reaction in an aqueous solution (aka: removing ions that are on both sides of the equation)
Exergonic
chemical reaction that releases some form of energy, such as heat.
endothermic
describes a process in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings
Exothermic
describes a process in which heat is released to the surroundings
Potential Energy
energy stored due to an object's position or arrangement
Work
energy used to cause an object that has mass to move
Surroundings
everything other than the system
Naming Oxyacids
former suffix "ate;" root + ic. former suffix "ite;" root + ous. "i ATE ICky food at the whITE hOUSe." (EX: Perchlorate -> HCIO4: perchloric acid)
Heating Curves
graphical representation of phase changes (HEATING curves: start in solid phase and COOLING curves: start in gas phase)
Condition of ideal gases
high temperature, low pressure
Mixtures
homogeneous or heterogeneous that can separate into components based on physical properties
Metallic Trend
increases down a group, decreases across a period
Electron Affinity Trend
increases going across because atoms are stable enough to hold onto their own electrons and take others from other atoms. decreases going down because size of orbitals increase making the atoms unstable EXCEPTIONS: 1A-2A; 4A-5A
Conditions of real gases
low temperature, high pressure
Heterogeneous Mixtures
mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout
System
molecules chemist want to study
Greek Prefixes for Molecular Compounds
mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
Electron
negatively charged particle in the outer space of the atom that has a mass of 5.486x10^-4. (Its mass is so small that most ignore it)
Gas Forming Reactions
occur through the formation of a gas and water because both products remove ions from the solution; include carbonate, sulfite, Sulfide (all are polyatomic) and NH4OH (but last one is not as common).
Hund's Rule
orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin
Proton
positively charged particle in the nucleus that has a mass of about 1 amu.
Sigma bonds
single covalent bonds; there is always ONE in any bond (either it be single, double, or triple)
