AP Chemistry Semester 1 Review

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Naming Binary Acids

1) Take root of second element, 1A) add "-hydro" prefix to the anion 1B) add "-ic" suffix" 2) Add acid as second word (EX: hydrochloric acid)

Solubility Rules

1. Soluble Compounds - Anions if a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be soluble: •Acetates •Chlorates •Perchlorates •Nitrates •Nitrites •Permanganates

Naming Molecular Compounds

1. The name of the element to the left is named first 3. The name of the second element is given an -ide, unless polyatomic ion. 4. Greek prefixes should be used before both elements (Ex: dihydrogen triphosphide) 5. no "mono" for first element (Ex: carbon dioxide)

Conditions of STP

273 K or 0 C, 1 atm

Bent (aka: trigonal planar - bent)

3 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: less than 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)

Trigonal planar

3 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond Angles: 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp2)

Solubility Rules (cont..)

3. Soluble Compounds with EXCEPTIONS If a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be soluble: ------Chlorides, Bromides, Iodides {Except those compounds of Ag (+1), Hg2 (+2), and Pb (+2)} ------Sulfates {Except those compounds of Sr (2+), Ba (2+), Hg2 (2+), and Pb (2+)

Bent (aka: tetrahedral - bent)

4 electrol domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: less than 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)

Trigonal pyramidal

4 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: less than 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)

Tetrahedral

4 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 109.5 degrees (hybridizations: sp3)

Solubility Rules (cont...)

4. Insoluble Compounds with EXCEPTIONS If a compound contains one of the following Anions, they will be insoluble: ------Carbonates, Phosphates, Sulfites {Except those compounds of NH4 (+), and alkali metals cations} ------Hydroxides, Sulfides {Except those compounds of NH4 (1+), alkali metals, and Ca (2+), Sr (2+), and Ba (2+)}

Seesaw

5 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: 90 and 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)

T-shaped

5 electron domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)

Linear (aka: trigonal bipyramidal - linear)

5 electron domains; 3 lone pairs. Bond angles: 180 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)

Trigonal bipyramidal

5 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 and 120 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d)

London-disperson forces

A temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.

Bromate

BrO3 (−)

Fahrenheit to Celsius

C = (F - 32)/1.8

Oxalate

C2O4 (2−)

Acetate

CH3COO (−)

Hypochlorite

CIO (−)

Perchlorate

CIO4 (−)

Cyanide

CN (−)

Carbonate

CO3 (2−)

Exceptions to Hund's Rule

Chromium ([Ar] 4s1 3d5) Copper ([Ar] 4s1 3d10) molybdenum ([Kr] 5s1 4d5) Silver ([Kr] 5s1 4d10) Gold ([Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10)

Chlorite

ClO2 (−)

Chlorate

ClO3 (−)

Gold Foil Experiment

Conducted by Ernest Rutherford in which alpha particles that were shot at gold foil were deflected when they hit the positive center of gold atoms. The nucleus was discovered as a result of this experiment.

Dichromate

Cr2O7 (2−)

Chromate

CrO4 (2−)

Relationship of Energy to Work and Heat

Energy = heat + work

Heat

Energy used to cause the temperature of an object to rise

Celsius to Fahrenheit

F = 1.8 (C) + 32

Hydride

H (−)

Reduction Reaction

a reactant gains one or more electrons, thus becoming more negative in charge

Complete Ionic Equation

a reaction equation that shows all soluble compounds in their ionic forms (aka: it shows NaCl as Na+ and Cl−)

Precipitation Reaction

a reaction in which an insoluble substance forms and separates from the solution by combining two soluble substances.

Combustion Reaction

a substance (most often a hydrocarbon) combines with oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water

VSEPR theory

a theory that predicts some molecular shapes based on the idea that pairs of valence electrons surrounding an atom repel each other.

Decomposition Reactions

complex substances are broken up into simpler substances (AB -> A+B)

Ionic Compound

composed of positive and negative ions that are combined so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal. (a metal and a non-metal)

Dipole-dipole

created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance

Electronegativity Trend

decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period

Ionization Energy Trend

decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period EXCEPTIONS: 2A-3A; 5A-6A

Pauli Exclusion Principle

no two electrons or protons or neutrons in a given system can be in states characterized by the same set of quantum numbers

Energy

the ability to do Work or transfer heat

Ionization Energy

the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom

Dihydrogen Phosphate

H2PO4 (−)

Hydrogen Carbonate (bicarbonate)

HCO3 (−)

Formate

HCOO (−)

Polarizability

the ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can be distorted

Kinetic Energy

the energy an object has due to its motion

Electron Affinity

the energy needed to remove an electron from a negative ion to form a neutral atom or molecule

Lattice energy

the energy required to separate one mole of the ions of an ionic compound; q1q2/d

hydrogen phosphate

HPO4 (2−)

Hydrogen Sulfate (bisulfate)

HSO4 (−)

Mercury I

Hg2 (2+)

Oil Drop Experiment

Robert Millikan, suspended oil drops between charged plates, shot x-rays that put an electron on them, determined the smallest increment of charge difference needed to suspend the drops, and determined the charge on one electron

Sulfide

S (2−)

Thiosulfate

S2O3 (2−)

Thiocyanate

SCN (−)

Sulfite

SO3 (2−)

Sulfate

SO4 (2−)

Pi bonds

Side to side overlap of orbitals; this is in double and triple bonds. Double bonds have one sigma and one pi bond. Triple bonds have one sigma and two pi bonds.

Heat capacity

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a specified amount of a substance by 1°C or 1 K.

Mass Number

the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus

Kinetic Molecular Theory

the theory that all matter is composed of particles (atoms and molecules) moving constantly in random directions

Polyatomic Ions

tightly bound groups of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge

Molecule

two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

Synthesis (Combination) Reactions

two or more substances combine to form a more complex substance (A+B -> AB)

Density

varies with temperature and is an identifying property

gamma particle

no charge; , High energy that only lead and concrete can stop

Neutron

no charged particle in the nucleus that has a mass of about 1 amu

Electronegativity

(chemistry) the tendency of an atom or radical to attract electrons in the formation of an ionic bond

Enthalpy

(thermodynamics) a thermodynamic quantity equal to the internal energy of a system plus the product of its volume and pressure

Linear

2 electron domains, no lone pairs. Bond angles: 180 degrees (hybridizations: sp)

Solubility Rules (cont.)

2. Soluble Compounds - Cations if a compound contains one of the following Cations, it will be soluble. •NH4 (positive charge of 1) and Almost all of the Group 1A alkali Cations

Molar Volume of a gas at STP

22.4 L

Square Pyramidal

6 electron domains; 1 lone pair. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)

Square Planar

6 electron domains; 2 lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)

Octrahedral

6 electron domains; no lone pairs. Bond angles: 90 degrees (hybridizations: sp3d2)

Endergonic

A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed.

Molecular Equations

A reaction equation which shows all soluble compunds in their ionic forms, a chemical equation written using the complete formulas of reactants and products (aka the original equation)

Atomic Radius Trend

Across a period: decreases. Down a group: increases

Arsenite

AsO3 (3−)

Arsenate

AsO4 (3−)

Elements

Atoms or molecules bound together (on periodic table)

Borate

BO3 (3−)

Density Equation

Density = (mass)/(volume)

Iodate

IO3 (−)

Celsius to Kelvin

K = C + 273.15

Naming Ionic Compounds

Metals are written 1st, non-metals last. Change the ending of non-metal to "ide" unless it is a polyatomic ion. Ignore the subscripts.

Permanganate

MnO4 (−)

Nitride

N (3−)

Ammonium

NH4 (+)

Nitrite

NO2 (−)

Nitrate

NO3 (−)

Oxide

O (2−)

Peroxide

O2 (2−)

Hydroxide

OH (−)

Phosphide

P (3−)

Phosphate

PO4 (3−)

Compounds

Pure substance that includes more than one element

Intermolecular Interactions affecting Boiling/ Melting Points

The higher the intermolecular force, the higher the boiling and melting points

Intermolecular Interactions affecting Bond Strength

The higher the intermolecular force, the stronger the bond.

Hydrogen Bonding

The intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (Fluorine, Oxygen, and Nitogen) is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule.

Atomic Number

The number of protons and electrons in a stable atom.

Cathode Ray Experiment

This was JJ Thomson's experiment that led to the discovery of the electron and the development of the plum pudding model of the atom. The rays repelled by the negative electric field and the magnetic force causes the negative particle to move in circular motion.

Oxidation Reaction

a chemical reaction in which a reactant loses one or more electrons such that the reactant becomes more positive in charge

Neutralization Reaction

a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base interact with the formation of a salt and water (EX: HCl + NaOH --> NaCl (aka: the salt) + H2O (aka: water))

Molecular Compound

a compound made up of two non metals; sharing electrons

Phase Diagrams

a graph of pressure versus temperature that shows in which phase a substance exists under different conditions of temperature and pressure

Isoelectronic series

a group of ions all containing the same number of electrons Ex: Li(+), Be(2+), N(3-), O(2-), F(-))

Homogeneous Mixtures

a mixture in which substances are evenly distributed throughout the mixture

Anion

a negatively charged ion

Ion

a particle that is electrically charged (positive or negative) because it has gained or lost electrons. (protons not equal to electrons)

Cation

a positively charged ion

alpha particle

a positively charged particle that is the nucleus of the helium atom; affects mass number by 4 and atomic number by 2.

beta particle

affects atomic number by increasing by 1; this emission is helping when higher than belt of stability

Isotope

an atom that has the same number of protons (or the same atomic number) as other atoms of the same element do but that has a different number of neutrons

Net Ionic Equation

an equation that includes only those compounds and ions that undergo a chemical change in a reaction in an aqueous solution (aka: removing ions that are on both sides of the equation)

Exergonic

chemical reaction that releases some form of energy, such as heat.

endothermic

describes a process in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings

Exothermic

describes a process in which heat is released to the surroundings

Potential Energy

energy stored due to an object's position or arrangement

Work

energy used to cause an object that has mass to move

Surroundings

everything other than the system

Naming Oxyacids

former suffix "ate;" root + ic. former suffix "ite;" root + ous. "i ATE ICky food at the whITE hOUSe." (EX: Perchlorate -> HCIO4: perchloric acid)

Heating Curves

graphical representation of phase changes (HEATING curves: start in solid phase and COOLING curves: start in gas phase)

Condition of ideal gases

high temperature, low pressure

Mixtures

homogeneous or heterogeneous that can separate into components based on physical properties

Metallic Trend

increases down a group, decreases across a period

Electron Affinity Trend

increases going across because atoms are stable enough to hold onto their own electrons and take others from other atoms. decreases going down because size of orbitals increase making the atoms unstable EXCEPTIONS: 1A-2A; 4A-5A

Conditions of real gases

low temperature, high pressure

Heterogeneous Mixtures

mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout

System

molecules chemist want to study

Greek Prefixes for Molecular Compounds

mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca

Electron

negatively charged particle in the outer space of the atom that has a mass of 5.486x10^-4. (Its mass is so small that most ignore it)

Gas Forming Reactions

occur through the formation of a gas and water because both products remove ions from the solution; include carbonate, sulfite, Sulfide (all are polyatomic) and NH4OH (but last one is not as common).

Hund's Rule

orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

Proton

positively charged particle in the nucleus that has a mass of about 1 amu.

Sigma bonds

single covalent bonds; there is always ONE in any bond (either it be single, double, or triple)


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