AP Euro Chapter 16
alchemy and hermetic magic
-Hermetic magic- had become focused with alchemical thought into a single intellectual framework -Believed that the world was a living embodiment of divinity -Humans also had a spark of divinity within -Mathematical magic to understand and dominate world of nature or employ the powers of nature for beneficial reasons -Hermeticism- the desire to control and dominate the natural world -Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton- had a serious interest in Hermetic Ideas
God's handiwork
-The purpose for the Europeans interests in the world around them -Appropriate to study because it was from God
"to conquer nature in action"
Bacon was prophetic when he said that "I am laboring to lay the foundation, not of any sect or doctrine, but of human utility and power." This was the "human power" Bacon spoke of.
On the Fabric of the Human Body
Book written by Vesalius which explained that blood vessels came from the heart not the liver
All of the following are considered possible influences and causes of the Scientific Revolution except
the practical knowledge and technical skills emphasized by sixteenth-century universities
Following upon Copernicus's heliocentric theories
Johannes Kepler used data to derive laws of planetary motion that confirmed Copernicus's heliocentric theory but that showed the orbits were elliptical
Epicycles
a small circle whose center moves around the circumference of a larger one
Antoine Lavoisier
is regarded as the father of modern chemistry.
Universal Law of Gravitation
one of Newton's three rules of motion; it explains that planetary bodies continue in elliptical orbits around the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.
For Spinoza, the failure to understand God led to
people using nature for their own self-interest.
Journal des Savants
published weekly beginning 1665; printed results of experiments as well as general specific knowledge; appealed to scientist and educated public magazine of new scientific discoveries issued by the French Royal Academy of Sciences, which helped members keep up with each other's work.
The scientific societies of early modern Europe established the first
scientific journals appearing regularly
French Royal Academy of Sciences
society funded by Louis XIV, which was thought to benefit the king and state and emphasized practical science for new tools and machines 1666 French version of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledges, supported by the monarchy, spent a lot of time eating and drinking.
English Royal Society
society funded by merchants and scientists and emphasized theoretical science, which allowed them with more options Created a committe to investigate technological improvements for industry
Geocentric Universe
the idea that planets revolved in perfect circular orbits around the earth in the universe
William Harvey's On the Motion of the Heart and Blood refuted the ideas of
the liver as the beginning point of the circulation of blood
Because of scientific successes and accomplishments of such women as Margaret Cavendish, Maria Merian, and Maria Winkelmann, most male scientists agreed, through reluctantly, that females had the same intellectual abilities as males
False
Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1) Orbits of planets are elliptical 2) Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits 3) The time it takes for planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
1. Italian scientist who contributed to the scientific method by conducting controlled experiments 2. Major accomplishments included using the telescope for astronomical observation, formulating laws of motion, and popularizing the new scientific ideas 3. Condemned by the Inquisition for publicly advocating Copernicus's heliocentric theory
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
1. Polish clergyman and astronomer who wrote "On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres" 2. Helped launch the Scientific Revolution by challenging the widespread belief in the geocentric theory that the earth is the center of the universe 3. Offered a new heliocentric universe in which the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun
Philosophical Transactions
1665; Royal Society; published papers of its members and learned correspondence and was aimed at practicing scientists; became prototype for scholarly journal journal published which documented experiments and used to communicate with other scientists by the English Royal Society;the prototype for medical journals
Rationalism
A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
A philosopher of rationalism who advocated for doubting all sources of truth in order to develop a more rational understanding of reality. 1. French philosopher and mathematician 2. Used deductive reasoning from self-evident principles to reach scientific laws
Scientific Method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.
heliocentric universe
A sun-centered universe postulated by Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
Aristotle
Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system, which led him to criticize what he saw as Plato's metaphysical excesses, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry.
Galen
Greek surgeon of the Roman Empire, he described heart valves and studied arteries and veins. Greek anatomist whose theories formed the basis of European medicine until the Renaissance (circa 130-200)
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
He established himself as Europe's leading astronomer with his detailed observations of the new star of 1572. Under the patronage of the king of Denmark, Brahe built the most sophisticated observatory of his day. When the king died, he acquired a new patron in the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II, and built a new observatory in Prague. He pledged to create new and improved tables of planetary motions, dubbed the Rudolphine Tables. For twenty years, he complied much more complete and accurate data than ever before. However, his limited understanding of mathematics and his sudden death in 1601 prevented him from making much sense out of his mass of data. He believed that all the planets except the earth revolved around the sun and that the entire group of sun and planets revolved in turn around the earth-moon system.
Copernicus's major book was titled
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Pensees
Pascal's book that described his feelings about keeping science and religion united, wanted to show christianity doesnt have to be contrary to reason.
four bodily humors
Proposed by Galen, influenced treatment of disease. Included blood, yellow bile, phlegm, and black bile. Disease was believed to be caused by an imbalance, which led to the use of bleeding and purging. blood: warm & moist; yellow bile: warm and dry; phlegm: cold and moist; black bile: cold and dry
"I think therefore I am"
Rene Descartes said this. Means you have the ability to use your mind and think comes from Human Reasoning
Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717)
Reputation as an important entomologist. 1699 Dutch colony of Surinam South America led to work "Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam". 60 illustrations of reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life.
querelles des femmes
"arguments about women." A centuries-old debate about the nature of women that continued during the Scientific Revolution as those who argued for the inferiority of women found additional support in the new anatomy and medicine.
"new drugs"
"like cures like" Believed that poison that caused a disease would be its cure if used in proper form and quantity. Like modern day vaccinations
Discourse on Method
(Rene Descartes)- This written work used skepticism to come to the conclusion "I think, therefore I am" by questioning everything that anyone thinks they are certain of. Thus, the only thing we can be certain of is that we have doubt, and doubt is thought, and thought must come from a mind. He also concluded that because we know we are not perfect, there must be something perfect that gives us that knowledge, and that perfect thing is God. In this way his highly untraditional ideas did not conflict too much with Christianity.
Benedict de Spinoza's pantheism
Believed that god was not just the creator of the universe, but that he was the universe. Ethics demonstrated in the geometrical manner. Stated that God was not simply the creator of the universe; he was the universe. All that is, is in God, and nothing can be apart from God.
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Book written by Copernicus which explained his heliocentric theory and contradicted the geocentric theory
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Brussels physician; wrote first anatomical studies Wrote one of the most influential human anatomy books (De Humani Corporis fabrica) and was considered the father of modern human anatomy.
Francis Bacon's inductive method
Consisted of inductive observations, form a hypothesis, conduct experiments, and then organize the data gathered. This renounced notions and began to form an aquantitance with things. Using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point.
What was the name of Decartes' book that expounded his theories about the universe
Discourse on Method
Isaac Newton
English mathematician and scientist- invented differential calculus and formulated the theory of universal gravitation, a theory about the nature of light, and three laws of motion. was supposedly inspired by the sight of a falling apple.
William Harvey (1578-1657)
English physician who discovered the workings of the circulatory system, challenging Galen's ideas of human anatomy Was favored by Hobbes and discovered that blood Circulates through the body.
In his search for a new rational mathematical system, Descartes began with doubt, doubting everything including his own existence
False
Isaac Newton devoted himself to the occult and to alchemy in particular
False
Isaac Newton had little to do with the invention of the calculus
False
It was William Harvey who argued that disease was not caused by imbalance of the four bodily humors, but was due to chemical imbalances that could be treated by chemical remedies
False
Like many of the medieval scholastic philosophers, Blaise Pascal argued that the truths of Christianity could be proved by reason alone
False
Tycho Brahe agreed with Copernicus that the earth does indeed move
False
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
French mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions in both fields. He is best known for his work with hydrostatic forces and fluids and invented the hydraulic press and the syringe (the SI unit of pressure is named after him: Pascal).
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
French nobleman and chemist who was widely considered as the "father of modern chemistry" due to his influence in both the history of chemistry and history of biology. He recognized and named Oxygen in the process of combustion as well as Hydrogen, helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped reform chemical nomenclature. His most notable discovery was the Law of Conservation of Mass, a law stating that matter's mass always remains the same regardless of its shift in shape or form. Compiled a list of all the elements known at this time, 33 elements organized into 4 different categories. Many of these elements have been known since prehistoric time - Ag, Au, C, O.
Among the following, who is not associated with major changes in sixteenth and seventeenth-century scientific research?
Galen
Maria Winkelmann
German astronomer
Johannes Kepler
German astronomer who first stated laws of planetary motion (1571-1630) Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy German astronomer who first stated laws of planetary motion (1571-1630)
Principia
Isaac Newton's book which established the law of universal gravitation and banished Ptolemy's laws and universe for good.
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Swiss physician and alchemist who pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address illness. A physician and alchemist, who was an early proponent of the experimental method in medicine and pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address what he saw as chemical, rather than humoral, imbalances.
Ptolemaic Universe
The model for the universe, put forth by the ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy, that had the Earth at the center, with the sun, moon, planets, and stars revolving around it. The theory that the earth is motionless and surrounded by nine spheres. Could not account for observable planetary movements, but was consistent with Christian theory of creation.
the Empyrean Heaven
The place beyond the tenth sphere of the universe in the geocentric theory in which God and all saved souls lived
The Scientific Revolution was not a revolution that explosively changed and rapidly overthrew traditional authority, but its results were truly revolutionary
True
Unlike Francis Bacon, who argued that humanity's powers were to be used to "conquer nature," Benedict de Spinoza claimed that nature does not exist for human domination because nature and the universe and humanity itself are all part of God
True
Unlike many Protestants, the Catholic Church did not denounce and condemn the theories of Copernicus until the works of Galileo appeared over seventy-five years later.
True
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Was a philosopher, physicist, chemist, and inventor. He is best know for Boyles Law which describes the inversely proportional relationship between pressure and volume of gas. He helped found the modern science of chemistry. Following Paracelsus's lead, he undertook experiments to discover the basic elements of nature, which he believed was composed of infinitely small atoms. He was the first to create a vacuum, thus disproving Descartes's belief that a vacuum could not exist in nature, and he discovered Boyle's law (1662), which states that the pressure of a gas varies inversely with volume.
Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)
Wife of the duke of newcastle, wrote Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668) and was the only woman in the seventeenth century to be allowed to visit the Royal Society of London.
On the Motion of the Heart and Blood
William Harvey's discoveries of the role of the heart in the circulatory system, published in 1628.
Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner
Written by Benedict de Spinoza, this is where his Pantheism was set out. It also stated the everything has a rational explanation, and humans are capable of finding it. In using reason, people could find true happiness.
Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems
Written in Italian by Galileo so that more people would be able to read it. Quickly perceived as a defense for the Copernican Theory. As a result, Galileo was called before the Church to be sentenced to house arrest for the remainder of his life.
the Inquisition
a Church court set up to try people accused of heresy A Roman Catholic tribunal for investigating and prosecuting charges of heresy - especially the one active in Spain during the 1400s.
The Starry Messenger
a series of newsletters written by galileo that told of his findings when he observed the heavens with his telescope in 1609 Galileo's treatise of 1610 where he published his celestial observations made with a telescope
Paracelsus revolutionized the world of medicine in the sixteenth century by
advocating the chemical philosophy of medicine
The Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century
although an innovative phase in western thinking, was based upon the intellectual and scientific accomplishments of previous centuries
The greatest achievements in science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries came in what three areas?
astronomy, medicine, and mechanics
In his work Pensees, Pascal
attempted to convince rationalists that Christianity was valid by appealing to their reason and emotions.
natural philosophers
early scientists who studied all aspects of the physical world medieval scientists who preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world