AP Environmental Science Unit 1

Salt Marshes

0.5-35 ppt salinity Low flow tith tides No zones High primary productivity Emergent plants, temperate coasts

Identify 3 biomes with very high primary productivity.

3 biomes with very high primary productivity are estuaries, swamps and marshes, and tropical rainforests.

Identify 3 biomes with very low primary productivity.

3 biomes with very low primary productivity are tundras, desert scrubs, and extreme deserts.

Boreal Forest

50° to 60° N latitude Cold and wet Short growing season with a lot of snow in the winter allows coniferous trees to dominate; Medium primary productivity Animals include moose, wolves, beavers

Coral Reefs

<35 ppt salinity Current and waves Three zones: the back reef (warmer due to its shallow depth, reduced water flow, and protection from waves), reef crest (highest point of the reef, breaks waves and receives the fullest impact of wave energy; exposed to air during low tides and receives the greatest amount of light intensity), and fore-reef (steep slope and high coral abundance) Very high primary productivity Most biodiverse aquatic biome (>1 million species of fish, invertebrates, reptiles, and birds) Typically an oligotrophic (low in plant nutrients and containing abundant oxygen in its depths) environment as the algae that have a mutualistic relationship with the coral are photosynthesizing

Open Ocean

>35 ppt salinity Currents and gyres (variable speed) 3 zones: Phonic, Aphotic, and Benthic (lowest ecological zone, usually involves the sediments at the seafloor that provide nutrients for organisms that live in this zone) Low primary productivity Supports phytoplankton, large fish, and mammals. Is typically a oligotrophic environment as the algae that have a symbiotic relationship with the coral are photosynthesizing Incredibly large and deep

Intertidal Zones

>35 ppt salinity Fast flow with tides Can be subdivided into four zones: High-Tide (submerged only at high tide and thus hotter/drier), Mid-Tide (submerged a medium time), Low-Tide (exposed to air for only a short period of time at low tide), and the splash zone: (above the spring high-tide line and covered by water only during storms) Low primary productivity Has kelp forests, benthic invertebrates, and faunal turfs in the low-tide zone, anemones, mussels, and hermit carbs in the mid-tide zone, limpets and barnacles in the high-tide zone, and limpets in the splash zone.

Mangrove Swamps

>35 ppt salinity Medium flow (these swamps protect coastlines from erosion) No zones Medium primary productivity Nurseries for fish

Woodlands/Shrublands

A biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, a combination that favors the growth of drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs A.K.A. Chaparral (coast of southern California), matorral (southern South America), fynbos (southern Africa), and maquis (Mediterranean) Dry summers and cold winters prevent growth of large plants although growing season is year round Frequent wildfires Plants: yucca, scrub oak, sagebrush, grapes Animals: rabbits, foxes, deer, livestock

Explain the difference between a food chain and a food web.

A food chain is how energy is transferred up the trophic levels (ex polar bears and penguins are never in the same food chain because polar bears live in the arctic region/north pole while penguins live in Antarctica in the southern hemisphere, and thus there is no chance for the polar bears to eat penguins). A food web, however, shows connections between multiple food chains (most species are omitted, as a real food web with all the species in an ecosystem would result in so many lines it'd be unreadable).

What is an ecosystem?

A particular location on Earth with interacting biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.

Commensalism

A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected (ex barnales attach to whales and eat from nutrient free waters, not affeecting the whale)

Parasitism

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed (ex bacteria stealing nutrients and causing harm to its host)

Mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit Both benefi, such as Acacia ants gaining housing from Acacia trees while the trees gain protection

Extraction

A relatively recent addition to the Carbon Cycle, humans remove fossil fuels from the ground.

Explain what a trophic cascade is and how it can impact an ecosystem.

A trophic cascade is when a species in a food web is added or removed, impacting all of the other species and the surrounding environment. Ecological process that starts at the top of the food chain and tumbles all the way down to the bottom. For instance, whales not only eat their prey, but also help keep them alive, sustaining the entire living system of the ocean. Feeding at pitch dark depths, and then returning to the photic zone, they release fecal plooms, vast outpourings of fecal matter rich in iron and nitrogen (that are typically scarce in the surface waters). These nutrients fertilize plant plankton in the photic zone, fertilizing the photic zone. They also, by plunging up and down, kick the plankton back up into the photic zone, giving it more time to reproduce before sinking into the abyss. More plant plankton thus means more animal plankton, on which the larger creatures feed. Plant plankton not only feed the animals of the sea, but also absorb carbon dioxide, taking the carbon out of circulation deep at the bottom of the ocean floor. The more whales, the more plankton, the more carbon is drawn out of the air, as well as the more fish, even though they feed on them. Whales thus change the climate, with an increase in their population potentially being a benign form of geoengineering. Another example is wolves. At the Yellowstone national park, without wolves, the numbers of deer had built up substantially, reducing much of the vegetation to almost nothing. However, as soon as the wolves arrived, killing the deer, they radically changed the behavior of the deer, avoiding certain areas of the park (places where they could be easily trapped: valleys, gorges), allowing those areas to regenerate. As soon as that happened, the birds and beavers started to increase substantially (with birds nesting in the trees and beavers eating the trees). Beavers built dams, providing habitats for ducks, fish, reptiles, otters, and so on. By killing coyotes, wolves increased the population of rats and mice and thus hawks, weasels, foxes, badgers, ravens, bears (more berries) and so on. There was less erosion, meandering less, channels narrowed, and more pools formed, with the rivers changing due to the regenerating forest stabilizing the banks so that they became more fixed/collapsed less often. In addition, the recovering vegetation stabilized the soil erosion.

List some biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.

Biotic: disease, parasites, competition, predators, and decomposers Abiotic: climate, soil quality, and pollution

Human impact on hydrologic

By cutting down trees, humans have decreased the amount of transpiration, leading to an increase in erosion and flooding. By paving roads, we have decreased infiltration and thus increased runoff, while us increasing the global temperatures has led to droughts and increased storm severity. Water has additionally been diverted for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use.

Sedimentation

CO2 dissolved in the ocean combines with calcium to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). CaCO3 can form limestone and dolomite, which can sequester carbon for millions of years (both are used in the creation of cement).

Exchange

CO2 is constantly being transferred between the atmosphere and the ocean (relatively even trade; atmospheric CO2 is absorbed into the ocean where most of it is used by algae for photosynthesis).

Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert

Central United States (prairies), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (steppes), and South America (pampas) Cold, harsh winters, hot dry summers prohibit growth of large plants Plants: grasses, non-woody flowering plants Animals: gazelles, zebras, rhinoceroses, wild horses, lions, wolves, prairie dogs, jack rabbits, deer, mice, coyotes, foxes, skunks, badgers, blackbirds, grouses, meadowlarks, quails, sparrows, hawks, owls, snakes, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, and spiders

Tropical Seasonal Forest/Savanna

Central and South America (Atlantic Coast), southern Asia, northwestern Australia, sub-Saharan Africa Long dry seasons, any trees drop their leaves, distinct wet seasons Warm temperatures Dominated by grasses, with scattered deciduous trees (presence of trees separates distinguishes it from grasslands) Animal life: large mammals, small mammals

Describe the differences between interspecific competition and intraspecific competition.

Competition, the struggle of individuals to obtain a shared limiting resource, can be Interspecific: between two different species Intraspecific: within one species

Human Impact on Nitrogen Cycle

Due to increased nitrogen use via, for instance, fertilizers, nitrogen oxides (NOx, typically nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)) (the natural level of nitrogen in the atmosphere and soils) has increased. These are typically produced by the denitrification process, and help form smog and acid rain. As a result, areas have become covered in smog while plant species adapted to low nitrogen levels die, fast growing species overtake areas, and biodiversity has decreased.

How is energy transformed during primary productivity?

During primary productivity, light energy is converted into chemical energy and stored i the bonds of glucose by most primary producers, converting energy from one form into another.

Temperate Seasonal Forest

Eastern United States, Japan, parts of China, most of Europe, Chile, Central Africa, and Eastern Australia Moderate mean annual temperature Moderate mean annual rainfall Plants: broadleaf deciduous trees (temperature and rainfall leads to rapid decomposition, high productivity) Animals: Deer, black bears, squirrels, raccoons, rabbits

How do ecosystems out of the range of sunlight get energy? Do some research.

Ecosystems out of the range of sunlight (with, for instance, different wavelengths of light only being able to penetrate certain depths, and photosynthesis favoring the red and blue ends of the spectrum, producers below these depths have had to evolve alternative methods of obtaining energy) get energy via methods such as chemosynthesis, in which energy is derived from the mediation of chemical reactions (there are different forms depending on the chemical that is available: some use hydrogen sulfide, pharus oxide (iron rust).

Subtropical Desert

Found on every continent, typically 30 degrees N and S of the equator Very high temperatures during the day, colder at night Extremely dry conditions Plants: sparse cacti, euphorbs (spurges), and succulents (needles instead of leaves) Animal life: small mammals, reptiles, insects (all typically nocturnal)

Give 3 examples of strict primary consumers (only eat producers).

Giraffes, cows, and goats are strict primary consumers.

Explain the differences between gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.

Gross primary productivity is the total rate of photosynthesis in a given area, while net primary productivity is the amount of energy stored by the producer after energy lost to respiration (plants use some of the energy they absorb for their own metabolic processes, such as growth, reproduction, and respiration, taking this energy out of the gross primary productivity amount; 1% of solar energy striking producers is captured by photosynthesis, 60% of GPP is lost to respiration, and the remaining 40% of GPP supports the growth and reproduction of producers). Net Primary Productivity is also the amount of energy available to consumers that eat the producers.

Human Impact on Carbon Cycle

Humanity's actions have resulted in the carbon cycle becoming unstable, increasing atmospheric CO2 levels and thereby increasing global temperatures (since the industrial revolution, the global carbon dioxide emissions have absolutely skyrocketed). In addition, the cutting down of trees prevents them from removing CO2 from the atmosphere, breaking the "circle" of carbon being found in living things and instead trapping it in the atmosphere in ever-increasing amounts.

Human impact on phosphorus cycle

Humans have used phosphate in fertilizers, and as a result have created runoff from farms into bodies of water. This had thus led to phosphorus levels increasing and thus an increased growth of producers (namely algal blooms), with this eutrophication (excessive richness of nutrients, typically due to runoff from the land, leading to a dense growth of plant life) leading to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen in water as organisms, specifically these producers, die and bacteria decompose them, resulting in dead zones or areas in large bodies of water unable to sustain life due to hypoxia).

Assimilation

In assimilation, producers (such as plants and algae) take up inorganic phosphorus from the soil and make molecules, cells, and/or tissues containing it (organic phosphorus). Phosphorus then flows up the food chain as consumers eat the producers and/or other consumers.

Nitrogen Assimilation

In assimilation, producers incorporate the elements they took up into their tissues (ammonia, ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate from the soil). When consumers eat these producers, some of the nitrogen they receive is assimilated into their consumers while the rest is released as waste (commonly urine).

Denitrification

In denitrification, specialized bacteria (in oxygen poor/anaerobic soil and water), convert nitrate (NO3-) into Nitrite (NO2-), Nitrous oxide gas (N2O), and nitrogen gas (N2). This ultimately returns nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.

Infiltration

In infiltration, water soaks into the ground.

Nitrogen Mineralization

In mineralization, decomposers break down dead organic matter and produce ammonium (NH4+). This process is sometimes called ammonification

Sedimentation

In sedimentation, phosphate settles to the bottom of bodies of water, and transforms into new rocks over time.

Explain why it would be beneficial for all parties involved if we mandated "Meatless Mondays."

It would be beneficial for all parties involved if we mandated "Meatless Mondays" because of its nutritional benefits for you, being healthier while providing more calories as well as a greater variety of choices (1 kg soybeans has 2.5x more calories than 1kg beef), as well as its ecological benefits for the environment. The livestock industry generates a massive amount of carbon dioxide, forests are being cut down for animal agriculture,and a great amount of water is used for animal production. If the entire US did not eat meat for just a single day, it would be the equivalent of not driving "91 billion miles," having an incredibly positive impact on the environment.

What does all of this have to do with the Lion King?

Just like the Lion King's "Circle of Life," the matter that all living things are made of cycles through the environment through the various trophic levels and biogeochemical cycles; there's only a finite amount of these elements and organic molecules so they must be recycled over and over and over for life to continue (law of conservation of matter).

Evaporation

Liquid water becomes water vapor.

Precipitation

Liquid water falls from the sky (as rain, snow, hail, and so on)

Where do most primary producers get their energy from? What does all of this have to do with the Lion King? Just like the Lion King's "Circle of Life," the matter that all living things are made of cycles through the environment through the various trophic levels and biogeochemical cycles; there's only a finite amount of these elements and organic molecules so they must be recycled over and over and over for life to continue (law of conservation of matter).

Most primary consumers get their energy from producers (who make their own food through photosynthesis/chemosynthesis).

Nitrification

Nitrification is the process by which nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium (NH₄⁺) into nitrite (NO2−) and then into nitrate (NO3-), which is more readily used by producers.

Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen fixation converts N2 in the atmosphere into forms producers can use to make nitrogen-containing organic compounds (Most living things can't do anything with nitrogen gas (N2), breathing it in and then right back out again (even though almost 80% of the air we breathe is N2)). Can occur via the Biotic Pathway, which generates ammonia (few species of bacteria, such as soil bacteria, convert N2 gas directly into mamonia (NH3), which is rapidly converted to ammonium (NH4+), a form that is readily used by producers Also can occur via abiotic pathways, which generate nitrate (NO3-) for use by producers. Lightning, combustion, and fertilizers using technology to supersede the natural process are examples of abiotic pathways.

Temperate Rainforest

Northwestern United States, Southwestern Chile, parts of Australia and New Zealand Warm and wet from ocean currents Year-round growing season allows for very tall, coniferous trees; high primary productivity Animals include bears, rodents, deer, foxes

According to the competitive exclusion principle, what is the typical end result when two species share the same realized niche?

One goes extinct

Geologic Uplift

Over a long period of time, geologic forces (such as plate tectonics and volcanic activity) can move these rocks up into mountains.

Give 3 examples of strict secondary consumers.

Owls, Eagles, and Cheetah are strict secondary consumers.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the atmosphere and sequesters (hides away/stores) carbon in organic molecules in plant tissues.

What is primary productivity?

Primary productivity is the rate at which solar energy is converted into organic compounds through photosynthesis over a unit time (so is effectively the amount of plant matter growing in a given area)

Energy pyramid

Primary produers (100%), primary consumers (10%), secondary consumers (1%), tertiary consumers (0.1%), and then quarternary consumers (0.01%). Starts typically with sun's energy (or chemicals), energy is lost as heat, decomposers take from all trophic levels and recycle nutrients. Very few tertiary and quarternary consumers can exist in an ecosystem because of the small amount of energy they receive from their food, so they have to consume more to survive. Energy is also unavailable to the next trophic level if it is stored in undigestable forms (bones, hair, etc.)

Respiration

Respiration returns CO2 to the atmosphere, and the decomposition of dead organisms returns additional CO2 to the atmosphere ( when decomposers such as bacteria break down these dead organisms, they respire, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere after using Oxygen).

Burial

Some dead organisms get buried in soil or ocean sediment and fossilize. Over time, these become fossil fuels (carbon sequestered during burial is relatively equal to carbon released by weathering of carbon-containing rocks and volcanic eruptions). Much of the buried carbon is trapped under the permafrost in the polar ice caps and arctic tundra, so as the world warms up and the permafrost melts, that carbon dioxide will be released into the atmosphere.

Tundra

Sometimes includes Alpine biome Typically N of 60° latitude Cold and dry Very short growing season allows for lichens, mosses, and short grasses; low primary productivity Animals include oxen, caribou, shorebirds

Rule of 10%

The 10% rule refers to the average proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to the next (ecological efficiency).

Besides the warblers and their nesting sites, research and describe another example of resource partitioning.

The anole lizards in Puerto Rico are a good example, with natural selection leading to the evolution of 11 species that make use of different resources, each with its own preferred habitat (type and height of vegetation, sunlight, and moisture).

Why is the hydrologic cycle important?

The hydrologic cycle is important in allowing water to reach living organisms, with water being utterly essential to life (allowing essential molecules to move within and between cells, drawing nutrients into the leaves of trees, dissolving and removing toxic materials, and performing many other critical biological functions as the primary agent responsible for dissolving and transporting the chemical elements necessary for living organisms).

Why is the phosphorus cycle important?

The phosphorus cycle is important because nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) contain phosphorus. Since all living things (as well as viruses) have nucleic acids, the cycling of phosphorus through the environment is incredibly important to life.

Combustion

These fossil fuels are then burned, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere or into the soil as ash. Combustion includes natural fires and volcanic activity.

Weathering

Through natural forces, such as rainfall, rocks are broken down and carried to bodies of water (as well as may leach into the soil). Due to it not dissolving in this water, however, phosphorus is not readily available in aquatic environments (while very little leaches into water bodies and much of what enters water precipitates out), and is thus a limiting nutrient in many aquatic systems.

Transpiration

Transpiration is the release of water vapor from plants in the atmosphere.

Tropical Rainforest

Typically within 20 degrees N and S of the equator Warm temperatures year round High amounts of precipitation High productivity, but low quality soil Highest biodiversity of any terrestrial biome Plants: large trees, some smaller trees, epiphytes, woody vines Animal life: many insects and arachnids, amphibians, reptiles and birds, monkeys

Runoff

Water can move as runoff along ground surfaces and into a body of water (eventually reaching the ocean, where water will later evaporate)

Condensation

Water vapor becomes liquid droplets (for instance, clouds).

Mineralization

When living things produce waste or die, the decomposition process mineralizes the organic phosphate back into inorganic phosphate in the soil.

Predator/Prey

When population of predator increases, population of prey decreases over time, but if they decrease too much, there won't be enough food for the predators and thus the predator population decreases, making the prey population increase. The graph cycles

Streams

Zero salinity Fast flow No zones High primary productivity Have many very small fish, and have pollution-intolerant invertebrate indicator species (if these species are present, the stream/river is clean)

Rivers

Zero salinity Medium flow (the faster the flow, the more oxygen, as faster streams have stretches of turbulent water, rapids, where water and air are mixed and oxygen dissolves into the water) No zones Medium primary productivity Have trout and salmon (which are supported by the higher-oxygen environment), as well as catfish (which do not require the higher oxygen amount)

Ponds and Lakes

Zero salinity (in most cases; although there are rare saltwater lakes and ponds) No flow 4 zones: Littoral (shallow; emergent plants) Limnetic (open water) Benthic (bottom) Profundal (below limnetic; no light) Littoral and limnetic zones are photic zones (penetrated by sunlight), while profundal and benthic zones are aphotic (no sunlight) Productivity varies between low and high: Oligotrophic lakes have a low level of productivity, with young, deep, clear waters, with little algae that is good for drinking (low amount of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen) Mesotrophic lakes have a moderate level of productivity (medium-aged, large amounts of fish, algae), and eutrophic lakes have a high level of productivity (old, very murky waters, lot of plants and animal life) Has variable freshwater fish and plants, turtles, frogs, and algae

Wetlands

Zero to low salinity No flow No zones Very high primary productivity Juvenile fish, birds, insets, and frogs Emergent plants (rooted in the bottom of the water but not having stems that extent out of the water)

Standing Crop

amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a given time

Herbivore

an animal that only eats producers/plants, a primary consumer.

saprotroph

an organism that only feeds on decaying organic matter, a decomposer

detritivore

an organism which feeds on dead organic material, especially plant detritus

omnivore

animals that eat producers and other consumers (i.e. raccoons, bears, humans) (typically would be in the secondary trophic level or higher).

a carnivore?

animals that only eat meat/other animals, typically being secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumers.

Herbivory

interaction in which one animal (the herbivore) feeds on producers (such as plants) similar to predator/prey regarding population graphs

detritivore

organisms that break down dead tissue and wastes into smaller particles

scavenger

organisms that consume dead animals

a decomposer?

organisms that convert organic matter into smaller molecules that are recycled back into the environment

Biomass

total mass of all living matter in a specific area (includes even microscopic organisms); increased through primary productivity and consumption of other living things.