AP Euro 5x5: 1914-Present
Art since the 1970s
Radical experimentation and challenging of tradition forms of artistic expression emerged alongside new intellectual developments post-World War I. Modernist art reflected the disillusionment of people after the first World War in works that turned away from realistic images, to more subjective images. New artistic styles came about such as impressionism where painters tried to catch visual impressions made by color, light, and shadow (Monet, Degas, and Cassatt). Expressionism added a deep psychological element to the impressionist style (Van Gogh). Dadaism that attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior and delighted in outrageous conflict. Surrealism was influenced by another post-World War I theory, Freudian psychology, and portrayed images of the unconscious.
Fascism and Mussolini
Fascism was a form of totalitarianism that was characterized by extreme, often expansionist nationalism, antisocialism, a dynamic and violent leader, and glorification of war and the military. Fascism was popularized by Mussolini in Italy and was later adopted by Hitler. They both embraced the doctrine of eugenics, a pseudoscience that maintained that selective breeding of humans can improve the general characteristics, which would inspire Nazi ideas that led to the Holocaust. Fascism came about after World War I and Versailles. Italians felt betrayed by their liberal government after the country received no compensation for their war effort. Benito Mussolini imposed his Fascist program during a widespread Italian revolution that opposed the liberals. He imposed it through the Black Shirts, a militia group that mainly focused on removing Socialists from Italy. After becoming prime minister, he moved on securing a Fascist majority in parliament and establishing repressive policies such as abolishing the freedom of press. Mussolini drew support through compromise with elites, the economy, and the state. He famously gained the support of the Catholic Church with the Lateran Agreement that recognized the Vatican as an independent state. He also manipulated both propaganda and popular pride for support of his Fascist state. With this support, Mussolini began a military campaign in Ethiopia, reintroducing an Italian empire. This campaign came into Hitler's eyes which would lead to their alliance in the future.
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Adolf Hitler and the Nazis
Adolf Hitler's rise to power and the establishment of Fascist rule in Germany sent Europe on the road towards a second World War and towards one of the largest mass genocides in history. Hitler's totalitarian regime in Nazi Germany was based on racial aggression and territorial expansion, something other European countries were initially reluctant on trying to prevent. Hitler built up the Nazi Party on the basis of National Socialism that was driven by extreme nationalism and racism. He used anticommunism and the Great Depression of 1929 to strengthen the Nazis' appeal to Germans. After Hitler was appointed chancellor, the Enabling Act gave him absolute dictatorial power. Coercion and terror allowed him to strengthen his power. The Nazis' coordination policy forced conformity of National Socialism and the SS grew as a political police force and controlled the concentration camp. One of the strongest ideals of Hitler and the Nazis was the strong anti-Semitism and other "undesirables." The Nuremberg laws defined German Jews and other people of non-German blood. As Jews and other people were forced out of their homes, those of the "master race" stepped in to take their place (Aryanization). This overt racism didn't sit well with other European countries and it would later lead to the Holocaust during World War II.
Immirgation
Changing immigration patterns in the late-20th century and early-21st century marked new social and cultural change in Europe, to an extent the continent has never seen before. Several factors encouraged a large influx of immigrants into Europe: postcolonial movements, the collapse of Communism drove people, civil war in Yugoslavia, and conflicts in the Middle East. This arrival of millions of immigrants strained social services throughout Europe. Native Europeans were alarmed by these immigrants and feel like they threaten their jobs and undermine their national unity. One of the largest immigration patterns of the 21st century was the significant influx of Muslims into Europe. The end of 2015 brought a tidal wave of refugees from Syria bringing tension as Europe struggled to recover from the last wave of refugees during World War II.
De Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle established an effective Fifth Republic and his leadership prevented a civil war that would have collapsed the country. De Gaulle kept discontented French people at bay during the Algerian War. This was a war between Algerian nationalists, or the National Liberation Front (FLN), and the French population of Algeria who were called the Pieds-Noirs. During the war, France's Fourth Republic collapsed, which brought De Gaulle back into politics and established the Fifth Republic with a new constitution. His rise to power alleviated tensions in France during the Algerian War. To end the war, De Gaulle accepted Algerian self-determination. He maintained centrist rule that proved to be effective in the long run. His nationalist tendencies were seen in his concerned views of the United States and when he withdrew from NATO.
Detente
Detente was the easing of Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States which would last until the latter part of the Cold War. Though tensions continued, direct diplomatic relations were less strained. It decisively began when President Nixon and Brezhnev met to discuss the worsening arms race. The two powers agreed to limit the testing and proliferation of nuclear weapons. Another early part of detente was the West German leader, Willy Brandt, began his policy called Ostpolitik to ease diplomatic tensions between the capitalist West Germany and Communist East Germany. A high point of detente was when the United States, Canada, and the Soviet Union, and most other European countries met to discuss the Helsinki Accords. One of the main agreements was that Europe's existing political frontiers could not be changed by force and also accepted provisions that guaranteed civil rights and political freedoms. The Helsinki Accords did not end the Cold War, but it still was effective in diminishing tensions. Despite the progress of relieving tensions, the Soviet Union under Brezhnev violated doctrines of the Helsinki Accords such as the human rights provisions and the protection of political frontiers. This reignited tensions between them and the US under Carter and Reagan.
End of the USSR (1991)
Gorbachev's opening of democratic elections in the Soviet Union began the end of Communist rule over the country and would be the end of the Soviet Union. Democratic elections allowed for other parties to undermine the power of the Communist Party, particularly in Lithuania that declared itself an independent state. Gorbachev tried to stop this through an economic embargo which only increased his unpopularity in the Soviet Union. He then passed a constitution that eroded the Communist Party's monopoly of political power. The next step in the end of the USSR was Yeltsin's declaration of independence of the Russian Soviet Republic. Again, Gorbachev couldn't stop this. An anti-communist revolution swept through Russia as Yeltsin further eroded the power of the Communist Party and renamed his republic the Russian Federation. Gorbachev resigned on Christmas Day in 1991, marking the end of the Soviet Union.
Solidarity in Poland
Solidarity's challenge of Soviet rule in Poland inspired other East Bloc countries to also challenge the Soviet Union which would be a lasting pattern in the Revolutions of 1989 and in the collapse of Communism. Like in other East Bloc countries, Poland faced economic decline which created discontent among the Polish. It wasn't until Pope John Paul II inspired the Polish to rise up against Communist rule. Lech Walesa and Lenin shipyard workers formed Solidarity as an independent trade union that worked for workers' rights and political reform. The union gained massive support, but was driven underground by Jaruzelski who headed Poland' Communist government. But Solidarity survived. They re-emerged when Polish leaders legalized Solidarity in the hopes of fixing their worsening economic decline. To rise to power, Walesa secured more support for the union in Poland and secured a majority in the parliament and overpowered the Communist Party. Mazowiecki was sworn in in 1989 as a non-communist prime minister in Poland and implemented shock therapy to remove Communism from Poland.
Appeasement
The British policy of appeasement towards Germany aimed at giving Hitler what he wanted to prevent another World War. However, it did little to nothing in preventing the war. Even though Hitler disobeyed the demilitarization doctrine from the Treaty of Versailles and withdrew Germany from the League of Nations, the British were still motivated by the feeling of pacifism post-World War. British appeasement practically dictated French policy because France could not go to war with Germany by itself. Still, after German armies marched into the Rhineland buffer state, Britain still refused to act. Hitler continued to demand territory, which led to Chamberlain's offer of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia as part of British appeasement policy—Germany still invaded Czechoslovakia. It wasn't until Germany's invasion of Poland that Britain and France declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.
EC-EU
The European Economic Community, or Common Market, brought about greater European unity. The Common Market opened up free trade among European nations and would grow into the European Union that shaped the modern European economy to what it is today. It was originally proposed and formed by Christian Democratic governments in West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg to hopefully bond them together as one economic body. The Common Market encouraged trade among European states, promoted global exports, and helped build shared resources to modernize industry. Even after the Great Depression, this new economic unity remained intact, even attracting new members like Britain, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Portugal, and Spain. The growth of the global economy since the Common Market's beginning encouraged restructuring into the European Union (EU) which was dictated by the Maastricht Treaty. The restructured EU established the Euro as a common currency of EU countries. The EU we have today was further centralized with the Treaty of Lisbon. As of 2013, there are 27 countries in the EU, not including Britain after it left the organization.
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization strengthened Western ties with a military alliance. NATO maintained a strong European and American military presence in western Europe. It was originally formed as an anti-Soviet alliance based on the containment policy of the United States. Though it originally consisted of Western powers, other countries that originally belonged to the East Bloc were accepted into NATO after the Soviet Union and the East Bloc broke down.
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Revolution of 1917 in Russia gave the way to the establishment of the Communist Soviet Union that fulfilled the dream of Marxists and became a model for other Communist governments. It would also become the center of diplomatic tensions in the future. The revolution came about with the establishment of a provisional government during World War I, which would be overthrown under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. Lenin led a faction of the Social Democratic Party called the Bolsheviks. The party gained mass support, now with the help of Trotsky, in the Petrograd Soviet. This mass appeal, their dominating power that the provisional government lacked, and Lenin and Trotsky's leadership allowed for the Bolsheviks to rise from a small minority to immense power. The Bolsheviks overpowered the provisional government and gained control of Russia. They were able to maintain control. Lenin appealed to both peasants and workers, promising a democratic assembly and a new constitution. But this promise did not last long and Lenin decided to move towards a one-party state. To prevent further destruction of Russia, he signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany which ceded ⅓ of Russian territory. Lenin also suppressed counter-revolutionaries in the Russian Civil War and set up the Cheka to prevent the rise of opposers to Communist rule.
Revolutions of 1989
The Revolutions of 1989 acted both as the growth of independent countries and as the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. Also, the revolutions led to former East Bloc citizens being granted political freedom and the unification of West and East Germany. Spending on outdated industries and extensive welfare systems and the limits on personal and political freedoms made revolutions in the East Bloc almost inevitable. One of the first Revolutions occurred in Poland with the rise of Solidarity that grew over the Communist Party and pushed them out of power. Hungary followed Poland. Protests in Hungary led to free elections which shifted the country towards a multiparty democracy. Hungary also opened up their borders to East Germans to strengthen support at home. This inspired protests in East Germany and led to a new movement to open East Germany to the West. In the same year, the Berlin Wall was torn down with a new, reformist government in power. In Czechoslovakia, the revolution was so smooth that it was named the Velvet Revolution. Romania was able to shut Communism out too, but it was much more violent than the other revolutions in 1989.
Women's Movement
The Women's Movement that emerged in the 1970s created a new generation of feminism that advocated for the securing of gender equality and the promotion of general interests of women. The emergence of the women's movement came about in new ongoing changes in motherhood patterns and paid work led to new conditions and demands. A large vanguard of feminist intellectuals stimulated these new thoughts among women. Among these intellectuals was Simone de Beauvoir who wrote The Second Sex, which was about women breaking free of inflexible and limiting conditions. Another feminist intellectual was Betty Friedan who wrote The Feminine Mystique, which criticized the domestic life of women. Another factor in the women's movement was the realization that women had to unite to influence politics and secure reforms.
Decolonization
The age of imperialism that defined many non-European countries into neo-Europes was almost completely reversed in a new age of decolonization that created many new independent countries. In two decades, almost one hundred new nations emerged in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. But even after the decolonization of many countries, neo-colonialism was imposed which preserved Western economic exploitation in former colonies. Decolonization came about after World War II where there was an emergence of a new wave of strong leaders who called for national self-determination and where imperial powers could no longer able to support overseas colonies. Moreover, Japan's defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War ended the myth of European superiority. Many new leaders adopted non-alignment policy during the Cold War, where postcolonial governments remained neutral and played both sides of the war. This and other factors influenced the new postcolonial governments. The decolonization of the Dutch East Indies and French Indochina resulted in several new Communist and noncommunist governments. The decolonization of India under the leadership of Mohandas Gandhi was a key event during the decolonization era that drew from Western liberalism. In China, independence movements drew from Chinese nationalism and Marxist-Leninist ideology. Another important event during the decolonization era was the Suez crisis in which Britain and France lost their hold of the Suez Canal, leaving Nasser the leader of Egypt. This showed that European countries could no longer maintain their global empires. The tail-end decolonization events happened mainly in Africa which occurred peacefully in the south, and less so in the north.
Gadget Revolution
The consumer revolution that became part of Western economic recovery was facilitated by a number of new, affordable consumer goods. These affordable goods, combined with higher wages and less spending on basic necessities, made these goods very popular. Among these were appliances such as vacuums, fridges, and microwaves. These made the lives of consumers much easier and gave them much more free time than they had before. These made life especially easier for women so that they could spend more time taking care of the house and made it easier to maintain a job. Among the other gadgets were new entertainment devices like radios and television. Transportation like cars and planes were more affordable which allowed for increased travel and vacation.
Iron Curtain
The figurative iron curtain divided much of continental Europe during the Cold War. The capitalist powers made up the West Bloc and the Communist powers made up the East Bloc. Politics and economics set the Blocs apart. The eastern countries were subjugated under the control of the Soviet Union. These countries experienced economic burden which was heavily protested by workers. In the west, these countries experienced the opposite. The economy then was characterized by recovery and a rising consumer revolution, along with greater economic unity in the form of the Common Market.
World War I
The first World War was a long and extremely destructive war that darkened the world view of many people and was the cause of many different changes to come later in the 20th century. A mix of industrialization, nationalism, and imperialism helped shape the several different factors that triggered the start of World War I: the volatile Balkans region, aggressive German foreign relations, old rivalries and alliances, the Mood of 1914 (militaristic and nationalistic), and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Among the effects were the collapse of several grand states, the rise of Communism, shaky diplomatic relations, total war society, and the deaths of millions of soldiers. The war was fought between the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire) and the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Britain). Trench warfare and new technologies made World War I much more devastating and brutal. New technology as a result of industry like the machine gun, grenades, poison gas, flamethrowers, etc. made their debut. The increasing demand of these weapons required a lot of manpower at home to supply. This led to total war, where government controls economic and social life at home to supply their armies. World War I was fought on multiple fronts: the Middle East, the Western front, the Italian front, the Balkan front, and the Russian front. The war dragged on with no clear winner or loser until the United States joined the Entente and tipped the war against the Central Powers. Frustrated Germans took over the government and established the Weimar Republic and ended the war.
Freud, Darwin, Nietzsche, Einstein, and Planck
The intellectual developments of Freud, Darwin, Nietzsche, Einstein, and Planck reflected the new pessimism, uncertainty, and irrationalism of the world after World War I. They undermined old developments, while also introducing new ideas that shaped new modern society between both World Wars. Freud's study of psychoanalysis said that a deeper subconscious and unconscious controlled human behavior, which showed the idea that humans have never been in control of their world. Darwin's theory of evolution, or Darwinism, said that all aspects of nature compete to survive and dominate, which showed the idea that life is a constant and violent battleground. Nietzsche's philosophy of existentialism and the "death of God" principle undermined all systems of values which called out the pointlessness of all life, which showed the idea that the things people have done or will do have no point to it. Einstein came of with the theory of special relativity that almost everything is relative and that only light is a constant, which showed the idea of universal disorder, which was also promoted by Planck. His study of physics and subatomic theory undermined Newton's laws and showed the world that nothing is truly in order.
Cold War
The long rivalry between the United States and Soviet-aligned countries dictated post-World War II politics, leaving Europe mostly divided by an iron curtain. The US represented capitalism in the West Bloc and the Soviet Union represented communism in the East Bloc. The Truman Doctrine laid out the containment policy of the US. NATO was formed among Western powers with the same anti-Soviet principles. The East Bloc formed the Warsaw Pact in response to this. The Soviet Union kept tight control of the East Bloc which limited Eastern countries' economic development, while Western countries experienced economic recovery and prosperity. Khrushchev in the Soviet Union attempted to ease Cold War tensions with his de-Stalinization policy, but limits to his reform led to even more tensions, such as the Cuban missile crisis and the construction of the Berlin Wall, which was built to contain eastern Germans. Tensions began to relax in the early-1970s (detente). However, Brezhnev succeeded Khrushchev and returned to Stalinist policies which led to more tensions with the new American presidents. Tensions aside, the new Soviet leader, Gorbachev, attempted to revitalize the country through more democratic means, but only brought the Soviet Union closer to collapse. This, along with the Revolutions of 1989, would be the end of the Soviet Union and the East Bloc, ending the Cold War.
Gorbachev
The policies of Mikhail Gorbachev were meant to revitalize the Soviet Union, but it only led to the country's decline and eventual collapse in 1991. He implemented reforms so that the Soviet Union could keep up with the West. His economic plan, perestroika, eased government price controls, allowed more independence for state enterprises, and created private cooperatives. This only increased shortages and caused economic stalling. Gorbachev implemented glasnost which was a campaign for openness in government and the media. This new openness went further than intended and would lead to something close to free speech. Gorbachev's third major reform was democratization. This inadvertently ignited demands for greater political and cultural autonomy. His easing of military power in other countries led to more arms reductions between the Soviet Union and the US. What Gorbachev did not intend was the snowballing of his reforms which would lead to the decline of the Soviet Union and Communism in the East Bloc.
70s-80s Recession
The postwar economic boom ended in the early 1970s with a reversal of economic prosperity into a period of recession, resulting in major economic restructuring as the 20th century closed. The recession came as American currency was devalued in post war foreign markets. But the major trigger to the recession was the oil crisis, where the Arab-led OPEC led an economic war against the west by raising the expense of oil. Western governments initially undermined the severity of the situation. The combination of high unemployment, decline of living standards and productivity, and high inflation was called stagflation. Though there was some recovery, another oil crisis in Iran allowed for the recession to continue. Because of the recession, relations between countries in the Common Market improved so that they could stay alive with closer cooperation. Also, governments began a shift in focus to high-tech and service-oriented jobs for economic growth, rather than industrial and manufacturing jobs (postindustrial society). The recession led to an emergence of new conservatives—whether left or right—that followed a new principle of neoliberalism. This was the argument for privatization of state-run industries and decreased spending on social services, as well as a return to more laissez-faire policies. Politicians like Margaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan, and Helmut Kohl followed this policy. An exception to this was Francois Mitterrand who did the opposite of neoliberalism, but failed.
Terrorism (since the 1970s)
The rise of terrorism in the later part of the 20th century and into the 21st century brought about radical views of immigrants, particularly Muslims. Violence in Islamic countries led to extreme nationalist parties trying to limit Muslim influence and immigration. The United States is one of the main players in this "war on terror," leaving Europe dragged into the conflict, who had doubts about a war in Iraq and would rather have peace. Some of the events that sparked greater fears of terrorism was the Munich Olympics and the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.
Totalitarianism
The total war of World War I inspired the re-emergence of authoritarianism, though now with a new form of authoritarian rule, totalitarianism. This was a radical dictatorship that exercises total control over the lives of individual citizens. Totalitarianism was the model for the Communist Soviet Union, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany, all of which were major players in the second World War. While the totalitarian states had differences that set them apart, they shared common interests, beliefs, and practices. The rejected parliamentary and liberal governments, believed that individualism undermined equality, and they both sought to overthrow existing society. They used force and terror to intimidate and destroy political opponents and pursued policies of imperial expansion to exploit lands. They censored media and launched large propaganda campaigns to promote their goals.
World War II
The war between the Allies and Axis powers is the most destructive war in history, including one of the largest mass genocides. World War II began with Germany's invasion of Poland, ending British appeasement. Germany quickly invaded Poland, Denmark, Norway, and Holland in a blitzkrieg, or lightning war. France was invaded and the British and French armies were cornered on the beaches of Dunkirk. Britain was able to hold off German air forces during the Battle of Britain. Germany also attempted to invade the Soviet Union, despite their nonaggression pact, but failed. The lands under Nazi occupation were subject to New Order, a program based on radical imperialism and racism. Some attempted to rebel against the Nazis, but poor organization made them weak. All Nazi-occupied land experienced the Holocaust, a systematic effort to exterminate all European Jews and other groups deemed inferior. Jews were occupied in crowded and unsanitary ghettos. Euthanasia (mercy killing) was given to people with disabilities. Death squads called Special Task Forces were mobilized extermination groups. Concentration or extermination camps were setup to exploit prisoners for their work and/or to execute them. Over six million Jews and five million other Europeans died during the Holocaust. As the Axis Powers built their empires, Britain, the US, and the Soviet Union joined in a Grand Alliance. The Allies cornered the Axis Powers as they pushed into Europe. The greatest offensive was a force of British and American forces who stormed Normandy in France. When the Allies entered Berlin, Hitler committed suicide. On the Pacific Theater, the US dropped nuclear bombs on Japan, ending World War II. Fifty million people died.
Western European Economic Recovery
The western Europe economic recovery can be described as an economic miracle for its rapid growth post-World War II. Recovery led to greater living standards, prosperity, a rising consumer market, and new social changes that would later characterize modern Western economies. Financial aid from the Marshall Plan and economic stimulation from the Korean War, combined with Keynesian economics (government intervention and planning) brought about recovery. Also, the political dominance of Christian Democrats allowed for the rise of the western economy. They also had the idea of a single, transnational market without tariffs or quotas. This idea would become the formation of the Common Market, which later became the European Union. Economic prosperity allowed for the consumer revolution which was a wave of new, affordable goods after World War II. Less income was spent on basic necessities like housing and food, along with full employment and high wages, allowed more Europeans to buy more things. Rising living standards and the rise of consumer goods like modern appliances and entertainment devices set the basis for modern consumer society in the future.
Versailles
There was optimism for the peace conference in Versailles to re-establish peace and stability, but the conference established shaky political relations that would not prevent the coming of another World War 28 years later. The Big Three—the United States (Wilson), France (Clemenceau), and Britain (Lloyd George)—completely dominated the other countries at the conference. Wilson proposed a peace proposal called the Fourteen Points which led to the League of Nations which was established as a peace organization to advert future wars, though its weak structure couldn't achieve its purpose. France wanted large reparations on Germany but agreed to a less aggressive compromise that established the Rhineland buffer state, as well as an alliance between the Big Three. While these countries argued over the settlement, there were other countries whose voices were ignored in the peace settlement. The Treaty of Versailles also redrew Europe, with the consideration of national self-determination, yet the new borders were still disputed. The harshest aspect was the war guilt clause that put all of the blame of World War I on Germany, creating discontent among Germans, including a young Adolf Hitler. There were several reasons for the failure of the Treaty of Versailles: the unpopularity of the Treaty in the US led to its turn away from the peace agreement, Britain also turned its back on the alliance, and national self-determination gave way to border disputes.
Joseph Stalin
Vladimir Lenin established Communist Russia which became an outline for totalitarian dictatorship, something Joseph Stalin would further organize the country into. Stalin was able to gain immense support from the Communist Party which allowed him to ascend to power. One of his first actions was rolling back Lenin's New Economic Policy which brought the Soviet Union closer to liberalism. He was also less lenient on other Soviet republics and consolidated these republics (the USSR) under more central rule. Though Lenin granted some cultural independence to them, he granted no real political autonomy. His five-year plan was aimed at modernizing the Soviet union and creating a stronger Communist society. Lenin's plan focused on agriculture and industry. It started with the collectivization of agriculture forced peasant farms into large state-controlled enterprises. This received harsh and violent opposition from peasants—particularly in Ukraine—and wasn't as effective as it was meant to be. The industrial plan, Gosplan, was more successful in quadrupling industrial output, despite its initial problems. The plan built heavy industry as a major economic force in the Soviet Union. Stalin's last great offensive before World War II was his wave of violent repression of millions of Stalin's opponents. Though it severely weakened the Soviet Union in economic, intellectual, and military terms, it allowed for even more of Stalin's Communist supporters to rise to power.
Youth culture
Youth culture in the 1960s and on set the baby boomers from after World War II and their parents apart, a term called the generation gap. This brought radical changes to the roles and lifestyles of the youth. Among the characteristics of youth culture included a rebellious lifestyles, drugs, music, and sex. Baby boomers grew up in a liberal and consumerist society which allowed them to see inequality and the lack of social justice. This counterculture became a part of the ideology of youth culture. The youth challenged the conformity of both consumer society and politics. Another aspect of the counterculture movement was the New Left, which embraced updated forms of Marxist, to challenge both Western capitalism and Soviet Communism. Another part of youth culture was the sexual revolution. In this, sexual experimentation was facilitated by the birth control pill which increased premarital sex rates and the embrace of of "free love."
