AP Euro Ch. 21

Nationalities of Central and Eastern Europe

Austria: Germans made up a quarter of the population. Magyars (Hungarians), Czechs, Italians, Poles, and Ukrainians lived alongside each other. Slavic groups, Italians, and Romanians were scattered but they outnumbered the politically dominant Germans and Hungarians. Russia: Orthodox Christians were the ruling elite. Ottoman Empire: ruling elite were Muslim Turks of Anatolia

Holy Alliance

Austria, Prussia, and Russia worked to repress reformist and revolutionary movements and stifle desires for national independence. Spain and the Italian kingdom of the Two Sicilies established constitutional monarchies with press freedom. universal male suffrage, and other reforms. Metternich and Alexander proclaimed at the conference of Troppau to interact. Austrian forces marched into Naples in 1821 and restored the autocratic power of Ferdinand I in the Two Sicilies.

Congress of Vienna

Representatives of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain) met from Sept. 1814 to June 1815 to raise barriers against French aggression. They thought balance of power meant international equilibrium that would discourage the domination of Europe by a single state. The low countries- Belgium and Holland- united under the Dutch monarchy capable of opposing France. Prussia got more territory on France's eastern border. Austria gave up territory in Belgium and S. Germany but took Venetia, Lombardy, and Polish possessions. Russia got a small Polish kingdom and Prussia got part of Saxony. This began a Congress System which settled international crises.

William Wordsworth

Romantic influenced by Rousseau and the spirit of the early French Revolution. He wrote *Lyrical Ballads* with Samuel Taylor Coleridge which endowed simple subjects with the loftiest majesty. He believed that all natural things were sacred.

Jules Michelet

Romantic who wrote books on the history of France that consciously promoted the growth of national aspirations. He encouraged the French people to search the past for their special national identity.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

Wrote *What is Property?* which argued that "property is theft" and was profit that was stolen from the worker. He believed that states should be abolished and that society should be organized in loose associations of working people

Corn Laws

8% of the British population was allowed to vote and parliament, easily manipulated by the king, remained in the upper classes. Radical aspects of the French Revolution threw the British aristocracy into a panic. Britain had been unable to import cheap grain from eastern Europe during the war years, leading to high prices and large profits for the landed aristocracy. After the war, grain could be imported again, allowing the price of wheat and bread to decrease and benefitting almost everyone. The aristocracy passed the Corn Laws which prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbable levels.

French Constituent Assembly

After the elections of April 1848, the people of France elected a 900 person Constituent Assembly with mostly conservatives, some moderates, and a tiny number of radicals. They included no representative of the Parisian working class so artisans and unskilled workers invaded the Constituent Assembly on May 15 and tried to proclaim a new revolutionary state but failed. Uprisings followed but the government had the support of the army and peasants and after 3 "June Days" of street fighting, the republican army won. The Assembly completed a constitution featuring a strong executive, which allowed Louis Napoleon to win a landslide victory in the election of December 1848.

First and Second Treaty of Paris

After the first time Napoleon surrendered, the Bourbon dynasty was restored and France got the boundaries it had in 1792. France did not have to pay war reparations which avoided provoking a spirit of victimization. In the second treaty, Louis XVIII restored and France lost only a little territory, had to pay an indemnity of 700 mil francs, and had to support a large army of occupation for 5 years.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian foreign minister who wanted the defense of monarchial status quo and authoritarian governments because of his pessimistic view of human nature, which was prone to error, excess, and self-serving behavior. He blamed liberal middle class for stirring up lower classes and thought Christian morality was vital against radical change. He also hated national self-determination under constitutional government because it threatened to revolutionize central Europe and destroy the Austrian empire.

Alexis de Tocqueville

Author of *Democracy in America* who explained the election result by observing that the socialist movement in Paris aroused the fierce hostility of France's peasants as well as the middle and upper classes. The peasants owned land and wanted to keep private property. The Constituent Assembly was committed to centrist moderation.

Laissez Faire

Called for free trade, unrestricted private enterprise, and no government interference in the economy. Followed Adam Smith's thought that free trade would give a fair and equal opportunity for greater income for everyone. Business elites embraced laissez faire and used liberal ideas to defend their right to do as they wished in factories. Labor unions were outlawed because unions restricted free competition and the individual's right to work.

Eugene Delacroix and David Friedrich

Delacroix painted dramatic, colorful scenes with remote and exotic subjects. Friedrich preferred somber landscapes of ruined churches or remote arctic shipwrecks, which captured the divine presence in natural forces.

Liberalism and Republicans

Demanded representative government, equality before the law, and freedom of press, speech, assembly, worship, and from arbitrary arrest. However, it didn't call for a direct democracy. Republicans were more radical than liberals and willing to endorse violent upheaval. They included universal voting rights.

Karlsbad Decrees

Earlier, Napoleon replaced the Holy Roman Empire with 38 German states which retained independence and ambassadors met in a Confederation Diet which had little power. When liberal reformers and university students protested for national unification, the Austrian and Prussian leadership issued the Karlsbad Decrees in 1819 which required the German states to outlaw liberal political organizations, police their universities and newspapers, and establish a permanent committee with spies.

Charles Fourier

Envisaged a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self-sufficient communities called "phalanxes" each made up of 1620 people. He believed in the total emancipation of women and that under capitalism, single women were sold to their future husbands for dowries. Fourier called for the abolition of marriage, sexual freedom, and free unions based only on love.

Germaine de Stael

Female romantic who urged the French to throw away their worn-out classical models. Her study *On Germany* extolled the spontaneity and enthusiasm of German writers and thinkers.

Count Henri de Saint-Simon

Frenchmen who proclaimed the tremendous possibilities of industrial development. He said the key to progress was that the "parasites"- court, aristocracy, lawyers, and churchmen- give way to the "doers"- scientists, engineers, and industrialists who would plan public works projects and establish investment banks. The main goal was improved conditions for the poor.

Greek Independence

Greeks were united by their language and Greek Orthodox religion. The national movement led to secret societies and then open revolt in 1821 led by Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greek patriot and a general in the Russian army. At first, the Great Powers opposed the revolution because they sought a stable Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against the Russians. Educated Europeans and Americans cherished the culture of classical Greece and admired the piety of their Orthodox brethren. In 1827, Britain, France, and Russia directed Ottoman leaders to accept an armistice. When they refused, their navies trapped the Ottoman fleet at Navarino. This led to a Russian protectorate over much of present day Romania and Greece was independent in 1832 under a German prince as king.

Marx's ideas of Bourgeoisie Proletariat Relationship

He thought one class always exploited another. He argued that the proletariat will grow larger and poorer and will be lead to develop a sense of revolutionary class-consciousness. They would then overthrow the bourgeoisie. He thought that under feudalism, labor was organized according to long term contracts of rights and privileges. Under capitalism, labor was a commodity bought and sold for wages. The goods workers produced were always worth more than what they were paid and the "surplus value" was pocketed by the bourgeoisie. He said that free trade, private property, marriage, and Christian morality were myths. He published *The Communist Manifesto* which started communism scattered around socialists, anarchists, and labor leaders.

Louis Blanc

He urged the creation of permanent government sponsored cooperative workshops to guarantee full employment in his *The Organization of Work*. He also thought work should be a human right. The moderates in France were only willing to provide temporary relief so they set up national workshops. An army of desperate poor from French provinces and even foreigners streamed into Paris to sign up for the workshops. After the elections of April 1848, the government released Blanc and dissolved the workshops.

Charles X of France

His government turned in 1830 to military adventure in an effort to rally French nationalism. They landed to the west of Algiers and took the capital city in 3 weeks. In 1831, the Algerians revolted and waged war that lasted until 1847. Charles repudiated the Constitutional Charter stripping middle class of its voting rights and censored the press. Printers, other artisans, and small traders rioted in Paris and brought down the government and Charles fled. They put Charles' cousin Louis Philippe on the throne and he accepted the Constitutional Charter and adopted the flag of the French Revolution.

Overthrow of Louis Philippe

His reign was called the "bourgeois monarchy" because it served the selfish interests of France's wealthy elites and was characterized by stubborn inaction. A severe depression began with crop failures in 1846 & 47. On Feb. 22 1848, workers joined by some students began tearing up cobblestones and building barricades. The National Guard broke ranks and joined the revolutionaries and Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, but the people refused to have another monarchy. A provisional republic headed by a 10 man executive committee began.

Attempted Revolution in Hungary

Hungarians demanded national autonomy, full civil liberties, and universal suffrage. In March, revolutionary leaders pushed through an extremely liberal constitution. They also wanted to have a unified centralized nation but minority groups that formed half of the population rejected it. Each group felt entitled to political autonomy and cultural independence. Austrian officials and nobles led the minority nationalities of Hungary against the revolutionary government. On June 6, 1849, Russian troops subdued the country.

Battle of Peterloo

In 1817, the Tory government, controlled by landed aristocracy, responded to protests against the corn laws by temporarily suspending the rights of peaceable assembly and habeas corpus, which gives a person under arrest the right to a trial. 2 years later, the Six Acts placed controls on a heavily taxed press and practically eliminated all mass meetings. An enormous but orderly protest at Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester was savagely broken up by the armed cavalry.

Beginning of Prussian Revolution

In March 1848, crowds in urban centers across the German Confederation called for liberal reforms and a national parliament, and many regional rulers quickly gave in. Prussian king, Frederick William IV vacillated and caved in, promising to grant Prussia a liberal constitution and to merge Prussia into a new national German state. A Prussian Constituent Assembly met in Berlin to write a constitution and elections were held across the German Confederation for a national parliament which ignored calls for more radical action from industrial workers, peasants, republicans, and socialists.

Conditions in Ireland

Irish rented land from a minority of Church of England landlords who leased land for short periods of time, set rents at will, and easily evicted their tenants. From 1780-1840 the Irish doubled from 4-8 million. Half of the Irish subsisted on potatoes so when the the potato crop failed from 1845-51, a Great Famine resulted and relief efforts were inadequate from Britain. A million emigrants fled mostly to the US and Canada and 1.5 million people died. The Great Famine intensified anti-British feeling.

New Governments of South America

Most new states initially got liberal constitutions but they were hard to implement because women and the non Creoles weren't allowed to vote. A new political system of caudillos or strong men, often former Creoles, formed and was based on military strength, family patronage, and populist policies.

Romanticism

Movement of emotional exuberance, imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life. They explored the awesome power of love and desire and of hatred, guilt, and despair. Romantics had nostalgia for the past and delved into the supernatural and inward to the self. They thought nature was a source of beauty and inspiration and the growth of industry was an ugly attack on it. They thought history held the key to the universe and rejected materialism.

Wants of the Middle Class in Britain

New manufacturing and commercial groups wanted a place for their new wealth and called for liberal reform including changes in town government, organization of a new police force, more rights for Catholics and dissenters, and reform of the Poor Laws. In the 1820s, the Tory government moved in the direction of better urban administration, greater economic liberalism, civil equality for Catholics, and limited imports of foreign grain. This encouraged the middle classes to press on for reform of Parliament.

Joseph M. W. Turner and John Constable

Painters. Turner depicted nature's power and terror and Constable painted gentle Wordsworthian landscapes in which humans lived peacefully.

Louis XVIII Reforms

Passed the Constitutional Charter which protected economic and social gains made by sections of the middle class and peasantry in the French Revolution, permitted some intellectual and artistic freedom, and created a parliament with upper and lower houses. He appointed moderate royalists as his ministers who sought and obtained the support of a majority of the representatives elected to the lower Chamber. However, the "notable people" who could vote were wealthy businessmen, war profiteers, successful professionals, ex-revolutionaries, large landowners from the aristocracy and middle class, Bourbons, and Bonapartists.

Socialism

Socialists thought revolution in France, the growth of industrialization in Britain, and the rise of laissez faire created a crisis. Modern capitalism fomented a selfish individualism the encouraged inequality. Early socialists thought rich and poor should be economically equal and private property should be regulated by the government, or abolished. Utopian socialists' grand schemes for social improvement ultimately proved unworkable.

Karl Marx

Son of a Jewish lawyer who converted to Lutheranism, Marx published articles about the laboring poor that caught the attention of the Prussian police. Forced to flee in 1843, Marx lived a middle class life and published *Capital* in 1867. He agreed with socialist policies of equality and community but criticized his predecessors for their fanciful utopian schemes, claiming that his "scientific" socialism was rooted in historic law, and therefore was realistic.

Victor Hugo

Son of a Napoleonic general who achieved a range of rhythm, language, and image in his lyrical poetry. His novels had exotic historical settings and human emotions. His most famous was *The Hunchback of Notre Dame* (1831). Hugo equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics and society.

Gains by Working Class in England

The Chartist movement demanded universal male suffrage and hundreds of thousands of people sight gigantic petitions calling on Parliament to grant all men the right to vote but Parliament rejected them. The Anti-Corn Law League argued that lower food prices and more jobs in industry depended on repeal of the Corn Laws. Tory prime minister Robert Peel joined with the Whigs and a minority of his own party to repeal the Corn Laws in 1846. The Ten Hours Act of 1847 limited the workday for women and young people in factories to 10 hours. The working classes could make temporary alliances with either the middle class or aristocracy to better their own conditions.

Revolutions in Austria

The Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I promised reforms and a liberal constitution when Viennese students and workers took to the streets. When the monarchy abolished serfdom, the peasants lost interest in the political and social questions. The urban revolutionaries broke down along class lines over the issue of socialist workshops and universal voting rights for men. The conservative aristocratic forces rallied under archduchess Sophia who insisted that Ferdinand abdicate in favor of her son Francis Joseph. In October, peasant troops and the Austrian army won back Vienna from the students and working class.

Reform Bill of 1832

The Whig Party, which was more responsive to middle-class interests, proposed this which allowed the House of Commons to emerge as the all-important legislative body. The new industrial areas of the country gained representation in the Commons and many electoral districts that had few voters and that the aristocracy had bought and sold were eliminated. The number of voters increased by 50%.

Revolution in South America

The leaders of the revolutions were wealthy Creoles who resented the political and economic control of an even smaller elite minority or peninsulares, people born in Spain who lived in and ruled the colonies. French occupation of Spain weakened the crown but Creoles thought open revolt might upend the social pyramid. Revolts started with subordinated people of color. Simon Bolivar established "Gran Colombia" from 1819-1830 and dreamed of establishing a federation of S. American states. Jose de San Martin threw off Spanish control by 1825.

Reassertion of Frederick William in Prussia

The national parliament debated over unification under a Greater Germany, which included german speaking lands of the Austrian empire, or a lesser Germany, without Austria. In March 1849, the parliament elected Frederick William as emperor of a lesser German state who disbanded the Prussian Constituent Assembly. By May 1849, all but the most radical deputies resigned from parliament and by June Prussian troops dissolved the remnants of the parliament. Austria forced Prussia to renounce all schemes of unification and the German Confederation was re-established in 1851 where state security forces monitored universities, civic organizations, and the press.

Why Nationalism Worked

The need for improved communication promoted the use of a standardized language spread through mass educations and the emergence of a the popular press. This often led the minority group to push for a separate nation state. Citizens were brought together with emotionally charged symbols and ceremonies. An "us-verses-them" ideology developed a sense of national mission and superiority.

Romantic Music and Beethoven

The small classical orchestra was transformed, tripling its size by adding wind instruments, percussion, and more brass and strings. Music no longer simply complemented a church service. The one-in-a-million performer could transport the listener to ecstasy and hysteria and became a cultural hero. Ludwig van Beethoven produced dramatic conflict and inspiring resolutions. At the peak of his fame, he began to lose his hearing and considered suicide.

Early Provisional Republic in France

They gave the right to vote to every adult male, guaranteed workplace reforms, freed all slaves in French colonies, and abolished the death penalty. The republicans of the middle class thought universal male suffrage was dangerous and opposed any further radical social measures. The radical republicans were committed to some kind of socialism. Urban artisans advocated a combination of strong craft unions and worker owned businesses

Nationalism

Was in French armies during revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. Includes people united by a common language, history, culture, and territory. Nationalism was more a dream because a variety of ethnic groups shared the territory of most states, but advancing literacy rates, the establishment of a mass press, the growth of large state bureaucracies, compulsory education, and conscription armies created a common culture. Nationalists were generally educated middle class liberals and intellectuals.