AP Euro Chapter 27-28 Review

"permissive society"

-"permissive society" = label to describe the new society of postwar Europe -WWI had first crack in code of manners + morals of 19th. The 1920s had experimentation w/ drugs, appearance of pornography, + new sexual freedom (like police in Berlin issued cards that allow female + male homosexual prostitutes to practice their trade) -but these indications of a new attitude appeared mostly in cities + affected only small number of people. After WWII, changes in manners + morals more extensive + more noticeable -Sweden: took lead in propagation of "sexual revolution" of 1960s + rest of Europe + US followed -sex education + decriminalization of homosexuality were aspects of Sweden's liberal legislation -the introduction of birth control pill (became widely available by mid-1960s) gave people more freedom in sexual behavior. Sexually explicit movies, plays, + books broke new ground in treatment of once-hidden subjects. Cities like Amsterdam (allowed open prostitution + public sale of pornography) attracted thousands of curious tourists -new stands evident in breakdown of traditional family. Divorce rates increased esp in 1960s + premarital + extramarital sexual experiences also rose -survey in Netherlands 1968 revealed that 78% of men + 86% women engaged in extramarital sex. The appearance of Playboy magazine in 1950s also added new dimension to sexual revolution for adult males -Playboy: gave nude pictures of nude women + well-written articles of various aspects of masculinity. Their message: men were encouraged to seek sexual gratification outside marriage -decade of 1960s also saw emergence of drug culture. Marijuana widely used among college + university students as recreational drug of choice. For young people interested in mind expansion into higher level of consciousness, Timothy Leary: had done psychedelic research at Harvard on effects of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) became high priest of hallucinogenic experiences -new attitudes toward sex + use of drugs were only 2 manifestations of a growing youth movement in 1960s that questioned authority + fostered rebellion against older generation -spurred on by Vietnam War + growing political consciousness, the youth rebellion became a youth protest movement by second half of 1960s

Maginot Line

-1930-1935: France built series of steel fortifications armed with heavy artillery (known as Maginot Line) along border with Germany. Now France was a defensive shell -after winter of waiting ("phony war"), war resumed April 9, 1940 with another "Blitzkrieg" against Denmark + Norway. On May 10th: Germans made attack on Netherlands, Belgium, + France -assault through Luxembourg + Ardennes forest was unexpected by France + British forces. German panzer divisions broke through weak French defensive positions (outflanking Maginot Line) + went across N France

appeasement

-1933-1936 Hitler + Nazi Germany got a "diplomatic revolution". When Hitler became chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933, Germany was weak in Europe -Versailles treaty had made a demilitarized zone on Germany's W border that let French move into the industrialized parts of Germany. In Germany's E: smaller states (like Poland + Czechoslovakia) had defensive treaties with France. Treaty also limited Germany's army to 100K and limited naval forces -Germany had 2nd biggest population after Soviet Union. Hitler also knew that France + Britain had been hurt by the costs + losses of WWI so they avoided any more war -France was a threat to unarmed Germany, but Hitler believed that if he kept France from acting against Germany in first few years, he could remove the country's restrictions + restore Germany's strength -start of 1935: Hitler convinced that Germany could break some provisions of Treaty of Versailles w/o serious British + French opposition. Hitler believed that they would want to maintain the international status quo w/o using force. -he decided to announce publicly Germany's military rearmament. March 9, 1935: Hitler announced the creation of a new air force + later an introduction of a military draft that would expand Germany's army from 100K to 550K -France, UK + Italy quickly responded by warning Germany against taking any future aggressive steps, but nothing actually done. UK actually went towards an open acceptance of Germany's right to rearm when it agreed to the Anglo-German Naval Pact January 19, 1935 -Angle-German Naval Pact: let Germany build a navy that would by 35% of UK's navy with equality in submarines. British was starting a policy of appeasement b/c they believed that if Europeans agreed with reasonable demands of the dissatisfied powers, then everyone happy + peace maintained -British appeasement mostly b/c British wanted to avoid another war + the British statesmen believed Nazi Germany offered a powerful barrier against Soviet communism -March 7, 1936: Hitler knew W democracies didn't have any intentions of using force (to maintain Treaty of Versailles) so he sent troops into demilitarized Rhineland. -French had right to use force against any violation of Rhineland, but they didn't do anything w/o British support. However, UK saw this act as another action by a dissatisfied power. This response only showed Hitler that the other nations were weak + wouldn't use force to defend the old order -since German generals opposed Hitler's plans, Hitler more convinced of his own superior abilities. Many Germans expressed enthusiasm for a leader who was restoring German honor -Hitler also started gaining allies. October 1935: Benito Mussolini had committed Fascist Italy to expansion by invading Ethiopia. Mussolini didn't like French + British opposition to his invasion so he was happy to get Hitler's support + became closer to Hitler (which M thought was a buffoon) -General Francisco Franco of Spanish Civil War 1936 also brought Italy + Germany closer. In October 1936, M + Hitler had an agreement that recognized their common political + economic interests. -a month later, M referred publicly to the new Rome-Berlin Axis. -November 1936: Germany + Japan (rising military power in E) concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact: agreed to maintain a common front against communism -end of 1936, Hitler + Nazi Germany got a "diplomatic revolution". Treaty of Versailles now crushed + Germany another "world power". Hitler showed diplomatic skill in taking advantage of Europeans' burning desire for peace. He used strategy of peaceful revisions + strategy of legality in his pursuit of power in Germany. End of 1936, Nazi power increased enough that Hitler can start a more daring foreign policy -if W states were so afraid of war while Germany was still weak, they would be more scared now that Germany was strong. Many Europeans thought Hitler wanted peace, but war was actually more possible

containment

-American fears of the Soviets' goals caused US to stay longer in European affairs. Article in Foreign Affairs: July 1947, George Kennan (well-known American diplomat who knew much about Soviet affairs) supported a policy of containment against further aggressive Soviet moves -Kennan wanted the "application of counter force at a series of constantly shifting geographical + political points parallel to Soviet policy". After Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948, containment of Soviet Union became a definite American policy -1949, Cold War spread from Europe to rest of world. Victory of Chinese Communists in 1949 in Chinese civil war brought new Communist regime + intensified American fears about spread of communism

Pearl Harbor

-December 7, 1941: Japanese carrier-based aircraft attacked US naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaiian Islands. Other units also launched additional assaults in Philippines + advance toward British colony Malaya -next day, US declare war on Japan. Later, Hitler declare war on US even though he wasn't required to (since he only had a loose alliance with Japan). This let President Roosevelt overcome strong American isolationist sentiment + bring US into European conflict -after US enter war, Japanese forces invaded Dutch E Indies + occupied many islands in Pacific Ocean. In some places (like Bataan peninsula + island of Corregidor in Philippines) resistance was strong. But by spring 1941, almost all of SE Asia + W Pacific had fallen to the Japanese -Tokyo declared the creation of the Great E Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: it put entire region under Japanese control + announced its intention to liberate the colonial areas of SE Asia from W rule. -Japan needed the resources of the region for its war machine so the countries were under its rule on a wartime basis -Japanese leaders hoped their lightning strike at US would destroy US Pacific Fleet + persuade Roosevelt administration to accept Japanese domination of the Pacific. To Japan, they saw Americans as made soft by material indulgence. But Tokyo was wrong -attack on Pearl Harbor motivated American opinion + won support for Roosevelt's war policy. US now joined with European nations + Nationalist China in a combined effort to defeat Japan + bring an end to its dominance in the Pacific

COMECON

-E European states followed. 1949, they formed the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for economic cooperation.

French-Indochina War

-French effort to remain in Indochina led to bloody struggle with Vietminh (Vietnamese nationalist guerillas) led by Ho Chi Minh (communist + nationalist leader of Vietnamese). After defeat 1954, French gave independence to Laos + Cambodia + Vietnam temp. divided before elections in 1956 that would decide -but elections were never held + division of Vietnam by Communist + pro-W regimes led to Vietnam War

Vichy

-French was never able to make an active resistance + surrendered June 22. German armies occupied 3/5 France while French hero of WWI (Marshal Henri Petain) made an authoritarian regime (known as Vichy France) over the remainder -Allies saw the Petain gov. as Nazi puppet state + French gov-in-exile took residence in UK. Germany now in control of W + C Europe, but UK still not defeated

Lebensraum

-Germany needed more land to support a larger population + be a great power. Hitler believed in doctrine of "Lebensraum" (living space) = idea from Karl Haushofer (professor of geography at University of Munich -"Lebensraum": a nation's power depend on amount of land it occupied. In 1920s in 2nd volume of "Mein Kampf", Hitler said where a National Socialist regime would find land = in the E

Adolf Hitler

-Hitler believed Aryans were capable of making a great civilization. The Germans were the leading group of Aryans. But they were threatened from E by Slavs who learned to use German weapons + technology -to Hitler, the Russian Revolution gave Germany its conditions to acquire land in the E. Seizure of power by Bolsheviks left Russia weak. So once conquered, land of Russia can be resettled by German peasants + Slavic population are used as slave labor to build Aryan racial state that would end up dominating Europe -SO Germany has to prepare for its war with Soviet Union. These ideas put in "Mein Kampf": public book -Hitler + Nazis weren't first to go on conquest of European power. Many elite circles in Germany before WWI said Germany needed to annex lands in the S, E, W if it competed with large states + stay great power -this dream destroyed by Germany's defeat in WWI, but traditional elites in German military + Foreign Office supported Hitler's foreign policy until 1937 (mostly b/c it went w/ their own desires for Germany expansion) -but Nazi policy went beyond German goals. Hitler's desires to create an Aryan racial empire -> slave labor + mass extermination on such a scale that would be ridiculous to previous Germans -Hitler knew his goals, but didn't have a prearranged timeline for achieving them. He had proved his ability to be an ideologue + opportunist. -after 1933, military + diplomatic situations + organizational chaos in administration of Germany + economic pressures (after 1936) = cause Hitler to take actions that contradicted the goals of "Mein Kampf" -but in the end, he always went back to original plans of racial supremacy + empire -only he had to ability to accomplish these goals + his fears for his health -> to fulfill his goals ASAP. However, his impatience was one thing that lead to his downfall

"Prague Spring"

-January 1968: Alexander Dubcek elected first secretary of Communist Party + introduced a number a reforms like freedom of speech + press, freedom to travel abroad + a relaxation of secret police activities -Dubcek hoped to make "communism with a human face". A period of euphoria = "Prague Spring" -it was short. This euphoria -> many called for more far-reaching reforms like neutrality + withdrawal from Soviet bloc. To slow this spreading of "spring fever", the Red Army invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968 + crushed the reform movement -Gustav Husak: a committed nonreformist: replaced Dubcek, abolished his reforms + reestablished old order

CENTO

-Korean experience confirmed American fears of Communist expansion + reinforced determination to contain Soviet power. Mid 1950s, administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower took a policy of massive retaliation: supported full use of American nuclear bombs to counteract any Soviet ground attack in Europe -American military alliances extended around the world. -Central Treaty Organization (CENTO): Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, UK, + US wanted to prevent SU from expanding at expense of its S neighbors.

Winston Churchill *

-May 10 1940: Winston Churchill: was a supported a hard-line policy against Germany. He replaced Neville Chamberlain who had made the policy of appeasement. Churchill said he would lead UK to victory -Churchill rallied people with his speeches. Hitler hoped that British would be persuaded to make peace so he can start gaining living space in E. British people refused + Hitler started preparing for invasion of UK -an amphibious invasion of UK would be possible if Germany got control of air.

Nazi Empire *

-Nazi Empire went across continental Europe from English Channel in W to outskirts of Moscow in E. this wasn't an organized system or governed efficiently. Some states (Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Sweden + Turkey) stayed neutral outside empire -Germany's allies (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, + Finland) kept their independence but were increasingly restricted by Germans as war went on. -remainder of Europe: places like W Poland, were directly annexed by Germany + made into German provinces. Most of occupied places were administered by German military/civilian officials + indirect control from collaborationist regimes. Competing lines of authority from other offices made Germany inefficient -race placed a role in how conquered places were treated. German civil administration was made in Norway, Denmark, + Netherlands b/c Nazis considered their peoples Aryan (racially similar to Germans + were worthy of better treatment) -inferior Latin peoples like the occupied French were given military administration. By 1943, Nazi losses increased -> occupied territories of N + W Europe abused for material goods + workers for war needs -conquered lands in E had living space for German expansion + were populated by the "inferior" Slavic peoples -> Nazi administration was ruthless. Hitler's racial ideology so important that after conquest of Poland, Nazis started their racial program

Neville Chamberlain

-November 5, 1937: there was a secret conference w/ military leaders in Berlin where Hitler showed his goals: mostly the conquest of living space in E. this might mean war w/ France + UK, there were no other options for Germany to get basic needs for German people -first, Germany had to deal with Austria + Czechoslovakia to secure E + S sides -end of 1937: Hitler convinced that French + UK wouldn't oppose to his ideas. -Neville Chamberlain: prime minister of UK May 1936, strong supporter of appeasement + believed that survival of British Empire depend on accommodation with Germany. Chamberlain told Hitler in November 1937 that he wouldn't oppose changes in C Europe if it was executed peacefully

Munich Conference

-September 29, 1938: at Munich Conference, UK, France, + Italians had agreement that met all Hitler's demands. German troops allowed to occupy Sudetenland while Czechs abandoned by W allies -Munich Conference peak of W appeasement for Hitler. Chamberlain said it was now "peace for out time" since Hitler promised this was his last demand, a lie that Chamberlain foolishly believed -Munich confirmed Hitler's idea that W was weak + his own superiority. At end of October 1938, Hitler told generals to prepare for invasion of Czechoslovakia

"Second Sex"

-Simone de Beauvoir: born into Catholic middle class family + educated at Sorbonne in Paris. She supported herself as teacher + later novelist + writer. -she had long relationship (not marriage) with Jean-Paul Sartre. -her involvement in existentialist movement (leading intellectual movement atm) her involvement in political causes. She believed that she lived in a "liberated" life for 20th women, but for all her freedom she realized that as a women she had limits that -1949: she published The Second Sex: she argued that as a result of male-dominated society, women had been defined by their differences from men + got second-class status -she had an active role in French women's movement of 1970s + her book was a major influence on both sides of the Atlantic.

decolonization

-WWII left Europe in ruins + cost Europe its supremacy in world affairs. WWI had started nationalistic movements against colonial rule + WWII sped this up. Japanese had already embarrassed W by overrunning their colonial empires during war -colonial soldiers who had fought for Allies were aware that Allies goals included the principle of self-determination for the peoples of the world. -power of European states also destroyed by WWII. Greatest colonial builder (UK) no longer had energy or wealth to keep its colonial empire after war + quickly tried to let its colonies go -a rush of decolonization swept through world. 1947-1962: every colony get independence + got statehood. Some colonial powers willingly kept their control, but others had to be driven out by national wars of liberation. Decolonization was difficult but it created a new world since the non-W states ended the long era of W domination

WWII Mobilization

-WWII more of total war than WWI. Fighting was widespread and economic mobilization was more extensive (also mobilization of women). Number of civilians killed was higher: around 20 million died from bombing raids, mass extermination policies + attacks by invading armies -British mobilized resources better than their allies or Germany. Summer 1914: 55% of British were in armed forces or civilian "war work". -gov. encourage "Dig for Victory" = campaign to increase food production. Fields normally were used for athletic events but now given to citizens to plant garden in "Grow Your Own Food" campaigns -during war, British had much emphasis on a planned economy. 1942, gov. created a ministry for fuel + power to control coal industry. Also ministry for production to oversee supplies for armed forces -for the shift to a war, Joseph Stalin created a system of "supercentralization" where he directed military/political affairs. All civil + military organizations under control of Communist Party + Soviet police -initial defeats of Soviets emergency mobilization measures that affected civilian population. -Soviet peasants asked to carry heavy burdens. Peasants furnished 60% of military forces but also expected to feed Red Army + Soviet people under trying conditions. German occupation in early months loss of 47% of country's grain producing regions -total mobilization gave victory for Soviets. Stalin + Communist Party realized after start of German invasion that Soviets wouldn't fight for communist ideology. Instead, they were fight to preserve "Mother Russia" -gov. propaganda increased patriotic feelings. In a speech on anniversary of Bolshevik Revolution November 1941, Stalin rallied Soviet people by speaking of country's past heroes including tsars of Imperial Russia -home front in US was different from its allies b/c they had no threat of war on its own territory. Economy + labor was slow to mobilize, but eventually the US became an arsenal of Allied Powers. -partial mobilization of American economy caused social problems. Construction of new factories created boomtown: thousands came to work but faced shortage of houses, health facilities, + schools -dramatic expansion of small towns into large cities brought breakdown in traditional social mores, esp. in growth of teenage prostitution. -presence of African Americans in areas where they hadn't lived before led to racial tensions + even racial riots. -Japanese Americans treated shabbily. On W coast, 110K Japanese Americans (65% who were born in US) removed to camps, encircled by barbed wire + required to take loyalty oaths -August 1914 Germans cheered for their soldiers in war. September 1939, streets quiet. Germans now uninterested, or even worse for Nazis, the people were expecting disaster -to keep morale of the home front in first two years of war, Hitler refused to convert from production goods to armaments. "Blitzkrieg" let Germans win quick victories. Then after, they would plunder food + raw materials of their conquered lands. This way, it avoided diverting resources away from civilian resources -after German defeats on Soviet front + American entry into war, economy changed. Early 1942, Hitler finally ordered increase in armaments production + size of army. Hitler was scared that civilian morale problems would undermine home front so he refused any dramatic cuts in production of consumer goods -total mobilization of economy didn't start until 1944 when schools, theaters, + cafes were closed

A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich

-a new collective leadership came after Stalin until Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the chief Soviet policymaker. He was responsible for ending system of forced-labor camps (regular part of life under Stalin). -At 20th Congress of the Communist Party 1956, Khrushchev condemned Stalin for his administrative violence, mass repression + terror -once in power, Khrushchev went to undo some of the worst features of Stalin's regime. A certain degree of intellectual freedom was now allowed. Ex. "readers have chance to make own judgments" -1962 written by Alexander Solzhenitsyn portraying the horrors of forced-labor camps

postwar Soviet Union

-a new collective leadership came after Stalin until Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the chief Soviet policymaker. He was responsible for ending system of forced-labor camps (regular part of life under Stalin). -At 20th Congress of the Communist Party 1956, Khrushchev condemned Stalin for his administrative violence, mass repression + terror -once in power, Khrushchev went to undo some of the worst features of Stalin's regime. A certain degree of intellectual freedom was now allowed. Ex. "readers have chance to make own judgments" -Khrushchev also extended process of destalinization by reducing powers of secret police + closing some Siberian prison camps. But his revelations about Stalin at 20th Congress caused chaos in Communist ranks + encouraged a spirit of rebellion in Soviet satellite countries in E Europe -Soviet troops reacted by crushing an uprising in Hungary 1956. Khrushchev + Soviet leaders (scared of further destroying basic foundations of the regime) downplayed their destalinization campaign -economically, Khrushchev tried to put more emphasis on light industry + consumer goods. Attempted to increase agricultural output by growing corn + cultivating lands E of Ural Mountains were failures + damaged Khrushchev's reputation in Party -these failures + increased military spending hurt Soviet economy. The industrial growth rate (soared in 1950s) now declined from 13% 1953 to 7.5% in 1964 -Khrushchev's personality (making jokes + being a clown) didn't amuse the higher Soviet officials -the higher members of bureaucracy also not amused when he tried to curb their privileges. Foreign policy failures caused more damage to his reputation among his colleagues -his rash plan to place missiles in Cuba was the final straw. While Khrushchev was on vacation 1964, a special meeting of the Soviet Politburo voted him out of office + forced him into retirement -a group of leaders succeeded him, but real power came into the hands of Leonid Brezhnev: the "trusted" supporter of Khrushchev who had helped with his downfall

Charles de Gaulle

-a quarter of a century after the war was dominated by Charles de Gaulle: had faith that he had a mission to reestablish the greatness of the French nation. -during war, he assumed the leadership of some resistance groups + was important in ensuring the establishment of a French provisional gov. after the war. -declaration of the Fourth Republic + return to a parliamentary system based on parties that de Gaulle saw as weak -> withdraw from politics. He formed the French Popular Movement: for France's political mess + called for a stronger presidency = goal that Gaulle achieved in 1958 -fragile political stability of Fourth Republic was shaken by Algerian crisis. The French army had suffered defeat in Indochina 1954 + determined to resist Algerian demands for independence -but a strong antiwar movement among French intellectuals + church leaders -> divisions that opened possibility of a civil war in France. The panicked leaders of the Fourth Republic offered to let Gaulle take over gov. + revise the constitution -1958: de Gaulle drafted a new constitution for the Fifth Republic that enhanced the power of the president (who now had right to choose the prime minister, dissolve parliament, + supervise defense + foreign policy) -he always believed in strong leadership + the 5th Republic wasn't a democratic system. As new president, Gaulle wanted France to return to a position of great power. He believed that playing a role in the Cold War would enhance France's state. So he pulled France out of NATO high command -he increased French prestige among 3rd World countries by consenting to Algerian independence even w/ opposition from army. With the goal of getting the status of a world power, de Gaulle invested in the nuclear arms race. France exploded its first nuclear bomb in 1960 -despite success, de Gaulle didn't get his goals of a world power. Although his successors kept that France was the "3rd nuclear power" after US + SU, France was too small for global ambitions -the cost of the nuclear program increased the defense budget, but Gaulle didn't neglect French economy -economic decision making was centralized. 1958-1968: French gross national product increased by 5.5% annually faster than US economy was growing -end of Gaulle's era, France was a major industrial producer + exporter esp in areas of automobiles + armaments. But problems remained. Expansion of traditional industries like coal, steel, + railroads (which were all under gov. ownership) led to large gov. deficits -the cost of living increased faster than rest of Europe. Consumer prices were 45% higher 1968 than 1958 -increased discontent w/ inability of Gaulle's gov. to deal with these problems -> more violent action. May 1968: series of student protests + general strike by labor unions shook gov. -de Gaulle managed to restore order, but events of May 1968 undermined French people's respect for their president. So Gaulle resigned from office in April 1969 + died in a year

Vietnam War

-after Vietnamese forces had defeated their French colonial masters 1954, Vietnam became divided. A strongly nationalistic regime in the N under Ho Chi Minh got Soviet support while American sponsors worked to make a pro-W regime in S Vietnam -President Kennedy kept Eisenhower's policy of giving military + financial aid to regime of Ngo Dinh Diem (autocratic ruler of S Vietnam). But Kennedy administration became increasingly disappointed with Diem's regime which was corrupt + incapable of gaining any strong support from the people -from American view, this lack of support undermined the ability of the S Vietnamese gov. to deal with who was being supported by N Vietnamese. In November 1963, American gov. supported a military coup that overthrow Diem's regime. However, new military gov. seemed less able to govern the country -1964 under President Lyndon B. Johnson, more American troops sent to Vietnam to defeat Vietcong + keep Communist regime of N from uniting the entire country under its control -Domino Theory: if Soviets succeed in Vietnam, all the other countries in Asia which freed themselves from colonial rule would fall as well to communism. Despite their massive superiority in equipment + firepower, Americans failed to prevail over persistence of N Vietnamese + esp. Vietcong -Vietcong: guerilla forces that were extremely effective against Americans. They were natives of Vietnam so able to live off land, disappear among people + attack when least expected. Many S Vietnamese villagers were so opposed to their own gov. that they sheltered + supported Vietcong -growing number of American troops sent to Vietnam produced an antiwar movement in US, esp. among college students of draft age. The destruction + brutalization of war that was brought into American homes also turned American public opinion against the war -1973, President Richard Nixon reached an agreement with N Vietnam that let US withdraw its forces. In two years, Vietnam had been reunited by Communist armies from N -despite the success of N Vietnamese Communists, domino theory didn't happen. A rupture b/w Communist China + SU ended the idea of a monolithic communism directed by Moscow -under Nixon, American relations w/ China resumed. New nations in SE Asia also managed to avoid Communist gov. Above all, Vietnam helped show the limitations of American power -end of Vietnam War, a new era of American-Soviet relations (known as détente) started to emerge

Truman Doctrine

-after liberating E Europe from Nazis, Red Army continued to install pro-Soviet regimes in Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, + Hungary. These gov. satisfied Stalin's want for a buffer zone against W. but local pop. + sympathizers in W saw this as an expansion of Stalin's empire. People want a war b/c it can change this -civil war in Greece was another conflict b/w superpowers. -1946: Communist People's Liberation Army + anti-Communist forces supported by British were fighting each other over Greece. -President Harry S. Truman of US (shocked by UK weakness + possibility of Soviet expansion in E Mediterranean) respond with Truman Doctrine -Truman Doctrine: US would give money to countries that claimed they weren't threatened by Communist expansion. If Soviets weren't stopped in Greece, Truman argument stayed + US would face spread of communism through the free world. March 1947: Truman requested $400 million in economic + military aid for Greece + Turkey from US Congress

SEATO

-and to stop the Soviet aggression in E: US, UK, France, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines, Australia, + New Zealand formed the SE Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Mid 1950s, US found itself allied militarily with 42 states around the world

Suez Canal

-at same time, the rise of US + SU, UK's ability to play role of a world power declined since war was evident in the Suez Canal. July 26, 1956: Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser (leader of Egypt) nationalized the Suez Canal (this act was strongly condemned by British since it was a threat to their interests) -October 29: British, French, + Israeli forces attacked Egypt. Strong American opposition forced the UK to accept a UN cease-fire resolution + withdraw their troops. The Suez debate showed the UK wasn't strong

civilian bombing

-bombing used in WWII in many ways: against nonhuman military targets, against enemy troops, + against civilian population -use of bombs made WWII as bad for civilians as for frontline soldiers -Italian general Giulio Douhet said in 1930 that the public outcry generated by the bombing of civilian populations would be an effective way to coerce gov. into making peace. European air forces started making long-range bombers in 1930s -first use of civilian bombing contradicted Douhet's theory. September 1940, German "Luftwaffe" made nightly air raids in London + other British cities + towns (British called German air raids the Blitz) -London took first blow + set standard for rest of UK by refusing to panic. London morale helped by the fact that German raids were widely scattered -bombing raids start in 1942 under Arthur Harris (wartime leader of British air force's Bomber Command) which were rearmed with 4-engine heavy bombers who took war into center of Europe -May 31, 1942: Cologne became first German city to be subjected to an attack by 1000 bombers -with entry of Americans into war, bombing strategy changed. American planes flew daytime missions aimed at precision bombing of transportation facilities + war industries. British Bomber Command flew nighttime + bombed all German cities w/ pop. > 100K. -bombing raids added element of terror to already difficult circumstances of shortage of food, clothing + fuel. Germans feared the incendiary bombs: created firestorms that swept destructive paths through cities -bombing of people reached new level with dropping of first atomic bomb on Japan. Since Americans were scared of Germans created a superbomb through use of uranium, the gov. tried another strategy -by summer 1945, many Japan factories destroyed + a fourth of its dwellings. After Japan gov. announced the mobilization of all people of 13-60 into a "people's volunteer corps", President Truman + advisers scared that Japanese fanaticism might = a million American casualties -this led them to drop atomic bomb on Hiroshima (August 6) + Nagasaki (August 9). Destruction was great -70K out of 76K buildings flattened. 140K of 400K people died by end of 1945. By end of 1950, another 50K had died from effects of radiation

postwar student revolts

-but there were problems. Classrooms with too many students + professors who paid little attention to students + administrators who acted in an authoritarian fashion -> student resentment -despite changes in curriculum, students felt like universities not giving an education relevant to realities of modern age. Discontent -> outburst of student revolts in late 1960s -these protests were an extension of the disruptions in American universities in mid-1960s where were sparked by student opposition to the Vietnam War. Most famous revolt in France 1968 -erupted at University of Nanterre outside Paris but spread to Sorbonne, main campus of University of Paris. -French students wanted a greater voice in administration of university, took over buildings, + expanded scale of their protests by inviting workers to support them -half of French workforce went on strike May 1968. After Gaullist gov. instituted a wage hike. Workers went to work + police repressed the remaining student protesters -French revolt spurred student protests in Europe, but none of them succeeded in becoming mass movements. In W Berlin, university students led a protest against Axel Springer, (leader of Germany's largest newspaper establishment) -many German students motivated by a desire to destroy what they considered to be the corrupt old order + esp influenced by ideas of German-American social philosopher Herbert Marcuse -in One-Dimensional Man: 1964: Marcuse argued that capitalism undermined the dissatisfaction of the oppressed masses by encouraging the consumption of material things. He proposed that a small cadre of unindoctrinated students can liberate the masses from control of capitalist ruling class -but German students attempt at revolutionary violence backfired since angry Berliners supported police repression of the students -student protest movement reached high point 1968 even though scattered incidents lasted into early 1970s -these were some reason for student radicalism. Some students were motivated by desire to reform the university. Others were protesting the Vietnam War, which they saw as a product of W imperialism -they also attacked other aspects of W society like materialism + expressed concern about becoming cogs in the large + impersonal bureaucratic jungles of modern world -for many students, the calls for democratic decision making within the universities were a reflection of their deeper concerns about direction of W society. Although student revolts dissolved 1970s, the larger issues they raised were increasingly revived in 1990s

Battle of Stalingrad

-by now, new detection devices let Allies destroy increasing numbers of German submarines in shipping war of Atlantic. On E front, turning point of war occurred at Stalingrad -after capture of Crimea, Hitler's generals wanted him to concentrate on Caucasus + its oil fields, but Hitler said Stalingrad (a major industrial center on Volga) should be taken first -November 1942-Feb 1943: German troops stopped, then encircled, then forced to surrender on February 2, 1943. Entire German 6th Army (Afrika Korps- best) of 300K lost. By Feb 1943, German forces in Soviet Unions were back to where they started in June 1942. Even Hitler knew they couldn't beat Soviets -Battle of the Coral Sea May 7-8, 1942: American naval forces stopped Japanese advance + temp. relieved Australia of the threat of invasion. June 4th: Battle of Midway Island: American planes destroyed 4 of attacking Japanese aircraft carriers + got American naval superiority in Pacific -after series of fights in waters near Solomon Islands from August-Nov: Japanese started to fall

Common Market (EEC)

-division created by Cold War led nations of W Europe to form N Atlantic Treaty Organization 1949. But military unity wasn't only kind of unity fostered in Europe after 1945. The destructiveness of 2 world wars caused many to consider the need for some form of European unity -national feelings was too powerful for Europeans to give up their political sovereignty. The desire for a sense of solidarity was forced to focus on the economic arena not a political one -1951: France, W Germany, the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, + Luxembourg), + Italy formed European Coal + Steel Community (ECSC): purpose to create a common market for coal + steel products among the 6 nations by eliminating tariffs + other trade barriers -the success of the ECSC encouraged its members to go further + 1957: created the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) to further European research on peaceful uses of nuclear energy -they also signed the Rome Treaty: which created the European Economic Community (EEC) also known as the Common Market. EEC: took out customs barriers for 6 member nations + created a large free-trade area protected from rest of world by a common external tariff -by promoting free trade, EEC also encouraged cooperation + standardization in many aspects of 6 nations' economies. All member nations benefited economically. By 1960s, the EEC nation was an important trading bloc. With total population of 165 mill, EEC became world's largest exporter + purchaser of raw materials. Only US could surpass the EEC in steel production

Mao Zedong

-end of WWII, 2 Chinese gov. existed, 1) the Nationalist gov. of Chiang Kai-sheck based in S + C China + supported by Americans and 2) the Communists who were under Mao Zedong who had a strong base in N China. Their People's Liberation Army have almost 1 million troops -when efforts to make a coalition gov. in 1946 failed, war b/w Nationalists + Communists broke out. -in countryside, millions of peasants support Communists b/c of their promises of land many joined Mao's People's Liberation Army. 1948: the army surrounded Beijing -next spring, Communists crossed Yangtze + took Shanghai. During next months, Chiang's gov. + his 2 million followers fled to Taiwan (island of coast of mainland China) -October 1, 1949: Mao mounted rostrum of Gate of Heavenly Peace in Beijing + made statement to his followers saying the Chinese people have stood up + no one will humiliate them again -newly victorious Communist Party (under leadership of chairman Mao) had goal to make a socialist society. -1955: Chinese gov. collectivized all private farmland + nationalized most industry + commerce. -When collective farms failed to increase food production, Mao started radical program called Great Leap Forward 1958: existing collective farms (size of traditional village) were combined into "people's communes" each with more than 30K people. -Mao hoped this would mobilize people for an effort to speed up economic growth + reach final stage of communism: the classless society: before end of 20th. But Great Leap Forward was hated b/c of bad weather + peasant hatred of the system food production decreased -but Mao not ready to abandon his dream of a classless society. 1966: he returned to attack + unleashed his Red Guards: revolutionary units composed of unhappy Party members + young people who were encouraged to go to the streets to cleanse the Chinese society of impure elements guilty of accepting capitalism. Schools, universities, factories, + gov. ministries under control of Red Guards -Mao launched China on new forced march toward communism = so-called Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution = "great revolution to create a proletarian culture" -lasted for 10 years 1966-1976. Mao was convinced that an atmosphere of constant revolutionary fervor would let Chinese overcome the past + achieve the final stage of communism -Red Guards set across the nation to eliminate the "four-olds": old ideas/culture/customs/habits. They destroyed temples, books written by foreigners + jazz records -they tore down street signs + replace with ones with revolutionary names. Destruction of property came with vicious attacks on individuals who had supposedly strayed from Mao's thought -those accused were humiliated in public meetings where they were forced to admit their "Crimes". Many were brutally beaten often to death -Mao found that it wasn't easy to maintain constant mood of revolutionary enthusiasm. Key groups (including Party members, urban professionals, + many military officers) didn't share Mao's desire for "permanent revolution" -people began to turn against the movement + September 1976: when Mao died, a group of practical-minded reformers took power from radicals + adopted a more practical approach to China's problem

Grand Alliance

-entry of US created coalition (The Grand Alliance) that defeated the Axis Powers: Germany, Italy + Japan -Allies: Britain, US + Soviet Union: had to overcome mutual suspicions of each other before they could be a good alliance. To help this process: 1) Hitler's declaration of war on US made it easier for Americans to accept British + Soviet's agreement of having the defeat of Germany be priority. -> US sent more trucks, planes, + other arms to British + Soviets. 2) agreement of the 3 Allies to stress military operations while ignoring political differences + other strategic issues concerning any postwar settlements. Start of 1943: Allies agree to fight until Axis Powers surrender unconditionally. This principle cemented the Grand Alliance so Hitler can't split them

postwar Germany

-fate of Germany was also a conflict b/w E + W. Other than denazification + the splitting of Germany (+ Berlin) into 4 occupied zones, Allied powers disagreed mostly on everything else -Soviets were hit hardest by war so took reparations from Germany in form of booty. The technology-starved Soviets dismantled + took to Russia 380 factories from W zones of Berlin before giving the control to the W powers. Summer of 1946, 200 chemical, paper + textile factories in Soviets' E German zone was taken to the Soviet Union. At same time, German Communist Party was reestablished under control of Walter Ulbricht who later was in charge of political reconstruction of Soviet zone in E Germany -at this time, British, French + Americans slowly were merging their zones economically + by February 1948 were making plans for unification of all 3 W sections of Germany + formal creation of a W German federal gov. Soviets respond with blockade of W Berlin that blocked all trains/trucks to enter 3 W zones of Berlin -Soviets hoped to secure economic control of all Berlin then force W powers to stop the creation of a separate W German state -W powers had a problem. Direct military confrontation seemed dangerous + no one wanted a WWIII. So an attempt to break through the blockade with tanks + trucks was not an option. But they needed to keep the 2.5 million people in the 3 W zones alive Berlin Air Lift -Berlin Air Lift: at peal, 13K tons of supplies flown to Berlin daily. Soviets didn't want war do didn't interfere + finally stopped blockade in May 1949. Blockade of Berlin had increased tensions b/w US + Soviets + brought separation of Germany into 2 states -W German Federal Republic: created September 1949 + a month later, a separate German Democratic Republic: established in E Germany. Berlin stayed a divided city + source of problems b/w E + W

invasion of Poland

-finally, W powers did something about Hitler's actions. Czechs didn't want to reunite with Germany + Hitler's aggression showed that his promises meant nothing -when Hitler demanded the return of Danzig to Germany (became free city by Treaty of Versailles) to be a seaport for Poland -> UK saw danger + offered to protect Poland -France + UK also saw that only Russia was strong enough to contain Nazi aggression + started political + military negotiations with Stalin + Soviets. W distrust of Soviet communism so alliance unlikely -Hitler still think W wouldn't fight over Poland, so he ordered generals to prepare to invade Poland September 1, 1939. To prevent an alliance b/c W + Soviet Union (which would make a 2-front war) Hitler negotiated his own nonaggression pact w/ Stalin August 23, 1939 -a secret protocol to the treaty made German + Soviet spheres of influence in E Europe: Finland, Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia + Lithuania), E Poland would go to Soviet Union + Germany gets W Poland -treaty with Russia let Hitler attack Poland. So they invade Poland September 1, + two days later (September 3) Britain + France declared war on Germany -two weeks later September 17: Germany's ally (Soviet Union) sent troops into E Poland. Europe back at war -"Blitzkrieg" = lightning war. Hitler surprised Europe with this speed and efficiency of German attacks. Had columns of panzer divisions (strike forces of 300 tanks) supported by airplanes. They broke through Polish lines + Germans quickly encircled the Polish. Infantry then went in to conquer the territory. -in four weeks, Poland surrendered. September 28, 1939: Germany + Soviet Union divided Poland b/w them

Sudetenland

-first, Germans asked for autonomy of Sudetenland (mountains NW border area home to 3 million Germans). Hitler knew Sudetenland also had important frontier defenses + industrial resources -September 15, 1938: Hitler demanded cession of Sudetenland to Germany + expressed his willingness to risk "world war" to get his goal. But appeasement triumphed again -Then, Hitler preoccupied the Czech lands (Bohemia + Moravia) while Slovaks (w/ Hitler's encouragement) declared their independence of Czechs + became puppet state - Slovakia of Germany

Holocaust

-greatest part of Nazi New Order: attempt to exterminate the Jewish people of Europe -racial struggle was important to Hitler's ideology. To him, there was a clear conflict of opposing races: the Aryans (creators of human cultural development) VS. Jews (parasites who were trying to destroy the Aryans) -Hitler later toned down his anti-Semitic message when his party was looking for electoral victories, but anti-Semitism was reoccurring in Nazism + resulted in wave of legislative acts against Jews 1933-1939 -start of 1939: Nazi policy focused on promoting "emigration" of German Jews from Germany. Emigration at this time was a still favored policy. Once war started in September 1939, the Jewish problem changed -Madagascar Plan: mass shipment of Jews to island of Madagascar (E coast of Africa). When war made this plan impossible, a more drastic policy was made -Heinrich Himmler + SS: shared Hitler's racial ideology. SS had responsibility to carry out the Final Solution -Final Solution: annihilation of the Jewish population -spring 1942: death camps in operation. Initial goal was to eliminate ghettos of Poland, but Jews were also being shipped from France, Belgium, + Netherlands. 1943: shipments of Jews started coming from cities of: Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Greece, S France, Italy, + Denmark -as Allies made advances 1944, Jews were being shipped from Greece + Hungary and this transportation depended on cooperation of Germany's Transport Ministry. Despite military needs, Final Solution had priority over railroad cards to transport Jews to camps -there was military argument that Jews could be used to produce armaments but this was overridden by the demands of extermination -30% of arrivals at Auschwitz sent to labor camp. Remainder sent to gas chambers. After gassed, bodies burned in crematoria. Their goods + bodies used for economic gain. Female hair cut off, collected + used for mattresses or cloth -inmates were sometimes put under cruel + painful "medical" experiments. German kills 5-6 million Jews. More than 3 million in death camps. 90% Jewish population of Poland, Baltic states + Germany killed -Holocaust was responsible for deaths of 2 out of 3 European Jews -Nazis also caused the death by shooting, starving, or overworking another 9-10 million. Nazis also saw Gypsies (like Jews) as a race that had alien blood so they were also rounded up for extermination -40% Europe's 1 million Gypsies killed in death camps. The leaders of the "subhuman" Slavic peoples (clergy, intelligentsia, civil leaders, judges, and lawyers arrested + killed -another 4 million Poles, Ukrainians, Belorussians lost lives as slave laborers for Germany. At least 3-4 million Soviet prisoners killed in captivity. Nazis also singled out homosexuals + killed them.

National Health Service Act (Britain)

-health act: created a system of socialized medicine that required doctors + dentists to work w/ state hospitals even though private practices can be kept. This was costly for the state but in a few years, 90% of medical practitioners were participating. The British welfare state was model for most European states

Marshall Plan

-proclamation of Truman Doctrine followed in June 1947 by European Recovery Program: Marshall Plan -Marshall Plan: wanted to rebuild prosperity + stability. This included $13 billion for economic recovery of war-torn Europe. Underlying this was the belief that Communist aggression came from economic trouble -the plan didn't intend to shut out the Soviet Union or E European satellite states, but they didn't want to participate. Soviets saw this plan as guaranteeing American loans by taking away economic + political independence from European states -but Soviets weren't prepared to fight US financially so they couldn't do much to fight the Marshall Plan

NATO

-search for security in new world of Cold War also led to formation of military alliances. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed April 1949 when Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway + Portugal signed a treaty with US + Canada -all of them attacked. Few years later, W German, Greece + Turkey joined NATO

D-Day

-since fall 1943, Allies were planning a cross-channel invasion of France from UK. Series of Allied deceptions tricked Germans into believing the invasion would be on flat plains of N France. But under American general, Dwight D. Eisenhower: 5 assault divisions on Normandy beaches June 6th = greatest naval invasion (D-Day) -an indecisive German response let Allied forced establish a beachhead. In 3 months, they landed 2 million men + half-million vehicles that pushed inland + broke through German defensive lines -after this, Allies moved S + E + liberated Paris by end of August. German troops also had supply problems + a desperate offensive at Battle of the Bulge slowed Allied advance

"second front" (D-DAY)

-start of 1943, battle turned against Germany, Italy + Japan. But it would be long before unconditional surrender could be achieved. After Axis Powers surrendered in Tunisia May 13, 1943, Allies crossed Mediterranean + brought war to Italy (called by Winston Churchill "the soft underbelly") -after taking Sicily, Allied Powers started invasion of Italy September. After the arrest of Mussolini, a new Italian gov. offered to surrender to Allied forces. But Mussolini was liberated by Germans in a raid then set up as head of a puppet state in N Italy while Germans went in + occupied Italy -new defensive lines made by Germans in hills of S of Rome was so effective that the Allied advance up the Italian peninsula was painstaking with many casualties. Rome didn't fall to Allies until June 4, 1944 -by this time, Italian war was a secondary role since Allies opened "Second front" in W Europe -The second front refers to Stalin's wish for the western allies open another front in Europe in 1942 against the germans to take the pressure of the Russians on the Eastern Front. (An invasion of France) -He wanted the Allies to invade mainland Europe as soon as possible to force the Germans to withdraw some of their troops from the Eastern Front. During this period of the war the Germans were pushing far into Southern Russia heading towards Stalingrad.

Luftwaffe

-start of August 1940, "Luftwaffe" (German air force) launched air force against UK air + naval forces, harbors, communication centers, + war industries. -British fought back, supported by effective radar system that gave them warning of German attacks. Ultra intelligence operation: (had broken German military codes) gave British air force information about specific targets of German air attacks. UK did have critical losses at end of August + saved by Hitler's change of mind -in September, counterattack for British attacking Berlin, Hitler shifted to massive bombing of cities to break British morale. British rebuilt air strength quickly and later started hurting "Luftwaffe" bombers -end of September, Germany lost Battle of Britain + invasion of Britain postponed

Battle of Kursk

-summer 1943, Hitler generals had told Hitler to build an E Wall based on river barriers to stop Soviets. But Hitler risked on taking the offensive by making newly developed tanks. German forces defeated by Soviets at the Battle of Kursk (July 5—12) = greatest tank battle of WWII -Germans lost 18 panzer divisions. Soviets reoccupied Ukraine by end 1943 + lifted siege of Leningrad + moved into Baltic states by start of 1944 -along N front, Soviets occupied Warsaw in January 1945 + entered Berlin April. Also, Soviets went along S front through Hungary, Romania + Bulgaria -January 1945, Hitler moved into bunker 55 feet under Berlin to direct end of war. He continued to arrange armies on worn-out battle maps. In final testament, Hitler stayed anti-Semitic + blamed Jews for war -Hitler committed suicide April 30: two days after Mussolini was shot by Italian forces -May 7: German commanders surrendered + WWII was finally over -war in Asia continued. Starting 1943, American forces had gone on offensive + advanced slowly across Pacific. American forces took increasing amounts of enemy resources, esp. at sea + in air -when President Harry Truman (Roosevelt died April 2, 1945) + his advisers became convinced that American troops might suffer heavy casualties in invasion of Japanese homeland -> decided to drop newly developed atomic bomb on Hiroshima + Nagasaki. Japanese surrendered unconditionally August 14th.

Korean War

-system of military alliances spread to rest of world after US got involved in Korean War 1950. Korea had been liberated from Japanese in 1945 but soon divided into 2 parts. -N of 38th parallel was the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (N Korea) + supported by SU -Republic of Korea (S Korea) supported by US. June 35, 1950 with approval of Stalin, N Korean troops invaded S Korea. Americans saw this as another act of Communist aggression + expansion so they got the support of the UN + intervened by sending American troops to turn back the invasion -September, the UN forces (Americans + S Koreans) under command of General Douglas MacArthur marched N across 38th parallel with goal of unifying Korean under single non-Communist gov. -Mao Zedong sent Chinese forces into the conflict + forced MacArthur's troops to retreat back to S Korea. American policymakers though Chinese were puppets of Russia, so they created an image of communism as a monolithic force that came from SU -2 more years of fighting gave an inconclusive victory -> an armistice signed 1953. 38th parallel stayed as the boundary b/w N + S Korea. The policy of containing communism had succeeded in Asia despite loss of more than 50K men in the war

Nazi forced labor

-the Nazi New Order = ruthless exploitation of conquered Europe's resources. In E Europe, Germans took raw materials, machines + food leaving only enough for local peoples to survive. Even though Germans adopted legal formalities in their exploitation of W Europe, military supplies + raw materials taken. Nazi policies -> shortages of food, clothing + shelter -> many suffer -labor shortages in Germany -> policy of ruthless mobilization of foreign labor for Germany. After invasion of Soviet Union, 4 million Soviet prisoners captured by Germans became source of heavy labor, but 3 million of them died from abandonment -1942, special office created to recruit labor for German farms + industries. Summer of 1944, 7 million foreign workers laboring in Germany + were 20% of Germany's labor force. -another 7 million were supplying forced labor in own countries on farms, industries + in military camps. Forced labor sometimes counterproductive b/c it created economic chaos in occupied countries + disrupted industrial production that could've helped Germany -worse for Germans, brutal character of Germany's recruitment policies often led more people to resist the Nazi occupation forces

Geneva Disarmament Conference

-this plan initialized on whether Hitler could convince others that his intentions were peaceful -he emphasized that Germany only wanted to revise the unfair conditions of Versailles + achieve Germany's rightful place among European states. During first 2 years in office, Hitler pursued a foreign policy w/o risks. -October 1933: he withdrew Germany from Geneva Disarmament Conference + League of Nations to give Germans a feeling that their country was no longer dominated by other European states

Dunkirk

-this split Allied army on beaches of Dunkirk. A rescue effort sent out with hundreds of ships + small boats ferrying troops from French port to Britain. British succeeded in saving an army of 330K Allied troops -June 5: Germans made another offensive S France. Later, Mussolini believed war was over + wanted to grab the spoils so called war on France + invaded from the south

Battle of El Alamein

-until fall of 1941, it looked like Germans might succeed in battle. Reinforcements in N Africa let the Afrika Korps to break through British defenses in Egypt + advance to Alexandria -Germans also continued to success in Battle of North Atlantic: submarines attacked Allied ships carrying supplies to UK. Spring 1942: a new German offensive in Soviet Union -> capture of entire Crimea -but once 1942, war turned on Germans. In N Africa, British forces stopped Rommel's troops at El Alamein in summer 1942 + then forced them back across desert. In November 1942, British + American forces invaded French N Africa + forced the German + Italian troops to surrender in May 1943

postwar European social welfare system

-welfare state represents another extension of the power of the state over the people's lives. This process has increased as a result of 2 world wars -goal of welfare state was to make it possible for people to live better + more meaningful lives -supporters of welfare state believed that eliminating poverty + homelessness, giving medical services for all, ensuring dignity for elderly, + extending education for all those who wanted it = free people to achieve happiness by satisfying their material needs -social welfare not new. In late 19th, some states had provided for the welfare of the working class by instituting old-age pensions, medical insurance, + unemployment compensations -but these were not based on belief that society had a responsibility to care for all its citizens -new postwar social legislation extended earlier benefits + created new ones. Social welfare benefits differed from each country in quantity + quality and also how they were paid for + managed. -in some countries, the existing benefits for sickness, accidents, unemployment, + old age were extended to cover more people + provide larger payments -men were eligible for old-age pensions at around 65 and women around 60. Old-age benefits not always generous. In France + UK, a person was allowed to get $40 per month after 40 years of work -affordable health care for all people was another goal of the welfare state even though methods for getting this varied. In UK, Italy, + Germany: medical care free to all people with some kind of insurance -in France, Scandinavian countries, Belgium + Switzerland: people had to contribute toward cost of their medical care. Amount from 10-25 percent of total cost -other features of welfare state were family allowances + educational policies -family allowances: to provide minimum level of material care for children. Most family allowance programs provided a fixed amount per child. 1964: France gave $60 per month per child. Italy: $24 and UK: $10 -welfare states also wanted to remove class barriers to opportunity by expanding the number of universities + providing scholarship aid to allow everyone to attend these institutions of higher learning -European states moved toward free tuition or modest fees for university attendance. These polices not always succeed. Early 1960s, most students in W Europe universities came from privileged backgrounds -in UK: 25% of university students came from working-class backgrounds. France: it was 17.6% -welfare states increased amount of money states expended on social services. 1967: the spending was 17% of the gross national product of major European states. By 1980s, it went to 40-50% -to some, this proves that welfare state had produced a new generation of citizens overly dependent on the state. But most people favored the benefits + most leaders were aware that it was political suicide to support any lowering of those benefits -gender issues also influenced the form that the welfare state took in different countries. One important question in every country: should women be seen as mothers or seen as individuals? -William Beveridge: economist who drafted report that made the basis for the British welfare state said that women had vital work to do in ensuring the continuance of the British race. During marriage, women won't be employed. Small minority of women who get paid employment or other gainful jobs after marriage need special treatment differing of single women -British welfare system based on belief that women should stay home w/ children. Women got subsidies for children, but married women who worked had little or new benefits -employers also encouraged to pay women lower wages to discourage them from joining workforce. So British welfare system encourage dependence of wives on their husbands. Also in W German system -W German gov. passed laws that discouraged women from working. To keep its women at home, W Germany looked to differentiate itself from neighboring communist countries in W Europe + SU where women were encouraged to work outside the home -while helping working women raise families, communist gov. also provided day-care facilities like family subsidies + maternity benefits -France wanted to maintain the individual rights of women in its welfare system. The French gov. recognized women as equal to men + so entitled to the same welfare benefits as women for working outside home -at same time, wanting to encourage pop. Growth, the gov. gave incentives for women to stay home + bear children as well as day-care + afterschool programs for working mothers

Bay of Pigs

1959, left-wing revolutionary named Fidel Castro had overthrown Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista + made a Soviet-supported totalitarian regime -1961, and American-supported attempt to invade Cuba through Bay of Pigs + overthrow Castro's regime failed. 1962, SU decided to station nuclear missiles in Cuba. US didn't want nuclear weapons to be in such close striking distance of American mainland (even though they had put missiles in Turkey which is close to SU). US intelligence found out that a Soviet fleet carrying missiles was headed towards Cuba so Kennedy decided to block Cuba + prevent this fleet from reaching its destination -this approach had the benefit of delaying confrontation + giving each side time to find a peaceful solution. Khrushchev agreed to turn back the fleet if Kennedy promised to not invade Cuba.

Einsatzgruppen

After defeat of Poland, he was ordered to have special strike forces (Einsatzgruppen) who he created to round up all Polish Jews and concentrate them in ghettos established in some Polish cities -June 1941: Einsatzgruppen now had duty to become mobile killing units. SS death squads had its normal regular army advance into Russia: they had to get all Jews in villages + execute then bury in mass graves (giant pits dug by victims themselves before killed) -regular killing created moral problems for SS killers. During visit to Minsk in Soviet Union, Himmler tried to build moral by saying that God understands that these deaths are necessary for the Germans -around a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen but this method of eliminating Jews seemed inadequate. Instead, Nazis tried for a more systematic annihilation = death camps -Jews from countries occupied by Germany (or sympathetic to Germany) would be packed like cattle into freight trains and shipped to Poland (6 death camps were created) -largest + most famous camp was at Auschwitz-Birkenau -assistance for construction of the camps were from the T-4 program (responsible for extermination of 80K racially unfit mental + physical defectives in Germany 1939-1941) -these medical technicians chose Zyklon B (name for hydrogen cyanide) as the most effective gas for killing large numbers of people in gas chambers designed to look like shower rooms

women in WWII

British wanted to make use of their women -most women were under 40 and called to do war work. By 1944, women had almost 50% of civil service positions + number of women in agriculture doubled = "land girls". They did agricultural labor that was usually done by men -number of women working in industry increased 60%. Also were expected to dig antitank ditches + work as air-raid wardens. Soviet Union was also only country in WWII to use women as combatants. -Soviet women were snipers + aircrews in bomber squadrons. Female pilots who helped defeat Germans at Stalingrad = "Night Witches -unemployment didn't decrease significantly in US until mid-1943 which affected the use of women in industrial jobs. 71% of American women over 18 stayed at home due to male concern that women's traditional place is at home, but also b/c services of women not really needed War produced reverse in Nazi attitudes toward women. Nazi resistance to female employment declined as war progressed + more men called for military service. Nazi magazines: "We see women as mother of our people, but also as working/fighting comrade of men" -number of women working in industry, agriculture, commerce + domestic service increased slightly. Total number of employed women in September 1944 was 14.9 million compared to 14.6 in May 1939 -many women, esp of middle class, resisted regular employment esp in factories. The introduction of labor conscription for women January 1943 failed since women found ways to avoid the regulations

Hermann Goering

Commander/ Reichmarshall of the Luftwaffe

independence of Hungary

Developments in Poland 1956 inspired national Communists in Hungary + look for same kinds of reforms + independence. Intense debates resulted in the ouster of the ruling Stalinist + selection of Imry Nagy as new Hungarian leader -internal dissent was against communism in general b/c it was seen as creation of Soviets, not Hungarians -the Stalinist secret police also bred much terror + hatred. This dissatisfaction + economic difficulties = situation ready for revolt. To quell the rising rebellion, Nagy declared Hungary a free nation November 1, 1956. He promised free elections + mood of country = that this could mean end of communism in Hungary -but Khrushchev wasn't going to let a member of the Communist flock to leave. 3 days after Nagy's declaration, the Red Army invaded capital city of Budapest. Soviets reestablished control over country

Warsaw Pact

In 1955, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, E Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania + SU formed a military alliance in Warsaw Pact. Now Europe was divided into hostile alliance systems again

Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis brought world close to a nuclear war. In 1992, a high-ranking Soviet officer revealed that short-range rockets armed with nuclear weapons would've been used against US if US invaded Cuba -this intense feeling that the world would've been annihilated in a few days had an influence on both sides. A hotline communication system b/w Moscow + Washington was installed in 1963 to give rapid communication b/w 2 superpowers in a time of crisis -in the same year, the 2 powers agreed to ban nuclear tests in atmosphere (which lessen tensions b/w them)

Joseph Stalin

To make a new industrial base, Stalin returned to method of 1930s: acquisition of development capital from Soviet labor. While working hard for little, poor housing, + few consumer goods, Soviet laborers were expected to produce goods to export with little in return for themselves -incoming capital from abroad could be used to purchase machinery + W technology. The loss of millions of men in war = much of this workload fell onto Soviet women. 40% of heavy manual labor done by women -economic recovery in SU was nothing. By 1947, industrial production was at prewar levels. 3 years later, it surpassed them by 40%. New power plants, canals + giant factories were built + new industries + oil fields were made in Siberia + Soviet Central Asia. Stalin's 5 year plan 1946 reached goals in less than 5 years -Stalin's economic policy was successful in making growth in heavy industry (mainly for military), consumer goods were scarce. Development of thermonuclear weapons in 1953, MIG fighters from 1950-1953, + first space satellite (Sputnik) 1957 elevated Soviet's reputation as a world power. However, domestically, Soviet people didn't have much change -heavy industry grew at rate 3x of personal consumption. The housing shortage was small. -when WWII ended 1945, Stalin had power for more than 15 years. During that time, he had removed all opposition to his rule + stayed as the undisputed master of the SU. -other leading members of Communist Party completely obedient to his will. Increasingly distrustful of competitors, Stalin exercised authority + put his subordinates against each other -Stalin's suspicious helped the constantly increasing repression that was a part of his regime. In 1946, the gov. said that all literary + scientific works must concern the political needs of the state -along with this anti-intellectual campaign was also political terror. A new series of purges seemed imminent 1953 when a number of Jewish doctors were in on a plot to kill high-level party officials. Only Stalin's death on March 5, 1953 prevented more bloodletting

WWII Casualties

WWII: 17 million died + 18 million civilians died too. Total losses about 50 million. -Sovie Union suffered the most important which is why the Allies allowed them to take Berin after WWII

Erwin Rommel

general who led the Afrika Korps of Germany

Reinhard Heydrich

head of SS's Security Service: had duty for Final Solution -to tell party/state officials of general procedures of Final Solution, a conference was held at Wannsee (outside Berlin) January 20, 1942. Heydrich outlined the steps to solve the "Jewish question" -he explained how in the process of the Final Solution, Europe must be "combed from E to W" to look for Jews. The Jews would be brought group-by-group into "transit ghettos" which transfers them more to E -conference worked out all the details so the party/state officials would cooperate fully in the Final Solution

Betty Friedran

journalist + mother of 3 kids. She became uneasy with her attempt to fulfill the traditional role of the "ideal housewife + mother". 1963: she published The Feminine Mystique: analyzed the problems of middle-class American women in 1950s + argued that women were being denied equality with men -it became best seller + made Friedan into a newfound celebrity. -1966: she founded the National Organization for Women (NOW): goal to take action to bring women into full participation in American society now by exercising all privileges + responsibilities in truly equal partnership of men. -She was also important in calling for the addition to the US Constitution of an amendment that would guarantee equal rights for women

Konrad Adenauer

leader of the Christian Democrats of W Germany who served as chancellor 1949-1963 became founding hero of Federal Republic. He wanted respect for W Germany by working w/ US + other W European nations -he wanted reconciliation w/ France (Germany's longtime enemy). -Adenauer's chancellorship came w/ resurrection of W German economy = "economic miracle" it was guided by minister of finance: Ludwig Erhard. -W Germany had 75% of pop. + 52% of territory of prewar Germany but by 1955 the W German gross national product exceeded that of prewar Germany. Real wages 2x 1950-1965 even though work hours were cut by 20%. Unemployment fell from 8% in 1950 to 0.4% in 1965 -to keep its economic expansion, W Germany imported many of "guest workers" mostly from Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey + Yugoslavia -Adenauer resigned 1963 after 14 years of guiding W Germany through its postwar recovery. He wanted no experimentation at home or abroad. He was happy to give Germany time to regain its equilibrium.

V-1/V-2 Rockets

made by Germany and both were used on Britain -V-2: initially planned to be able to attack the US long-range but it failed

Heinrich Himmler

strong believer in Nazi racial ideology + leader of SS: put in charge of German resettlement plans in E. his task was to evacuate the inferior Slavic peoples + replace them with Germans (this policy first applied to new German provinces created from lands of W Poland) -a million Poles were dumped in S Poland while hundreds of Germans (descendants of Germans who migrated from Germany to other parts of S + E Europe) encouraged to colonize in these areas of Poland -by 1942, 2 million ethnic Germans had settled in Poland -invasion of Soviet Union inflated Nazi visions of German colonization in E. Hitler spoke to his circle of social engineering after the war + determined that Poles, Ukrainians, Soviets would become slave labor + German peasants would settle on abandoned lands + Germanize them -Nazis involved in this kind of planning were aware of human costs. Himmler told a gathering of SS officers that destruction of 30 million Slavs were necessary for German plans in the E