AP Euro Midterm Review, AP Euro Midterm Review, AP Euro Midterm/Exam Review, Ap Euro Midterm Review, AP European History Midterm Study Guide, AP Euro - 9.41, Palmer Sections 41/42, Palmer Sections 41/42/43, Palmer and Colton Sections 43-44, Palmer Se...

Francesco Petrarch

"Father OF Humanism" First person to study actual literary classics and not their secondary commentaries.

Petrarch (323):

"Father of Humanism" 1304-1374 Early figure in the Renaissance. He wanted a return to classical learning. Significance? Got the renaissance ball rolling.

Instauratio Magna

"Great Renewel" by Bacon Planned many works in volumes calling for new start in science and civilization

"Cogito Ergo Sum"

"I think therefore I am" said by Descartes, it was one thing that could not be disproved/doubted

Cogito ergo sum

"I think, therefore I exist"

Frederick the Great of Prussia

"Old Fritz", freedom of religion, focused on wars, conquered Silesia to unite the broken territories of Prussia

The 42 Articles

"The 42 Articles of Faith" are the radical statements of doctrine issued by Edward VI (but written by Archbishop Cranmer). The Churches within England will now be more aligned with radical Calvinism. (Easy way to remember it: This document makes many (42) changes to Catholic doctrines/practices. If you are Catholic in your heart, you HATE the 42 Articles.

The Six Articles

"The Six Articles of Faith" are the statements of doctrine that Henry VIII issues in 1539. They are a re-affirmation of basic Catholic Doctrines and are issued by Henry to make it very clear that he is not aligning with Protestants. The only thing changing is that the King of England is the head of the Church inside England. Henry will consider himself Catholic until the day he dies. The Pope will disagree with this : )

Montesquieu

"The Spirit of the Laws"; tried to use scientific method to find natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings; identified 3 types of governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies; invented separation of powers

Maximilien Robespierre

"The incorruptable;" the leader of the bloodiest portion of the French Revolution. He set out to build a republic of virtue. He had been a member of the Third Estate, Legislative Assembly, the Girondins, and finally the Mountain in which he gained full power over the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. He was killed in the Thermidorian Reaction

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish clergyman. Sun was the center of the universe; the planets went around it. On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres. Destroyed Aristotle's view of the universe - heliocentric theory.

Feudal Society

Refers to the social, political, military, and economic system that emerged; The exchange of land for goods and services. Regional prince or lord is dominant, and the highest virtues are trust and fidelity.

Presbyterian System

Religious system that is non hierarchical. The Scots had a Presbyterian system since John Knox brought Calvinism. This starts a war, which costs money, which forces Charles I to call Parliament, and ... well you know what happens next.

Pico (325):

Renaissance Humanist and author of "Ode to the Dignity of Man" Believed that man had unlimited potential and was a "chameleon" Example of Neo-Platonism.

Valla

Renaissance Humanist who used his knowledge of Latin to show that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery ("On the False Donation of Constantine"); contributed to the continual decline of the prestige of the Church with educated people

Valla (326):

Renaissance Humanist who used his knowledge of latin to show that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery. The Donation of Constantine was one of the justifications of Papal Supremacy over other archbishops. Contributed to the continual decline of the prestege of the Church with educated people.

Estates General

Representative body of France

Venice

Republic of (319),: One of the 5 major Italian city-states. Powerful commercial city that dominated trade in the Mediterranean.

Rousseau (child rearing philosophy)

Rouseau's Emile was a novel setting forth his radical version of family and childrearing. He believed that women were inferior to men and should make themselves pleasing to men. He also advocated a 'laissez faire' approach to childhood education. Children's interest should determine their education.

Margaret of Parma (400):

Ruler of the Dutch under Philip's rule. Her easy treatment allowed the calvanists to go a little berserk. Philip replaces her with the more brutal Duke of Alba

Directory major threats

foregin powers; royalists; left

Absolutism

form of government in which all power is vested in a single ruler or other authority

cameralism

form of mercantilism practiced in Austria where economic power grew by increased production

Third Coalition

formed because: -1803 Britain and France were at war again -Great Britain sought allies for this -Francis II of Austria signed alliance -Alexander I (Russian tsar) signed, completing the alliance

treaty of Luneville

formed terms of Campo Formio, Austra in 1801

French tricolor

fusion of old and new. Red and blue = Paris White = Bourbon

bullion

gold and silver in the form of bars

Theocracy

government ruled by divine authority religion. Calvin's Geneva

Misogyny

hatred of women; practiced during the Renaissance because although upper-class women received an education, they couldn't apply it in Renaissance society (some women opposed this idea ex. Christine de Pisan and Laura Cereta)

napoleon's russia campaign--problems

here are the problems: -the Russians planned to fight on their own ground, not the expected Poland -only brought 3 weeks of supplies -Russian army melted away and burned down everything -outnumbered because so many were left in different areas at battle at Borodino -Nap left the same way he came, and that led to 400,000 dying

Nuclear families

households of Parents and children. It is the opposite of the Extended family in which multiple generations live together.

LOL

http://i.imgur.com/u63Jx.jpg

.Thomas More

humanist leader & friend of Henry VIII who opposes Henry's break with the Catholic church; is beheaded for treason by Henry for not acknowledging the Act of Supremacy

(SOCIAL): Tabula Rosa

humans are a blank slate at birth. experience

Watts

hymns

Child Rearing 1700

...

Dias

...

Diets 1700

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Fredrick II

...

Fredrick III

...

French Language

...

Medical Practices 1700

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After the Indian population died out...

...it soon resulted in the importation of the African slaves.

Peasants

A farmer with a small farm

robot

The work schedule of peasants

Austerlitz

Napoleon defeats Russian and Austrian forces and signs treaty of Pressburg.

Sieyes'

"What is the 3rd Estate?"Wrote the pamphlet that answered the question What is the 3rd Estate. His Answer: Everything! (the 3rd estate, according to him, IS France.) It was a popular pamphlet that circulated on the streets of Paris in the summer of '89. It's similar to our "Common Sense"

Aprés moi le déluge

"after me, the flood"; Louis XV

Lavater

"physiognomy"

Louis XI (336):

"the spider" A New Monarch. King who began the centralization of France.

St Petersburg

"window to the west". Peter's new capital for Russia. It is 500 miles west of Moscow and on the Baltic Sea. Part of Peter's goal of westernization of Russia.

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) Swiss reformer, influenced by Christian humanism. He looked to the state to supervise the church. Banned music and relics from services. Killed in a civil war.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Treaty of Tordesillas

(1494) divided the Atlantic world between two maritime powers, reserving for Portugal the West African coast and the route to India and giving Spain the oceans and the lands to the west

John Calvin

(1509-1564) French theologian. Developed the Christian theology known as Calvinism. Attracted Protestant followers with his teachings.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Philip V of Spain

(1700-1746), grandson of Louis XIV, brought new men and fresh ideas to Spain from France, won the War of Spanish Succession, reasserted royal authority by improving state finances and strengthening defense

Ivan the Terrible

(1533-1584) earned his nickname for his great acts of cruelty directed toward all those with whom he disagreed. He became the first ruler to assume the title Czar of all Russia.

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601) Established himself as Europe's foremost astronomer of his day; detailed observations of new star of 1572. Used by kepler

Peace of Augsburg

(1555) A treaty between Charles V and the German Protestant princes that granted legal recognition of Lutheranism in Germany.

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) English politician, writer. Formalized the empirical method. Novum Organum. Inductive reasoning.

Council of Troubles

(1567)established in Sp. Netherlands by Duke of Alva(sent there by PII) who with 20,000 Sp. troops assumed role of Governor and charged with SUPPRESSING RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL CONTROL. It sentenced some to death. levied new taxes, and confiscated the estates of a number of important nobles. (Often called the Council of Blood)

Council of Troubles

(1567)established in Sp. Netherlands by Duke of Alva(sent there by PII) who with 20,000 Sp. troops assumed role of Governor and charged with suppressing religious and political revolt. Alva boasted that in 6 years he killed almost 18,000 ppl. See Bruegel painting - Biblical Massacre of the Innocents depicted in contemporary setting and refered to harsh Spanish rule. PII sent in Inquisition, and CofT known as CofBlood.

Edict of Nantes

(1598) Grant of tolerance in France to French Protestants after lengthy civil wars between Catholics and Protestants.

James I

(1603-1625) Stuart monarch who ignored constitutional principles and asserted the divine right of kings.

Protestant Union

(1608) alliance of German Lutheran princes alarmed at religious and territorial spread of Calvinism and Catholicism. Catholic princes responded with the Catholic League (1609). The two armed camps erupted in the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). (p. 499)

Defenestration of Prague

(1618) When the Protestants threw Catholic Officials out the window. Started the Thirty Years' War.

Isaac Newton

Defined the laws of motion and gravity. Tried to explain motion of the universe.

Thirty Years War

(1618-1648) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

Charles I

(1625-1649) Stuart king who brought conflict with Parliament to a head and was subsequently executed.

Petition of Right

(1628) Signed by Charles I. No imprisonment without due cause; no taxes levied without Parliament's consent; soldiers not housed in private homes; no martial law during peace time.

Peace of Alais

(1629) Amended Edict of Nantes: Protestants could keep their religion but not to share their political power.

Edict of Restitution

(1629) Emperor declared all church territories that had been secularized since 1552 to be automatically restored to Catholic Church

Long Parliament

(1640 - 1660) English Parliament which met off and on for twenty years due to religious and civil problems. Occurs during the English Civil War.

English Civil War

(1642-1646) Began after Charles I invaded Parliament to arrest opponents then left London and raised an army; House of Commons passed *Militia Ordinance*, giving Parliament power to raise army; Parliament won

Louis XIV

(1643-1715) King of France (Bourbon) who serves as the best representation of an absolute monarch; called the Sun King; created Versailles as a home to his nobility; hired Colbert as the minister of finance; mercantilism; enacted the Edict of Fontainebleau; War of Spanish Succession

Charles II

(1660-1685) Stuart king during the Restoration, following Cromwell's Interregnum

Declaration of Indulgence

(1672) Charles II granted free worship to non-conformist protestants, parliament thought it was a back-door catholic move.

Dutch War

(1672-1678) Louis XIV's war against William of Orange; ended with treaty of Nimwegen

Peter the Great

(1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg.

Philip II's goals

- to advance spanish power in Europe - to promote Catholicism throughout Europe - to defeat the Ottoman Turks in the eastern Mediterranean

Rousseau

(1712-1778) process of civilization and enlightenment had corrupted human nature, evil of the world founded upon uneven distribution of property, real purpose of society was to nurture better people, wrote the Social Contract

Frederick the Great

(1712-1786), King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786. Enlightened despot who enlarged Prussia by gaining land from Austria when Maria Theresa became Empress.

Adam Smith

(1723-1790) Pioneering economic theorist. Father of economics. Explained how rational self-interest and competition, operating in a social framework which ultimately depends on adherence to moral obligations, can lead to economic well-being and prosperity.

French Revolution

(1789-1799) Period of political and social upheaval in France, during which the French government underwent structural changes, and adopted ideals based on Enlightenment principles of nationalism, citizenship, and inalienable rights. Changes were accompanied by violent turmoil and executions.

Reign of Terror

(1793-94) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty"

Karl Marx

(1818-1883) German philosopher and founder of Marxism, the theory that class conflict is the motor force driving historical change and development.

House of Bourbon

(392)- Beginning of Chapter: Huguenot Noble Family - headed by Henry Navarre (later Henry IV) End of Chapter: Royal House of France.. big catholic family

Bulletin des loix

(Bulletin of the laws) was a publication created during the French Revolution, as an "official anthology of the laws, orders and regulations that govern" the people. It was created by the decree of 14 Frimaire year II (December 4, 1793). In the horrible and bloody disorder of the Terror, the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety, concerned to channel and to coordinate their actions, felt it necessary to create an organ by which to get news of votes in Paris to various scattered parts of the administration, notably those in the provinces. It was for this purpose that the Bulletin was created. A commission was specially created to supervise the sending-out of this publication to all the towns. The first issue of the Bulletin of the laws appeared in May 1794.

Charles II of Spain

(ES) (r. 1661-1700) The physically and mentally deformed king of Spain who, upon his death, caused the War of Spanish Succession.

Hundred Years War

(I dont think you need to know all this) Series of campaigns over control of the throne of France, involving English and French royal families (the French won; basically, the French ran away for about 80 years because their crossbows were worse than the English longbows, but then Joan of Arc inspired French nationalism and the French won the battle of Orleans (with gunpowder/cannons i think?) and proceeded to expel England from France except for one small piece of land); both nations were in bad shape

Petty Bourgeoisie (Petite Bourgeoisie)

(Kagan will refer to them as "artisans") Urban Shopkeepers class. They are the skilled artisans / craftsmen who own their own business, control their life and make just enough to do well in good times but struggle in bad ones. Sometimes classified as a lower tier of the middle class, and sometimes as the top tier of the lower class. I think Kagan places them at the top of the lower class. Important: the industrial revolution is slowing squeezing them out of existence. Old social safety nets (family, community, guilds) cannot keep up with the disruptions.

Constantinople (324-25):

(Know the location) At the beginning of the chapter: Capital of the shrinking/decaying eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire). During this chapter: The Ottoman turks who have been steadily conquering chunks of Byzantium, finally conquer Constantinople in 1453. ..and change its name to Istanbul. Significance: As important christians flee the conquest they bring greek cultural artifacts/writings to the Italian peninsula.

John Locke

(POLITICAL): Natural Rights, Consent of the Governed, Right to revolt, tabula rosa

Maria Theresa

(Ruled 1740-1780) Daughter of Charled VI, who's inheritance of the Austrian throne sparked the War of the Austrian Succession. She survived the war only by giving Silesia to Frederick II of Prussia. Became heiress of Austria and her husband became Holy Roman Emperor. Mother of Joseph II.

Rebirth of .. .

(cw) Renaissance means "rebirth" The Rebirth of europe after 1000 years of ignorance and dark ages. Renaissance humanists believed that they lived in a special time of the rediscovery of . . .

The Holy Roman Empire (337):

(know the Location) NOT Holy, NOT ROMAN, and NOT an Empire. A loose collection of GERMAN Kingdoms, principalities, & church holdings. It is NOT the continuation of Rome and has NOTHING to do with that. However Germany will eventually come out of it. It is a collection of 300 smaller political entities ruled by an Emperor chosen from the largest piece (Austria).

Baldassare Castiglione

(ok this is kinda long) offered a manual for the manners of the Renaissance Man; The Book of the Courtier: A gentleman is trained for polite company, poised and well dressed, skilled in arms and sports, blahblahblah...basically it said a Renaissance man should be good at everything which amounted to a perfect human quality called virtù

James II

(r. 1685-1688) a Catholic king who greatly angered Parliament nobles and whose actions led to the *Glorious Revolution*

Consequences of the Portuguese trading

- ended the Venetian and Muslim monopoly on trade with Asia - center of commerce shifted from the Mediterranean sea to the Atlantic Ocean - Baltic sea became less important to trade --> decline of the Hanseatic League

Louis XI

- enlarged royal army - encouraged economic growth by promoting new industries (like silk weaving)

Raphael- School of Athens

- illustrates the Renaissance ideas of order, unity, and symmetry

The wars of King Philip II (Spain)

- Charles V abandoned many of his thrones in 1556 - Charles V left his territories in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungry to his brother Ferdinand - Charles V and Ferdinand = brothers Phillip II = son of Charles V - Charles V left his son (philip II) a vast empire that included Spain, Naples, Milan, the Netherlands, and the Americas

French Monarchs 1422-1547

- Charles VII (7) [reigned 1422-1461] - Louis XI (11) [reigned 1461-1483] - Francis I [reigned 1515-1547]

Montaigne

French Essayist, wrote, Que sais-je? (What do I Know?) Calm, open minded philosophy but not very construcive

The Long Parliament 1640-1648

- Charles was desperate for money to fight the Scots --> called Parliament into session - Parliament was determined to undo the "royal tyranny" --> executed Laud and passed laws that limited royal power

Coup d'etat

any military overthrow of a government. Specifically, how Napoleon took control in 1799.

Economic Decline of the Dutch Republic

- Costly wars in England in France - as the DR declined, England and France rose in power

Schaldkaldic League

The Pro-Luther confederation of German Princes. Battled against Charles V. They took as their banner the Augsburg Confession.

Reconquista

The Reconquering of Spain from the Muslims in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella. This unified Spain into a powerful nation-state.

Patrons (cw)

: Financiers of Renaissance art. Somebody had to pay those artist guys. Wealthy families (the Medicis), Cities (Florence), and the Church (Julius II).

Milan (319)

: one of the 5 major Italian City States. That is all.

marriage and the family before 1750

- introduction of the nuclear family (a couple and their children, not multigenerations living under one roof); postponed marrige until mid/late-20s to gain land

Naples (319)

: one of the 5 major Italian City States. That is all.

Edmund Burke

appalled at the thoroughness with which the French seemed determined to eradicate their national institutions

Baroque Art

- Council of Trent reaffirmed that works of art should be used to simulate piety - Characteristics: dramatic use of light and dark (tenebrism), subject matter of the piece focused on dramatic events, portrayal of everyday people, baroque buildings on a large scale with ornate decorations - examples: Baldachino (located inside St. Peter's) - Gian Lorenzo Bernini

The Rights of Woman

applied 17 articles of the Declaration explicitly to women. Written by Olympe de Gouges

the Spanish Conquests

- 1519-1521: Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico - 1532-1533: Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire in Peru

Act of Supremacy 1534

- 1533- Henry defied the pope and married Queen Anne - Act of Supremacy declared the English King to be the "Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy" - 1536- Parliament began passing acts to closeall English monastaries and take their lands

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

- 1546-1555: religious civil war between Catholics (led by Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire) and Protestants (led by German Princes) torn Germany apart - Catholic king of France (King _____) supported German Protestant nobles - The Peace of Augsburg ended the civil war by recognizing both Lutheranism and Catholicism as accepted religions - German princes had the right to decide the religion for his state (either Catholic or Lutheran) - However, the Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvinism or other religious minorities

Spread of Calvinism

- 1550s- John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland - Calvinists in France- Huguenots - Puritan Churches in New England (New World)

The Romanov Dynasty

- 1584: the death of Ivan the Terrible - The Time of Troubles: after the death of Ivan; period of weakness and disorder - assembly of nobles elected Michael Romanov to try and restore order - Romanovs ruled Russia from 1613-1917

florence, italy

- 15th century (1400s) became the center of the renaissance - "golden age" was based on the wealth earned by the textile merchants and bankers

Sir Issac Newton 1642-1727

- 1687: published Principa, which combined Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Galileo's law of inertia, and Newton's own conception on gravitation into one mathematial law of universal gravitation; describe all forms of celestial and terrestrial motion

The War of Spanish Succession 1701-1713

- 1700: the balance of power was threatened when Charles II died (no kids = no heirs); Spanish throne given to Louis's grandson, Philip of Anjou (Philip V) - the nations of Europe feared that Louis now had the possibility to create a universal monarchy (which would upset the balance of power) - the Grand Alliance: led by England; included Holland, Austria, Brandenburg, and Savoy (an Italian duchy) - the war left France worn out and weakended - debts from war --> one of the causes of the French Revolution

building St. Petersburg

- 1703: Peter the Great began building - named after his patron saint - known as the "window to the world" - St. Petersburg became a symbol of Peter the Great's new and more powerful Russia

France under Louis XV

- 1715-1774 - son of Louis, the Duke of Burgundy - weak leader who was dominated by his royal mistresses and court favorites - nobles regained a lot of power and privileges that they lost during the reign of Louis XIV - government debts continued to grow larger despite France's economic prosperity

Estates General

- 1789: government under the threat of bankruptcy; the Assembly of Notables refused to support Louis XVI tax reform --> Louis required to call a meeting of the Estates General - Three estates: clergy (1st), nobility (2nd), everyone else (3rd)

the second estate (nobility)

- 2-4% of population - owned about 25% of the land

Russia defeating Sweden

- 30YW left Sweden in control of the eastern shore of the Baltic - 1700: Peter ordered his army ti end Sweden's dominance over the Baltic; created the Great Northern War (1700-1721) - Peter won the war against Charles XII and gained control over the Baltic shore - defeat contributed to Sweden's decline as a major power

the third estate (everyone else)

- 95% of the population - diverse froup of peasant farmers, urban workers, middle-class shopkeepers, wealthy merchants and successful lawyers - resented aristocratic privileges

The Bastille

- A prison/arsenal in Paris. It became a symbol of repression and the old order.- a mob in Paris overran and took it over on 7/14/1789 (while the bourgeoisie was meeting in the Estates-General. ) It was the major contribution of the Petty bourgeoisie and urban workers to the revolution. This street violence occurred while the bourgeoisie was worried about counter-revolution destroying their work.

The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre-1572

- Charles IX (of France; mother was Catherine Medici) was alarmed at the growing strength of the Huguenots - Catholics killed thousands of Huguenots in Paris at a wedding between Margaret of Valois to the Huguenot leader, Henry of Navarre - violence spread all throughout France; estimated 20, 000 Huguenots killed - created a bloody civil war that lasted for 15 years

War of Austrian Succession

- Austrian-Prussian rivalry: Supported by France, Frederick the Great ignored the Pragmatic Sanction (#149- Maria Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg throne) and captured Silesia, which had a prosperous linen industry and rich deposits of iron ore - The Anglo-French rivalry: France supported Prussia, English supported Austria; in Canada- American colonists captured the French fortress of Louisbourg (1745); In India- French seized Madras from British - Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: Fred (Prussia) regained control of Silesia (became known as a great and powerful rival of Austria in German affairs); English restrored Louisbourg to France; French gave Madras back to English

Key explorers in the Portuguese Trading Post Empire

- Bartholomew Diaz: rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 - Vasco de Gama: Malabar Coast of India in 1498; came back with pepper and cinnamon - Pedro Cabral: accidentally discovered Brazil in 1500, instead of sailing to India; returned with 300, 000 pounds of spices

The rise of Prussia- The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg-Prussia

- Berlin = center of Brandenburg - the ruler of brandenburg was one of seven princes who elected the Holy Roman emperor - 1417: the Hohenzollerns become the hereditary rulers - Hohenzollern land had no natural boundaries, few resources, and a small population

Bishop Bossuet and the Divine right of kings

- Bishop Bossuet: prominent French churchman, orator, and principle theorist of the doctrine of absolutism; argued that all power and authority comes from God; believed that royal power was absolute, but not tyrannical (monarchs had to obey God's laws and were responsible to God for their condict)

the Treaty of Paris 1763

- British gained French Canada and land between the Appalachians and Mississippi River - France kept Caribbean sugar islands and a couple of commercial installations in India - Prussia kept possession of Silesia

Religious toleration in the Dutch Republic

- Calvinism was the dominant religion - Catholics, Lutherans, Anabaptists, and Jews all had religious freedom - religious toleration created a cosmopolitan society that promoted commerce

Jesuit activities

- Catholic education: founded schools for boys and acted as confessors and advisors for royal families - Missionary work: preached Christianity in the Americas and Asia - Combating Protestantism: lead the revival of Catholicism in Bavaria, the southern Netherlands, and Poland

The German Peasant War (1525)

- Causes: peasants originally supported ML because they thought that his message promised freedom from oppression by landlords and clergy; nobles revolted and seized lands, attacked monasteries, castles, and farms - Luther's Response: peasants thought that Luther would support them, but Luther thought that Christians should obey their rulers (no matter how unjust). Luther urged German nobility to crush the rebels because he did not want to be responsible for a bloody revolution - Consequences: strengthened the authority of the German nobility,

The Diplomatic Revolution

- Count Kaunitz: Austrian chancellor; vowed to recover Silesia - Kaunitz formed a coalition that included France, Austria, and Russia; consequence of coalition: Marie Antoinette (daughter of Maria Theresa) to future Louis XVI (of France) - England formed an alliance with Prussia to implement its policy of maintainig a balance of power on the continent - diplomatic revolution did not change the basic rivalries bwteen England and France and Austria and Prussia

Foreign Policy

- Cromwell crushed royalist uprising in Ireland; population decreased in Ireland by up to 50% due to famine and plague - Protestant landlords replaced Catholic property owners - Navigation Act of 1651: forbid Dutch ships from carrying goods between other countries and England; also designed to give more control over American colonies - England waged wars against Dutch --> Dutch were weakened

The commonwealth and the protecotrate

- Cromwell held power after Charles was executed - The Commonwealth 1649-1653: abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords; Cromwell and a one-house Parliament exercised all political power - 1653: Cromwell took the title of "Lord Protector"; esablished a one-mna rule supported by the army

France vs Austria and Prussia

- Declaration of Pillnitz: Leopold II of Austria and Frederic William II of Prussia declared that the restoration of absolutism was of "common interest to all sovereigns of Europe" - legislative assembly declared war against austria and prussi in 1792 (the War of the FIrst Coalition) - french had a bad start; summer of 1792- Austrian and prussian armies were advancing towards Paris

consequences of mercantilism

- Decline of early commercial centers: Hanseatic Trade League declined because the center of European trade was moved to the upcoming nation states in western Europe; Portuguese broke Italian monopoly on trade by creating a new sea route to Asia - Rise of capitalism - Rise of the bourgeoisie (middle class): expansion of commercial capitalism --> expansion of the wealth and power of the bourgeoisie

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and the Encyclopedia

- Diderot was the editor of the Encyclopedia - goal: to bring together all the most current and enlightened thinking about science, technology, mathematics, art, and government - importance: spread enlightened thinking across Europe and North America; undermined established authority by including articles about controversial political and religious subjects

Artistic Creativity in the Dutch Republic

- Dutch Republic was a Protestant nation without an absolute ruler - Artists did not receive commissions from the Catholic Church --> wealthy merchants commissioned art instead - painted individual and group portraist ,landscapes, and scenes of everyday life - Artists: Rembrandt, Jan Vermeer, Frans Hals

Declining Empires

- Eastern Europe 1648: Holy Roman Empire, Republic of Poland, and the Ottoman Empire were all declining because of a lack of a strong central authority and an efficient system of government

Absolutism in France (1589-1661)- Henry IV

- Edict of Nantes: 1598; guaranteed religious toleration to the Huguenots (french calvinists); placed Henry Iv in charge as a politique (a ruler that place political necessities over personal beliefs) - The Duke de Sully and financial reform: appointed as chief minister by Henry; made the tax system more efficient - Duke de Sully's policies: reduced the royal debt, built new roads and canals, revived industry and agriculture, and encouraged colonization in the New World - The nobility of the robe: nobles = the greatest threat to the extension of royal power; influence of the nobles was based on inherited privileges and military service - ^^^^ Henry and Sully began to raise revenue by selling government offices that granted nobility status; new nobles were part of the bourgeoisie

Charles VI and the Pragmatic Sanction

- Emperor Charles VI (1711-1740) did not have a male heir, but had a daughter, Maria Theresa - wanted a safe succession for his daughter --> created the Pragmatic Sanction - The Pragmatic Sanction: stated that all territories of the Habsburg empire were indivisible and Maria Theresa would inherit the throne, as well as all Habsburg lands - England (and other foreign powers) forced Charles to make a number of compromises before agreeing the Sanction - after Charles died, the pact was violate by Frederick the Great

The Defeat of Philip- England

- English felt threatened by Philip's aggressive actions in the Netherlands - Queen Elizabeth supplied Dutch rebels with money and troops - Philip got angry at Elizabeth and assembled the Spanish Armada (fleet of ships) to invade England hoping to overthrow Elizabeth and turn England Catholic again - the fleet never reached England

Importance of the Bill of Rights

- English rejected the theory of the divine right of kings - The Glorious Revolution: the overthrow of James II in favor of William and Mary placed limits on the power of the English monarchy - England became a constitutional monarchy controlled by and aristocratic oligarchy

Frederick the Great 1740-1786

- Enlightened Reforms: called himself the "first servant of the state" (put himself at an equal level with the people because may philosophes wanted to get rid of aristocrats); invited voltaire to live at his palace in Potsdam, supported scientific agriculture, oreaored a unified national code of law; abolished the use of torture (withe xception for treason and murder); encouraged Huguenots (calvinists from france) and Jews from poland to immigrate to Prussia - The Junkers and the Serfs: strengthened the Junkers' privelege; the Junkers kept full control over their serfs

Johannes Gutenburg

- invented the first printing press with movable type in 1456 - by 1500- over 200 cities had printing presses and printed anywhere from 8-20 million books

Catherine the Great 1762-1796

- Enlightened reforms: corresponded with Voltaire/invited Diderot to her royal courts, supported Russia's first printing press, restricted the practice of torture, granted limited religious toleration to Jews, attempted to create a new law code, but nobles refused to give up any of their privileges - Pugachev's Rebellion: 1773-1775; Emlian Pugachev led an uprising of serfs living along the Volga River; ended when Pugachev was captured, tortured, and executed; was the end of Catherine's enlightened reforms; catherine gave the nobles additional privileges and absolute power over their estates and serfs to prevent any future rebellions - territorial expansion: ignore the philosophe's arguments against war; Russia gained territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and poland; Catherine's army defeated Ottomans and gained control of the Crimean Peninsula and northern shore of the Black Sea; Russia, Prussia, and Austria all expanded to Poland adn divided up the land (1772, 1793, 1795) --> poland was no longer an independent nation

Marquis de Lafayete

- Famous French Soldier who helped in the American Revolution. - Became an early mover and symbol of the French Revolution. Became head of the National Guard and a hero of the Revolution. - As the Revolution progresses, he is perceived as "not revolutionary enough" and is executed by Robespierre and the Jacobins.

The Golden Age of Spain

- Ferdinand and Isabella established the foundations of absolutism in Spain - peak of power during the reign of Philip II (1556-1598) - Spanish power and prestige started declining during the 17th century

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

- Florentine diplomat and political philosopher (considered to be the founder of modern political science) - appalled by the state of Italy during the H-V wars - wrote The Prince to advise Italian rulers on the qualities needed to effectively reunite war torn Italy - The Prince stated that a ruler must be ruthless, but practical, and remember that the end must always justify the means

Consequences of the Columbian Exchange

- For the New World: dramatic decrease of indigenous populations; introduction of the horse changed North American Native American culture - For Europe: new crops --> new diet; new sugar plantations and precious metal mines in Peru -->new wealth and power--> inflation - for Africa: wealth in New World promoted triangle trade and the Trans-atlantic slave trade; Africans became the largest emigrating population to the New world

The French Phsyiocrats

- French economic reformers; the first to question mercantilist principles - Francois Quesnay: leader of the physiocrats; argued that economic activities shoud be freed from fake restrictions; believed the government should adopt a more laissez-faire policy of noninterference with the economy

The Glorius Revolution- William and Mary

- James II's first wife: Protestant; gave birth to daughter, Mary (who also was Protestant); Mary became the wife of William of Orange (powerful Dutch leader) - Whigs and Tories urged Mary to overthrow James II for the sake of Protestantism - James II fled to France because of opposition

Motivation for European Overseas Exploration

- Gold, Glory, God - renewed interest in ancient writings from the Renaissance writer gave explores the new knowledge about mathematics, astronomy, and geography - search for spices and profits : new monarchs in Spain wanted direct access to the profitable Asian markets - desire to cultivate cash crops: growing demand for sugar, wanted to find lands to establish sugar plantations - desire to spread Christianity: Spain and Portugal led Europeans to try and recover northern Africa from the Muslims - new technology: different shape sails (tacking into the wind), magnetic compass and the astrolabe (location)

northern art

- Gothic Cathedrals - oil paints - observation of reality - emotion and religion - many devotional works - example: Van Eyck- Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride

1715-1740: Period of peace and prosperity

- Great Britain became the leading commercial nation - upper classes benefitted most from commercial prosperity - labor of African slaves and Eastern European serfs supported key commodities - African slaves: labored on extremely profitable Caribbean sugar plantations - Eastern European serfs: labored in the grain- rpodicing region of eastern Europe

1740-1763: Warfare

- Great power rivalries: hohenzollerns of Prussia vs Habsburg of Russia for power in central Europe; British vs French for trade in N. America, West Indies, and India - 1740-1748: War of Austrian Succession - Diplomatice Revolution - Seven Years war - Treaty of Paris

The rise of Richelieu

- Henry IV assassinated in 1610 --> 9 year old son, Louis XIII (1610-1643), became the second Bourbon monarch -1624: Louis XII appointed Cardinal Richelieu as chief minister; Richelieu was the REAL ruler of France from 1624-1642 (died) - Richelieu worked to enhance royal power; was also a politique

the Edict of Nantes- 1598

- Henry IV: leader of the House of Bourbon and a Huguenot - Many catholics still opposed henry - Henry became Catholic to please the masses - the Edict of Nantes: recognized Calvinism as an official religion as well as recognizing the rights of the French Protestants

English Monarchs 1485-1547

- Henry VII (7) [reigned 1485-1509] - Henry VIII (8) [reigned 1509-1547]

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

- Huguenots continued to enjoy religion toleration and remained loyal to the crown during the Forde - supported by French Catholic clergy and Jesuit advisors, Louis still had the goal of "one king, one law, one faith"-revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 - Royal officials closed Protestant churches and all Protestant children were baptized as Catholics - 200, 000 Huguenots fled to England, the Dutch Republic, Protestant German states, and the New World to escape persecution --> France lost many skilled workers and business leaders

Spanish Monarchs 1474-1516

- Isabella of Castile [1474-1504] - Ferdinand of Aragon [1479-1516]

James II 1685-1688

- James II inherited the throne (despite opposition from Whigs) - adopted policies that antagonized both the Whigs and Tories - determined to return England to Catholicism --> appointed Catholics to influential positions of power - James II's wife was Catholic, who gave birth in 1688 to a son that became the next heir

Colbert and Mercantilism

- John Baptiste Colbert: named controller general of finances by Louis XIV; strengthened France's economy by implementing strict mercantilism policies - Colbert's mercantilism policies: abolished domestic tariffs that restrained trade (this expanded manufacturing); protected French industry and products by placing high tariffs on imports; encouraged people to emigrate to Canada where fur trade prospered - Colbert was able to raise royal revenues and orimite economic growth, but was unable to make the tax system more fair; nobles continued to enjoy tax exemptions

4 P of 30YW- Danish Phase (1625-1629)

- King Christian IV (the Lutheran ruler of Denmark) intervened to support the Protestants; was supported by the Dutch and English - Albert of Wallenstein: leader of the imperial armies that crushed the Protestant forces - filled with victory, Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, which restored all Catholic lands lost to the Protestants since 1552

Louis XIV - "the Sun King"

- Louis XIV was the most powerful monarch in French history - Louis did not share his power with a parliament (like in England) - "I am the state" - increased the powers of the intendants, refused to appoint a chief minister, and regularly attended the meetings of his four great councils - continued Richelieu's policy of reducing the political power of the French nobility by excluding nobles from key positions (instead, he appointed men from the bourgeoisie) - determined foreign policy, commanded the army, and supported the arts - called the "sun king" because all aspects of French political life and culture revolved around him

The balance of power

- Louis XIV's army and ambitious plans threatened to create a "universal monarchy" (all other nations would be subject to France's political will) - smaller countries united together to create a balance of power (so that no country could dominate the others) - Louis sent troops into the Netherlands to extend his boundaries, but a coalition formed by the Dutch Republic thwarted him

humanist education

- Medieval scholars: studied classics to understand God - Renaissance humanists: studied classics to understand human nature - humanists opened schools and academies to teach classic subjects (Roman history, Greek philosophy, Latin grammar) - believed that their classic curriculum would teach future business, political, and military leaders to become exceptional writers and speakers

Key features of the Commercial revolution

- New entrepreneurs: new commercial activity --> large geographic markets -->merchants and bankers became influential and successful entrepreneurs (like the Medici family) - New industries: printing press --> national and international market for books; new ocean trading routes --> rise in shipbuilding; new nation-states --> large scale manufacturing of cannons and muskets - New domestic system (cottage industry): guild regulations restricted production --> to avoid the restrictive guild system, entrepreneurs provide cloth, looms, and equipment to rural families --> increase in production of textiles and manufactured goods - New joint-stock companies: international trade needed capital --> English and Dutch merchants formed joint stick companies to maximize profit and limit risks; investors bought shares of ownership

Dometstic Policy

- Puritans attempted to enforce a strict moral code that censored the press, banned sports, and closed theaters - Cromwell opposed radical groups like the Levellers and the Quakers - The Levellers: wanted universal manhood (all men are allowed to vote) and a constitution that guaranteed equal rights for all - The Quakers: rejected religious hierarchies and allowed women to preach

The Bill of Rights 1689

- Parliament required William and Mary to accept a Bill of Rights - Key Provisions: free debate in Parliament, taxation required consent from parliament, laws could only be made with the consent of Parliament, monarchs could NOT be Roman Catholic, Parliament would hold frequent sessions, no one could be arrested and imprisoned without legal consent

The French Revolution and Napoleon

- Peasant distress: peasants lost 1/2 their income to taxes (feudal dues to nobles; tithes to the church; royal taxes to the king; taille (land tax); forced labor (corvee); grain shrotages --> increase on the price of bread --> major discontent - government debt: Louis XIV's frivilous spending left massive public debt; fighting in wars (7YW, financing the American Revolution) - Royal weakness: Louis XV was weak and indecisive (1715-1774); Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were unpopular because they wasted a lot of money (1774-1792); Parlement (the high court of Paris) had the right to approve or disapprove the kings decrees --> royal power became essentially useless

Peter the Great (1682-1725)-modernizing Russia

- Peter the Great realized how far Russia had fallen behind western Europe --> visited Holland and England to tour shipyards, examine new military equipment, and observe western customs - returned to Moscow and started to expand Russia's army and create a new navy - improved Russian agriculure (introduced the potato), stregnthened Russian economy (imported skilled workers), liberated Russian women (allowed them to appear in public without veils), forced nobles to shave off their traditional long beards

humanism

- Petrarch and other scholars looked down on medieval art and literature - Petrarch coined the term the "Dark Ages" - Humanists: scholars that studied classical texts and cultures of ancient Greece and Rome; believed that by studying the classics, they would gain a more practical understanding of human nature; promoted liberal arts education, development of vernacular languages, and preservation of ancient Greek and Roman manuscripts - humanism was an intellectual movement based on the study of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy (ethics), and history - Lorenzo Valla: proved (with Renaissance scholarship) that the Donation of Constantine was actually a forgery

The Defeat of Philip- The Netherlands

- Philip threatened traditional liberties by imposing the Inquisition (provoked riots against the Spanish authority) - responded to the riots by sending 20, 000 additional troops - Many people showed their opposition to Spain by converting to Calvinism - 1581- the Dutch declared their independence from Spain

Characteristics of the 18th century

- Political: moarch remained the most prominent form of government; divine right monarchy --> enlightened despotism; Aristocrats regained much influence - International Relations: Great powers of Europe: Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia (Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Ottoman Empires no longer considered to be "great powers"); great powers fought limited wars- Professional armies fought wars based on maneuver and strategy (rather than bloody mass combat); rulers fought wars for specific territorial and economic objectives; NO RELIGIOUS WARS AMONG THE GREAT POWERS - 3 distictive periods: 1) 1715-1740: peace and prosperity. 2) 1740-1763: warfare. 3) 1763-1789: enlightened despotism (divine right monarchy)

Catholic Reformation

- Pope Paul III (1534-1549) began a new generation of popes that were committed to appointing reform minded officials, strict moral standards, and creating new religious orders

Geneva, Switzerland 1541

- Protestants in Geneva asked Calvin to transform their city into a model Christian community - regulated all activities in Geneva - banned all frivolous past times, while strictly enforcing a high standard of morality - Protestant reformers from England, France, and Scotland praised Calvin's Geneva - became the center of the Calvin's reformed church and a model for other protestant leaders

Key ideas of the Philosophes

- Reason: reason was the absence of intolerance and superstition, reason was informed thinking about social problems; humans should rely on reason to improve society - Nature and Natural Laws: believed that natural laws regulate the universe and human society; natural laws can be discovered by human reason - Happiness: believed that happiness was an inalienable human right - Progress: first Europeans to believe in social progress; discovery of laws of economics and government would improve society, making progress inevitable - liberty: wanted to remove limitations on speech, religion, and trade (human liberty); intellectual freedom was a natural right - Toleration: questioned institutional religious beliefs, arguing that they perpetuation, intolerance, and bigotry (the intolerance toward those who express different opinions)

Causes of the 30 Years' War

- Religious divisions: 1608-Protestant states formed the Protestant Union and Catholic states formed the Catholic League to defend each of their own interests - Political divisions: Austrian Habsburgs wanted to reverse Protestantism and build a strong monarchy; German states resisted any attempt at centralization due to jealousy of Austrian's rights (religious toleration for Catholics and Lutherans) - International interference: France opposed anything that could potentially create a strong central power in Germany (even though France = catholic, they allied with Protestant princes); Lutheran kings of Denmark and Sweden were prepared to defend their Protestant interests

Richelieu's intendant system

- Richelieu wanted to weaken the nobility - France was divided into 32 administrative districts; Richelieu replaced nobles with royal officials (intendants) - intendants implemented royal orders, were typically middle class picked from the nobility of the robe - intendant system strengthened royal power - curbed the political power of nobles, but did not limit their economic and social privileges

art styles

- Rococo: peak during Louis XV (1715-1774); scenes of "nobles at play"; light colored pastels; architecture- highly decorated ceilings artists/writers: Antoine Watteau- Pilgrimage to Cythera; BOucher- Cupid a Captive - neoclassical: overshadowed Rococo during 1780s; key figures ere depicted as classical heroes; portrayed the virutes of self-sacrifice and devotion to the state artists/writers: thomas Jefferson-Monticello; Jacques-Louis David- Oath of the Horatii

Rousseau and the Enlightenment

- Rousseau was committed to defending individual freedoma and changing the existing social order - Rousseau distrusted reason and science; trusted emotions and spontaneous feeling more than cold logic

The Wars of Louis XIV

- Strategic goals: Louis XIV wanted to expand Frace to its "natural frontiers" along the Rhine River and Switzerland; wanted to make France a global power by inheriting the Spanish Habsburg empire in the New World and Europe

The role of the monarch

- Stuart kings believed their authority to rule came from God and wanted a monarchy free from parliamentary restraints

French Wars of Religion

- The Catholics:as a result of the Concordat of Bologna (see #35 or Francis I), the ruling Valois kings had no reason to support a revolt against Rome - The Huguenots: Calvinist ideas gained popularity (despite royal opposition); 40-50% of nobles became Calvinists by 1560 because it was a way to express opposition to the Valois kings

The English Civil War 1642-1649

- The Cavaliers: aristocrats, nobles, and church officials who were loyal to the king; wanted a strong monarchy and an Anglican church governed by bishops (the bishops were appointed by the crown) - The Roundheads: Puritans, townspeople, middleclass businessmen, and people from Presbyterian London; wanted a Parliamentary monarchy and a Presbyterian church governed by elected "presbyters" (elders) - Oliver Cromwell: lead the Rundheads to defeat the Cavaliers; organized an army of Protestants (the New Model Army) - January 1, 1649: Cromwell and supporters executed Charles I

The 30 Years' War-1618-1648

- The Holy Roman empire in 1600: consisted of 300 small provinces, duchies, and independent cities

The Jesuits

- The Jesuits (or Society of Jesus): a spiritual army that emphasized discipline and absolute obedience - Ignatius of Loyola: led the Jesuits and wrote The Spiritual Exercises that detailed a system of disciplined , prayer, and study

4 P of the 30YW- Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

- The Protestants, Dutch, and French turned to Gustavus Adolphus (Lutheran king of Sweden) for help - Gustavus Adolphus: military strategist and charismatic ruler; defeated Wallenstein (leader of the Protestant imperial forces) - The Swedish victories prevented the Habsburgs from uniting the German States

The General Will

- The Social Contract: Rosseau's treaty on politics and government; one of the most influential books on political theory - Rousseau argued that individuals entered into a social contract with one another, creating a community and/or civilized society (opposite of Hobbes and Locke) - the sovereign power in a state does not lie in the ruler, it resides in the general will of the community as a whole - general will (or "public spirit"): any action that is right and good for all - rulers are servants of the community; if they faili to carry out the people's will, they should be removed - Rousseau's ideas about education and the concept of general will (points above ^^^) influenced leaders of the Frech and American REvolutions

organization of the Anglican Church

- The Stuarts' preference (Episcopal): the king --> Archbishop of Canterbury --> bishops; the hierarchal order determined doctrine and practice - The Puritans' preference (Presbyterian): church members had a much stronger voice in running the church and expressing disagreements

Zwinglianism

- Ulrich Zwingli

Religious policies under Charles I

- William Laud: Archbishop of Canterbury; encouraged by Charles to transform the Church of England (Anglican church) into a Catholic church without a pope - 1639: Laud attempted to impose the English Prayer Book on the Scottish Presbyterian Church - The Scots were determined to defend their religion and formed an army (which then occupied northern England)

Religion in England

- end of 1600s: Calvinists comprised the largest percentage og the population in England - Puritans still demanded changes in the Church of England (the Anglican Church)

the national convention 1792-1795

- abolished monarchy, declared France a republic - Fate of Louis XVI: girondins wanted imprisonment, Jacobins wanted to execute him; resolution passed by the National Convention to condemn him to death - Jacobins (supported by the sans culottes) labeled the Girondins as counterrevolutionaries and drove them out of the national convention - Europe's reaction: first was supportive of the Revolution, but Edmund Burke predicted that mob rule would lead to anarchy and military dictatorship (the september massacres, execution of Louis XVI proved his point)

Consequences of the 30YW- For France

- achieved goal of weakening the Habsburgs and keeping the Holy Roman Empire weak and divided - emerged as the strongest power in Europe

Rene Descartes 1596-1650

- advocated a deductive method for the search of truth - began to doubt all ideas based on authority or customs - stated with a clear, accepted statement known to be true and used logical reasoning to deduce various inferences

Sir Francis Bacon 1521-1626

- advocated an inductive method for scientific experimentation - was not actually a scientist - inductive method: direct observation of phenomena --> data is recorded and organized --> tenative hypothesis --> additional experiments - argued that the process of controlled experimentation would lead to the formulation of universal principles and scientific laws

englush adgriculture

- agricultural innovators: Charles Townsend (crop rotation); Jethro Tull (seed drill); Robert Bakewell (selective breedin of livestock) - enclosure movement: English landowners consolidated scattered pasture lands into compact fields enclosed by fences --> encouraged the rapid develepoement of market oriented agricultural production --> many poor people moved to cities to work in factories

Columbian Exchange- products from the Old World

- agricultural products: coffee, cane sugar, wheat, rice - animals: cows, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens - diseases: smallpox, measles, diphtheria - human population: European colonists and African slaves

Columbian Exchange- products from the New World

- agricultural products: potatoes, corn, tomatoes, peanuts, tobacco, vanilla, chocolate - animals: turkeys - diseases: syphillis

Capitalism

- an economic system where wealth (capital) is invested to create more wealth - based upon the private ownership of land, raw materials, and equipment - capitalists are motivated to earn more profits

family structure

- arranged marriages - father was the head of the family - women managed the household - increased infanticide due to girls being born (girls = high dowries)

Renaissance art

- artists received commissions from patrons, such as the Catholic Church or wealthy families, like the Medici - patrons used art as a way to display their wealth and promote their fame

Spread of Lutheranism

- became dominant religion in northern and eastern Germany - southern Germany, Austria, and Rhineland were still mostly Catholic - became main religion in Denmark and Scandinavia

characteristics of the scientific method

- belief in the existence of regular patterns in nature - use of controlled experiments to systematically record facts and verify hypotheses - search for mathematical formulas to describe natural phenomena

Anabaptism

- beliefs: opposed infant baptism, advocated for complete separation of church and state - the only thing that Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists all agreed on was the fact that the Anabaptists were radicals and they posed a threat to all of their religions - persecuted by Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists

medieval art and thought

- believed that God created the world to prepare humans for salvation or eternal damnation - human lives were worthless - architects, artists, glassmakers, and sculptors worked for the glory of God, not fame and personal glory

James I (1603-1625)

- believed that royal authority came directly from God - published The True Law of Free Monarchies: "kings are not only God's leutenants...but even by God himself they are called Gods." - Puritans wanted James to "purify" the Church of England and get rid of the authority of bishops (turn the Anglican Church to the Presbyterian organization) - James thought that the Presbyterian system would destroy royal control of the church and threaten the monarchy

the first estate (clergy)

- catholic church owned 20% of land - French clergy paid no direct taxes, only gave the government a "free gift" (about 2% of their income)

Battle of Lepanto 1571

- combined spanish-venetian fleet defeated Turkish navy - Lepanto located off the coast of Greece - made philip en even bigger promoter of Catholicism

Charles VII

- concluded the 100 years war (expelled the English from France) - strengthened royal finances through land and salt taxes (taille and gabelle) - ^^^^ remained the source of royal income for 3 centuries - created first permanent royal army

Christine de Pizan (1364-1430)

- considered to be the "first feminist" - the first woman to earn a living by being a writer - wrote a history of famous women that was supposed to debunk many of the "masculine myths" believed at the time

Consequences of the new monarchs

- consolidated royal power and created the foundation for modern nation-states - new monarchs did NOT gain absolute power

Louis XIII and Richelieu

- continued France's long term policy of limiting the Habsburg power - supported Protestant powers during the 30YW; helped defeat the Habsburgs; made France the leading power in Europe

Henry VII

- created Star Chamber that held secret court sessions with no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses - justices of peace --> extended royal authority - encouraged wool industry - expanded the merchant marine

Reforms of the National Assembly

- created a constitutional monarchy - divided France into 83 departments governed by elected officials - established the metric system - abolished high tariffs - abolished guilds (labor unions) - DID NOT: abolish private property; give women the right to vote

The Treaty of Utrecht-1713

- created a new balance of power and preserved the peace for 30 years - French gains: Philip V (Louis' grandson) wasa allowed to remain the king of Spain as long as the thrones of Spain and France were separated; France was allowed to keep all of Alsace - English Gains: gained valuable SPainish naval bases; gained the slave trade from Spain; gained valuable French colonies in Canada (Nova Scotia and Newfoundland) - Austrian Gains: the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) --> became the Austrian Netherlands; obtained Naples, Milan, and Sardinia - The Duke of Savoy: received Sicily and the title of king (rewarded with title and Sicily for joining the Grand Alliance); 1720- Savoy traded Sicily to Austria in exchange for Sardinia - The Elector of Brandenburg: recognized as the king of Prussia (as a reward for joining the Grand Alliance)

Lutheranism

- created by Martin Luther because of his disapproval of the sale of indulgences - faith based off the Bible - ML wrote Ninety-Five Theses- a document that criticized the Catholic Church - beliefs: salvation is achieved by faith alone, the Bible is the only valid authority for Christian life, the church consists of a priesthood of all its believers (everyone is spiritually equal), each person should serve God in his/her own individual merit

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

- daughter or Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon - strove to find a middle course that moderate Catholics and00 moderate Protestants would accept - restored the church of England (Anglican Church) - Church of England issued canons that were particularily broad and ambiguous

4 P of the 30YW- French Phase (1635-1648)

- death of Gustavus Adolphus --> intervention of the French on the Protestant side - French, Dutch, and Swedish armies burned German farms and destroyed German commerce

The Fronde

- deaths of Richelieu (1642) and Louis XIII (1643) left 5 year old, Louis XIV (the "Sun King") and chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin in charge of the monarchy - The Fronde: a series of rebellions against royal authority led by nobles; intended to limit (not overthrow) the monarchy - Louis XIV fled to Versailles because of increasing violence and instablility; vowed to control the nobility

Henry VIII

- declared king as the Supreme Head of the Church of England (cut ties with the Catholic Church) - disestablished monasteries and took their land and wealth

The Newonian Universe

- demonstrated that the universe is governed by universal laws that can be expressed in mathematical formulas - Newton viewed the universe as a machine that was created by God, but was worked according to universal laws - supernatural and miraculous forces did not matter in the Newtonian universe - the thought of the Newtonian universe dominated western thought until Albert Einstein

The Versailles Palace

- designed to be a visual symbol of Louis XIV's absolute power and greatness - emphasized France's cultural dominance

Consequences of the 30YW- For Germany

- devastated the German economy and decreased its population - long time commercial growth suffered because of the Treaty of Westphaplia (which gave control of the mouth of the Rhine river to the Dutch) - politically fragmented (delayed the unification of Germany for 200 years)

the death of Cromwell

- died 1658 (ruled up to his death) - son Richard was not as good as a leader as he was - Parliament invited Prince Charles Stewart (eldest son of Prince Charles I ) to return from exile

The Peace of Westphalia-1648

- diplomats representing German states, France, Swede, Spain, the Dutch and the pope met in Westphalia (modern day Germany) - pope's objections were mostly ignored - each of the 300 german states recieved the right to conduct diplomacy and make treaties - rulers were allowed to decidethe religious faith in their territory - Calvinism recognized as an acceptable religion - the independence of the Dutch Republic and the neutrality of Switzerland were formally recognized - French added part of Alsace - Sweden received more territory around the Baltic Sea

The Tennis Court Oath 1789

- disagreements over how to count votes - 1st/2nd estates wanted voting by head; 3rd estate protested - Abbe Sieyes: led the rejection of voting (^^^) and demanded that all estates meet together - the king refused --> 3rd estate declared itself the National Assembly - locked out of their meeting place --> took an oath against disbanment on a nearby indoor tennis court instead --> beginning of the French Revolution

Christopher Columbus 1451-1506

- discovered the Caribbean Islands (thought he had reached Asia)

The Council of Trent 1545-1563

- divisions between moderates and conservatives (Conservatives won) - reaffirmed Catholic doctrines (rejected Luther's doctrine of justification by faith; reaffirmed that salvation is achieved by both faith and good works) - reformed church abuses (abolished indulgences, the sale of church offices, and instructed bishops to line in the dioceses they served in) - reasserted traditional practices (veneration of relics and images, services are to be done in Latin) - resisted limiting papal authority (ruled that no act of a council could be valid except by the Holy See [the Vatican])

The role of the House of Commons

- dominated by the gentry, merchants, and lawyers - merchants were determined to preserved traditional privileges (like freedom of open debate and immunity from arrest) - The House of Commons demanded a stronger voice in political affairs

the medici family

- dominated florence's economic, political, and artistic life during the 15th century - family earned its wealth through banks - financed libraries, built churches, sponsored and academy of philosophy, and commissioned artwork - peak of the renaissance under Lorenzo the Great (1449-1492)

Political Independence in the Dutch Republic 1600-1689

- each of the 7 Dutch provinces were politically independent - Dutch were not governed by an absolute ruler - political power rested in the hands of wealthy merchants

Spanish America

- empire in the Americas was 20x as large as the empire back home in Spain - Aztecs were converted to Christianity and became subjects of the king - American empire was governed by the Council of Indies in Spain and viceroys in Mexico City and Peru - viceroys: a governor that ruled on behalf of a king

economic decline in Spain

- expulsion of Jews and muslims --> less skilled workers and successful merchants - import of precious metals: at beginning, they enriched the Spanish economy --> caused heavy inflation (increase in prices, decrease in purchasing value of money) --> increased cost of Spanish textiles and other products --> Spanish exports declined - costly wars with DR and France + declining resources = decline of industry, commerce, agriculture, and population

England under Walpole

- first 2 Hanoverian kings spoke very little English and did not exercise much real power - ruling aristocracy (filled with landed gentry and wealthy merchants) dominated Parliament - Robert Walpole: England's first Prime Minister; led the Whig party in Parliament

Francis I

- first king to be called "Your Majesty" - Concordat of Bologna (1516)- agreement with Pope Leo X that gave the French monarch administrative control over the church

wealthy merchants

- formed oligarchies that governed independent city states in northern italy - dominated political, economic, and artistic life in north italy

the Second French Revolution

- french forces stopped the Austro-Prussian army --> - sans-culottes took control over Paris government; tried to dispose of Louis XVI; issued call for a national assembly --> formed a new democratic government - september massacres: sans culottes executed over a thousand priests, bourgeoisie, and aristocrats for fear of royalists destroying the revolution

Baron de Montesquieu 1689-1755

- french nobleman who wanted to limit the abuse of royal absolutism - The Spirit of the Laws: an attempt tp create a "social science" by applying the methods of the natural sciences to the study of government - believed in the separation of governmental powers - was a major influence in the writing of the Declaration of Independence

Russia before Peter the Great

- geographically isolated from the rest of Europe- blocked by Sweden from reaching the Baltic sea, blocked by the Ottoman Empire from reaching the Black sea - culturally isolated-ideas such as the Renaissance, Reformation, exploration discoveries, and the Scientific Revolution hardly affected Russia

marriage patterns after1750

- growth of cottage industry --> increased income --> arranged marriages declined --> increased mobilty reduced parental and village controls

Henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547)

- hated Luther - had problems regarding succession of the throne- Henry's wife (Catherine of Aragon) failed to produce a male heir, asked Pope Clement VII for a divorce - unable to get a divorce because Catherine was the aunt of Charles V (who controlled Rome) - Pope Clement delayed and finally refused to annul the marriage

impact of the printing press

- helped spread the humanist ideas across Europe - made it difficult for authorities to suppress radical ideas - promoted freedom of expression

The economic decline of the Dutch Republic

- high costs of war: 1670-France and England attacked the DR; the Dutch help defeat France in the War of Spanish Succession - economic competition: enormous cost of fighting with France for 40 years; also faced increasing competition with England - small populations: although there was an increase in population, it was too small to maintain and defend a global commercial empire

reasons for economic decline in Spain

- high costs of war: Spain fought lengthy wars with the DR and France - Economic competitions: French and English wanted to gain part of Spain's New World territories -small populations: declining population reduced the domestic demand for Spanish goods

raising children

- high infant mortality rate --> parents were heseitant to becoming emotionally attached to their kids - ROusseau encouraged parents to create a loving and nurturing environment for their kids - upper middle class put a new emphasis on child rearing

Frederick William, The Great Elector 1640-1688

- hohenzollerns had the 2nd largest block of territory in the Holy Roman Empire, but their territories were scattered and weak - Frederick William: began the process of merging the Hohenzollern empire into a strong power; demanded the respect of the Junkers and the German landowners. - in return for respect, the Junkers recieved full power over the serfs who labored on their esates - The Junkers: the landowning nobility of Prussia

role of women

- humanists debated about a woman's character, nature, and role in society - decline of their legal rights and privileges - rape was not a serious crime - educated women were allowed to participate in intellectual pursuits, but were forced to be subservient in these positions

Johannes Kepler 1571-1630

- ideas were based on logic, not direct observation - assistant to Brahe (who was a Danish astronomer) - formulated 3 laws of planetary motion based off of Brahe's data: 1) planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits. 2) planets move more rapidly as their orbits approach the sun. 3) the time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies in proportion to its distance from the sun

Petition of Right 1628

- in return for frants of money, Charles agreed to the Petition of Right - 2 key points: no one is compelled to pay any taxes or loans "without common consent by an act of Parliament" and no one should be imprisoned without due process by law

the gentry in England

- included wealthy landowners who dominated the English House of Commons - English gentry was willing to pay taxes unlike the gentry in France because the peasantry was not overburdened with taxes) - the House of Commons (wealthy landowners) determined the national expenditures which created a conflict with the Stuart kings

The rights of women

- increased rights - able to inherit property and divorce - did not gain the right to vote or hold political office - Mary Wollenstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women: argued that women are not naturally inferior to men; inferiority is created by lack of education

Michelangelo- David

- inspired by statues from Greece and Rome

Commercial Portuguese trading posts

- instead of conquering territories, the Portuguese created trade posts to control trade routes - most important trading posts: Goa (Indian Coast), Malacca (Malay Peninsula), Macao (southern coast of China)

celebration of the individual (fame and fortune)

- italian merchants did not inherit their social ranks (unlike nobles) - prosperous merchants were proud of their achievements - artists and writers wanted to be known for their accomplishments as well - fame became a reward for superior talent - portrait paintings and autobiographies became popular for wealthy patrons that wanted to be remembered for generations to come - virtu: renaissance individualism stressed the importance of personality, development of unique talents, and the pursuit of fame and glory

Galileo 1564-1642

- italian scientist that formulated laws of motion and inertia expressed in mathematical formulas - one of the first to use a telescope for astronomical purposes - Pope Urban VII accused Galileo of meddling with "the most important and danferous subjects that can be stirred up" - 1633: retracted his Copernican theory because he was under the threat of torture by the Catholic Church

Spain (Iberian Peninsula) mid-15th century

- kingdoms of Castile and Aragon dominated Navarre and Portugal - Granada- small Muslim kingdom

Thomas More (1478-1535)

- leading humanist scholar in England - was a lawyer, author, statesman (???) and lord chancellor - wrote Utopia- a novel about a perfect communal society that had religious toleration and a humanist education for both sexes; criticized society at the time

The Ottoman Empire

- led by Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the Ottomans threatened Vienna - mid 17 century: ambitious rulers revitalized the empire - 1683: powerful Turkish army surrouded Vienna - Austrian forces repelled the Turks --> led to the beginning of the decline in Ottoman Empire

Population explosion- 18th century

- limits: famine caused by widespread crop failures; epidemics and diseases; frequent wars - promoting: agricultural revolution (more food); the potato (easy to grow, 1 acre could feed a family for a year); transportation advantages; wars were less destructive (more about stragetegy, not bloodshed); medical advances had no impact on the popoulation growth in the 18th century

Separation of powers

- montesquieu concluded that the ideal government separates powers among executive, legislative, and judicial branches - divided authority would protect the rights of individuals by preventing one branch from gaining too much power

Italian art

- monumental figures - relationship between figures and landscapes - laws of persepective - realistic - mathematical vs anatomical - examples: David (Donatello), Dome of the Duomo (Brunelleschi), Tribute Money (Masaccio), The Last Supper (da Vinci), School of Athens (Raphael), Tempietto (Bramante)

Isabella D'Este (1475-1539)

- most famous renaissance woman - from the ruling family of Ferrara and married the ruler of Mantua - patron of the arts - showed that being a patron of the arts was a socially accepted role for a well educated renaissance woman

Desiderius Erasemus (1466-1536)

- most influential christian humanist - translated the New Testament into Greek and Latin - wrote The Praise of Folly- a satirical writing that made fun of greedy merchants and pretentious priests - wanted to reform the church from within - instead of writing in the vernacular (like most humanists), ,he continued to write in Latin

Voltaire 1694-1778

- most influential philosophe - writer who popularized Newton's discoveries, criticized France's rigid government, and rejected religious bigotry - harshly critical of the intolerance of organized Christianity (both Protestant and Catholic) - advocated religious tolerance

secularism

- new basic concern for the material world (unlike Medieval culture, which emphasized salvation) - increased wealth led to greater material pleasures, such as fine music, expensive food, and beautiful works of art

increaesd life expectancy

- new foods (potato) + better farming techniques = improved diet of the poot = longer life spans - improved sanitation --> reduced death rates - 1796: Edward Jenner gave the first smallpox vaccination

Causes of the Commercial revolution

- new ocean trade routes: wealth from New WOrld trade increased investment and economic ventures - growth of population: introduction of new foods --> bigger population --> increased overall demands for goods and services - price revolution: influx of gold and silver --> rising demand for precious metals - New nation centered economic system: began to replace the old town-and-guild model

Heliocentric view of the universe

- nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies which directly challenged the geocentric view of the universe; said the earth instead revolved arounf the sun (which was the center of the universe)

Christian (Northern) Humanism

- northern humanists - used classical ideals of calmness and patience mixed with Christian virtues of piety, humility, and love - christian humanists were dedicated to moral and institutional reform

Union of Utrecht

- northern provinces that opposed Spanish control - under control of William of Orange - countered the Union of Arras

Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778

- novel Emile: Rousseau's ideas on education; argued that a "natural education' should replace the typical rigid schooling - key principles of "natural schooling": children are naturally good and entitled to an education that emphasizes freedom and happiness; people develop through various stages = education must be individualized; children should be encouraged to draw their own conclusions from experience ("discovery learning")

Prince Henry the Navigator 1394-1460

- organized voyages along west coast of Africa

exploiting the serfs

- peasants did not enjoy the Peter's reforms - forced into the russian army and forced to build st. petersburg - Russian serfs were not bound to the land; they could be bought and sold apart from the land --> nobles forced serfs to work in mines and factories

characteristics of art

- perspective: created depth on a 2D surface - Chiaroscuro: realistic blending of light and shade to model forms (created an illusion of volume) - pyramid configuration: created symmetrical and balanced compositions - classical forms and christian subjects: attempts to revive classical standards of beauty

Concept of Enlightened despotism 1763-1789

- philosophes urged rulers to use their power for the good of the people - Enlightened despots fought ignorance and superstition by eliminating irrational customs, promoting religious toleration, and supporting education - philosophes did NOT support democracy; they belieced that thepoeple could not be trusted with self government (idea originally from Hobbes) - George III of England (1760-1820) and Louis XV of France (1715-1774) had no interests in the idea of the philosophes or absolute despotism - Greatest Enlightened despots: Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Joseph II of Austria

Consequences of Philip's defeats

- political and economic decline in spain - the Dutch began a golden age of commercial prosperity and artistic creativity - england's power increased (free to develop overseas trade and colonize North America)

Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679

- published Leviathan in 1651 - beliefs on human nature: humans are naturally self centered and prone to violence; motivated to increase pleasure and minimize pain - beliefs on the state of nature: people know neither peace not security - arguments for a strong government: Without government, life would be intolerable and civilization would not be possible; government is the result of human necessity, not divine ordination (aka the divine right of kings); rulers should have absolute and unlimited political authority

John Locke 1632-1704

- published the Second Treatise of Government in 1690, which justified the Glorious Revolution - Beliefs on human nature: rejected Hobbes' view that humans are naturally brutish; instead he thought that people are the products of their environment, education, or experience; thought humans were creatures of reason and goodwill - Locke's "law of nature": created the idea of natural (unalienable) rights; said that the "laws of nature" existed way before the creation of government - arguments for a limited government: people form governments to protect their natural rights; government is a contract where the rulers promise to guard the natural rights of the people; the governed have a right to replace those who betray their trust

innovations in the low countries

- reasons for Low COuntry leadership in farming: Low Contries were the most densely populate, Dutch farmers forced to seek maximum yield for their crops; the Low Countries cotnained a -growing urban population - New innovations: enclosed fields; use of crop rotatopm; use of manure as soil fertilizer, used a variery of crops, drainage to reclarim marshes

Calvinism

- religion created by John Calvin that can be described as a "militant form of Protestantism" - disagreed with Luther regarding sacraments (Luther-church is less important than the state; Calvin-it was the "duty" of those elected to Christianize the state)

turmoil in italy

- renaissance lasted almost a century - death of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1492) left Florence without a leader - 1492: King Charles 8 (France) invaded Italy to try and conquer Naples; King Ferdinand (Spain) competed for the French claim to Naples - ^^^^ created the conflict known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars - Habsburg-Valois Wars involved all of the major Italian city states

The Restoration- Charles II

- restored the monarch, the Church of England, and Parliament - conflict over religion and the relationship between the king and Parliament still remained - Succession: Charles II's (2nd) wife and his brother (the Duke of York) were Roman Catholic; Charles had no legitimate heirs to the throne, his brother, James, became the next in line for the throne - debate over the successor after James divided Parliament into 2 groups, the Tories and the Whigs - The Tories: were extremely loyal to the monarchy, supported James' s right to the throne - The Whigs: were suspicious of Catholics, wanted to legally execute James from the throne - Whigs and Tories became the first political parties

characteristics of the new monarchs

- retained income from the feudal system while also collecting taxes from towns, merchants, and peasants - created professional armies that were paid from the royal treasury - more centralized administrative bureaucracy that relied on educated, middle class officials - negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church

mercantilism

- rulers of the new nation states wanted to build strong, self sufficient economy - theory of mercantilism: colonies export raw materials and import finished goods --> created favorable balance of trade and growth of the national reserves of gold and silver

The Legislative Assembly 1791-1792

- sat together in separeate sections of the meeting hall (created political terms "right", "center", and "left") - Right: Conservatives who supported the king - Center: moderates - Left: radicals who distrusted the king and wanted the revolution to continue; Divided into 2 groups (Jacobins and Girondins) - Jacobins: wanted to overthrow the monarchy and create a republic; leaders: Robespierre, Marat, Danton; Marquis de Lafayette = NOT A JACOBIN - The Girondins: wanted to involve France in a war that would dissolve the monarchy and spread France's revolutionary ideals

The revival of the Habsburg power

- series of setbacks that followed the 30YW and the extinction of Habsburg power line in Spain - Habsburg rulers reaffirmed power over Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary - The Treaty of Utrecht gave the Habsburgs control over Naples, Sardinia, and Milan and the Spanish (renamed to Austrian) Netherlands - embraced a large number of ethnic groups who were unified only by their Catholic faith and their loyalty to the Habsburg Empire

impact of the commercial revolution on English society

- size of English middle class increased - largest middle class in Europe (with exception to the DR) - English entrepreneurs financed joint-stock companies that promoted English colonies in North America

Charles I (1625-1649)

- son of James I; very similar actions and beliefs - Charles believed in the divine right of kings - Charles was always in need of money - opposed the Puritans and supported the Anglican Church

Union of Arras

- southern Dutch provinces accepted Spanish control

scientific societies

- sponsored by governments and monarchs - scientists organized societies to promote reseatvh and spread scientific knowledge - Royal Society of England: created in 1660; recieved international prestige - other societies were formed in Florence, Paris, and Berlin - helped create an international scientific community

geocenteric view of the universe

- the earth was a motionless body located at the center of the universe - the sun, the moon, and planets orbited in perfectly circular paths around the earth - supported by Aristotle and Ptolemy - church taught that God deliberately placed earth as the center of the univers

the National Assembly

- storming of Bastille: Louis XVI ordered an army to march towards Paris and Versailles; in Paris- agry mobs protesting the price of bread --> tension rose -->stormed Bastille and freed a handful of prisoners and seized the Bastille's supply of gunpowder and weapons; important symbolic act of defiance against royal despotism; made Paris the forefront of the revolution - Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789): proclaimed that all men were born free with equal rights (natural rights); provided freedom of religion, speech, and press, freedom from arbitrary arrest, and the right to petition the government - women's march to Versailles: October 5, 1789; thousands of women marched to Versailles demanding cheap bread and insisitng the royal family move to Paris; king surrendered --> National Assembly also moved to paris - Civil Constitution of the Clergy: 1790: passed by the National Assembly; confiscated the lands owned bu the Roman actholic Church, Bishops and people would be elected bu the people and paid by the state, the clergy were required to take a loyalty oath to support the new government

Four Phases of the 30YW- Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

- the 30YW began as a civil war between the Habsburg Catholic League (Emperor Ferdinand II of Spain) and the Protestant Union (Frederick V of ____?) - Emperor Ferdinand won battles -->Habsburgs and Catholics in control of Bohemia - battle actually took place in Bohemia, or modern day Czech Republic

The Enlightenment

- the Philosophes: a group of thinkers and writers who adopted the enlightened ideas; dedicated themselves to exposing social problems and proposing reforms based upon implementing natural laws; mostly French, but could be found across Europe and in the colonies

The Holy Roman Empire

- the Reformation made the Empire divide between Catholics and Protestants - 30YW made the empire politically divide into 300 independent states - had an elected emperor who had no imperial army, revenues, or central authority - led by the Habsburgs and the Hohenzollerns, Austria and Prussia emerged as leading German states

controlling the boyars

- the boyars: the old nobility who supported traditional Russian culture - Peter the Great ordered them to shave off their beards and wear western clothing; forced them to build townhouses in St. Petersburg; required every noble to serve in the army or the civil administration

the politiques

- the civil war destroyed French agriculture and commerce - politiques: a small group of moderate Catholic and Huguenots that supported a strong monarchy and the official recognition of the Huguenots

the Seven Years' War 1756-1763

- the colonial war: in canada- British defeated French and gained control of Quebec; in west Indies- british gained control of the major French sugar islands; in India- British gained control over key French trading posts - The war on the Continent: anti-prussian alliance achieved a series of victories that threatened to crush Prussia; PRussia saved from defeat by Peter III (Russia's new czar-1762) who dropped out of the war

The Republic of Poland

- the king of Poland was elected by Polish nobles who severely resetricted his power - poland had a central diet (?), but any action required the united agreement of each aristocratic member (any member coud break up the diet by objecting a policy or act) - lack of centralized power --> "power vacuum" -->vulnerable to stronger and more aggressive nations

Adam Smith 1723-1790

- the most influential advocate for laissez-faire economics - combined the thought of his predecessors into a single system based on the study and application of natural laws - The Wealth of Nations: published 1776

Renaissance society

- the nobility: reconstruction of the aristocracy; 2-3% of the population - peasants: 85-90% of the population; decline of manorial system and serfdom - urban society: included the patricians, shop keepers, merchants, artisans, etc., as well as, the unemployed and slaves

the renaissance

- the rebirth of classical learning, literature, and art

Rise of Italian City States

- the rest of europe was still rural - cities in northern italy began to prosper - late 1300s: florence, milan, and venice all had populations of about 100, 000

Key ideas in The Wealth of Nations

- the role of government: must not interfere with the free functioning of the market; should limit their role to defending the state against foreign invasion, protecting property, and enforcing contracts - Free markets: in a free market, the economics laws of supply and demand will create a self regulating economy; regulations such as tariffs slow down trade and should be abolished - Self interest and the "invisible hand": Smith believed that every individual is motivated by self interest; competition and self interest are socially beneficial

Deism

- thought God as a cosmic watchmaker who created the universe adn let it run according to natural laws - embraced by the educated elite in western Europe and America - Pietism: new religions movement; stressed faith, emotion, and the "religion of the heart"

The agricultural revoloution

- traditional agriculture production characteristics: used an open field system; animals grazed on the open lands; villagers divided the remaining land into long, narrow strips; peasants used a 2 to 3 field system of crop rotation intended to restore tired soil

marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella

- united Spain - together they reduced the amount of nobles on the royal council - conquered Granada and incorporated it into the Spanish Kingdom - created the Inquisition to enforce religious conformity - 1492- expelled all Jews from Spain - 1502- demanded that all Muslims convert to Christianity or leave Spain

Frederick William I (1713-1740)

- wanted to build a powerful army --> had the 3rd/4th largest army in Europe - military priorities and values dominated all aspects of Prussian life - officer corps: the most prestigious class; led by the Junkers

Economic Prosperity of the Dutch Republic

- was Europe's leading commercial power (in the 17th century) - Amsterdam remained the financial center of Europe of the French Revolution - Ship building = key part of the Dutch Republic's economy - trade routes shifted from the Med. to the Atlantic - Amsterdam Exchange Bank: founded 1609; safest bank in Europe - Dutch East Indies Company replaced the Portuguese spice trade in the East Indies

political decline in Spain

- weak and inept rulers who created ineffective policies - rulers and aristocrats continued to live extravagant lives that they no longer could afford - armies suffered disastrous defeats

Oration on the Dignity of Man

- written by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola - celebrated the human potential for greatness

Baldassar Casitglione (1478-1529)

- wrote The Courtier, which explained how upper-class individuals could become courtiers - ideal courtier: polite, charming, witty, able to dance, write poetry, sing, play music, and be physically strong and graceful - women were expected to be well educated and charming, but were not supposed to seek fame like men did; not supposed to be involved with political, artistic, or literary affairs; was supposed to be an "ornament" for her husband (aka a trophy wife)

Scientific Revolution

A new way of thinking about the natural world, based on careful observations, a willingness for people to question accepted beliefs

Jon Huss (1415)

Czech Reformer who criticized the church. He was declared a heretic & excommunicated by the Church. He was then executed by the Holy Roman Empire.

BILL of Rights

Document outlining British Rights that were accepted by William and Mary in 1689's Glorious Revolution. Important step in the creation of British Government/

Mary I of England

Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon of England; "bloody Mary"; attempts to return England to Catholicism by persecution of protestants; marries Phillip II of Spain

Elizabeth I

Daughter of Henry, and Queen of England; she was the one who turn England into Protestantism, gradually and in her own way. (Question 5)

Elizabeth

Daughter of Peter the great, expanded russian military power, european diplomacy

The Puritan Revolution

1) A lesser used title for the English Civil War. 2) Sometimes used to describe the Puritan hijacking of the Parliamentary cause.

Munster

1) site of a little religious lunacy by a group of Anabaptists.Significance: once again, an example how revolutions have a life of their own and go farther than the original reformers intended. 2) site of a massacre of Anabaptists by the religious/political authorities. Significance: example of the savagery that can accompany religious differences and just a taste of things to come next chapter.

Chronology

Deals with the age of the world and a common denominator between the dating systems of various peoples.

1603-

Death of Elizabeth. Tudors end / Stuarts begin - beginning of the story

Act of Succession

Document passed by the Reformation Parliament in the same year as the Act of Supremacy that made Anne Boleyn's children legitimate heirs to the throne

Drang nach Osten

Drive to the East of German peoples from Elbe to Poland. German settlers moving eastwards had been replacing slavs.

Columbus

1492, found San Salvador. Sailed to find China- Santa Maria, Pinta, Nina. Was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella. Went on 4 voyages. 1st person to see land was Rodrigo de Triana.

"Address to the Nobility of the German Nation"

1520 Lutheran essay urging German princes to force reforms on the Roman Church. He also argued that the church should be politically weakened in Germany. By 1520 it seems that Luther is in open revolt against the Church

Queen Elizabeth I

1533-1603 (ruled 1558-death) *Protestant successor to Queen Mary (England) *Popular leader and the first woman to successfully hold the throne *Invested in English raids on the Spanish New World; Spain responded with the Spanish Armada *Established Protestantism in England and encouraged English business *The "virgin queen"

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler. (Freedom of choice and religion)

Duke of Norfolk

1569, catholic aristo in England led revolt against Eliz I.

Duke of Norfolk

1569, catholic aristocrat in Engl and led revolt agnst Eliz I.

Union of Utrecht

1579 The 7 Northern Dutch provinces allied against Spain & led by William of Orange (the Silent). THE 7 PROVINCES NORTH OF THE LINE, FORMED IT IN 1579, AND WERE HENCE FORCE KNOWN AS THE DUTCH.

Edict of Nantes

1598 - Allowed the Huguenots to worship.

Johann Gutenberg

15th century German printer who was the first in Europe to print using movable type and the first to use a press; impacted society tremendously (his full name is really funny)

30 years war (big picture)

1618 to 1648. Europe's last and most destructive religious war. It began as a religious war between Protestants and Catholics within the Holy Roman Empire, but spread into an international political conflict when catholic France sides with Protestants. Ends with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

"The New Atlantis"

1627; Scientific utopia, perfect society of knowledge. (Bacon)

"Discourse on Method"

1637; Doubt everything that could reasonably be doubted. Concluded God's existence. (Descartes)

Richard Simon

1678 Published "Critical History of the Old Testament". Criticized the Miracles and the accuracy and falsities in the Bible.

"Letter on Toleration"

1689, John Locke- Advocated for an established church but with toleration of all except Roman Catholics and Atheists.

"Essay Concerning the Human Understanding"

1690, John Locke- Covered Skepticism and asked how certain knowledge was arrived at all. Certain Knowledge is derived from experience.

Mercantilist Empires -

1700s - policies designed to increase trade / decrease power of rivals. Navies develop / limited colonial wars

Treaty of Paris

1763 agreement between Briatin and France that ended the French and Indian War, 1783 and a peace treaty between the Us and Britain that recognized the Us as an independent nation

Brunswick Manifesto

1792, during the radical stage. Austria and Prussia made this saying that they would destroy Paris (they were decimating the French to this point in the war) if any harm came to the French king Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette. Due to this statement, the opposition had a claim of treason by Louis XVI, and they successfully used that claim to behead the king

Scientific Revolution

17th Century Explosion of knowledge AND new ways of knowing. Western world overthrows medieval, Ptolemy/Aristotle ideas replaced the emergence of the modern western mindset. The scientific revolution changed people's perception of the universe, and made them wonder where God fit in or what role he played. The scientific developments of this period eventually led to generally more rationalistic, materialistic, and most of all secular thought (the modern western mindset).

Jan Vermeer

17th century Dutch painter renowned for his use of light/darkness and painted modest, everyday scenes

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

Rene Descartes

17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "I think therefore I am"; believed mind and matter were completly seperate; known as father of modern rationalism

Formal Empires -

1800s - mid 1900s Direct administration - British Dominance

Enlightenment

18th century movement led by French intellectuals who advocated reason as the universal source of knowledge and truth

Age of Enlightenment

18th century preceding French Revolution, sense of progress, optimism, modern ideas science and literature, urge for the improvement of individual rather than of social institutions

DEcolonization -

1950s+

Three Estates

1st (Clergy, 1%), 2nd (Nobility 2%), 3rd (Everyone else 97%)

Elba

1st island of exile for Napoleon (that is all). Small Island in the Mediterranean

Dias (342):

1st to get around Africa (Cape of Good Hope) in the year, proving that another route to india was possible. His Portuguese backers wanted a southern/eastward route around Africa to India in order to bypass Arab traders in the mediteranean. Sig: part of the Portuguese dominance of early exploration.

DeGama (342):

1st to get to Inda. Continued Dias' route along coast of Africa. Allows Portugal to bypass Arab traders. Increases Portugals wealth. DeGama takes Dias' route and goes farther (because his name is longer!)

Catherine of Aragon

1st wife of Henry VIII. Mother of Mary I. Henry's desire for a divorce from her precipitated England's break with Rome.

2/3 member mandate (Directory Weakness)

2/3 LA members had to be ex-convention members

Anne Boleyn

2nd Wife of Henry VIII. Mother Elizabeth.

Kepler

3 Laws of Planetary Motion. Significance: The universe is governed by Mathmatical rules. it's not just random.

St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (394

3 day slaughter of Huguenots. example of the savagry of the era. For protestants throughout Europe, it turned a local fight between nobles into an international struggle for survival against an enemy whose actions justified any means of resistance.

3 stages of spreading the revolution

3 stages of spreading the revolution 1: military conquest and occupation by French troops, with support of local persons willing to collaborate with France 2: helping in drafting of a constitution, specifying powers of new government, regularized relationship with France 3: sweeping internal reform and reorganization, modeled on Bonaparte's model of France.

William of Orange (William of Nassau, William the Silent):

400 Leader of the Dutch Revolt against Philip's Spain. Went from Catholic, to Lutheran, before becoming a Calvinist. United both Catholics and Protestants against Catholic Philip.

Civil code/Codes of Napoleon

5 codes that made France legally and judicially uniform, equality and equal civil rights

Martin Luther

95 Thesis, posted in 1517, led to religious reform in Germany, denied papal power and absolutist rule. Claimed there were only 2 sacraments: baptism and communion.

Vernacular (323)

: the local language of an area (not Latin). The Vernacular in France is French; England, english; Vienna, Italian; the American south, english? Latin had been THE language of educated europe; however, many authors had begun to write in their vernacular. Petrach's sonnets were written in italian, as well as Donte's Divine Comedy

Madame Roland

;A leading revolutionary figure, her house became the center for the Girondists. Guillotined by the Sans-Culottes/

emigres

;French nobles that settled in various parts of Europe where they could use their international aristocratic connections to preach a kind of holy war against the evils of revolution./

Marseillaise

;French revolutionary war song that would later become the national anthem, and a fierce call to war./

Leopold II

;Habsburg emperor who was the brother to the French Queen. He resisted the demands of the emigres, even though he inherited from Joseph II a fractious aristocracy himself./

Brunswick Manifesto

;Issued by Prussia and Austria on July 25, 1792. Stated that if harm done to the king or queen there would be severe retribution. Mistake - played right into hands of radical revolutionaries in France. They used it to panic France into thinking invasion imminent. Began recruiting defence force./

Count of Artois

;King's brother and leader of emigres. Some even supported him over LXVI - thinking Louis had turned revolutionary./

feudal elements of old regime

;No serfdom in France- peasants worked for themselves or as sharecroppers However, some features of the feudal age still existed: Manor owner had: Hunting rights Monopoly over the village mill, bakeshop, or wine press, which he collected fees (banalités) Vestigial powers of jurisdiction in the manorial court and certain local police powers Right of eminent property/

Francis II

;Of Austria - succeeded Leopold II. More inclined to give in to emigres. Resumed negotiations with Prussia. Had effect of pushing more in France towards the Girondists' perspective./

Girondins

;Party which included philosphe Condorcet, humanitarion lawayer Brissot, and civil servant Roland. They became the party of the international revolution./

Second Estate

;The Nobility Resurgence since the death of Louis XIV/

William Pitt

;The Prime Minister of England who had failed at carrying a reform in parliament, and so decided to reform the systemic economy of Britain./

First Estate

;The clergy The church was the greatest of all landowners The income from the church properties was divided unequally/

Tuileries

;The palace in Paris in which King Louis XVI and his family were placed under house arrest after they were forcibly taken from their court at Versailles. The point of removing the royal family to Paris was to allow the people to keep a close watch on their actions./

Fransisco de Miranda

;Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary. He became a general in the French army./

Reflections on the Revolution in France

;Written by Edmund Burke, the philosophical conservative, in England. He had previously adivsed SLOW adaptation of liberties for England and commenting on the revolution in France he predicted anarchy and dictatorship as result of too rapid advance of liberties. Said each country should shape its government based on national circumstances and historical background and character. Advised against wholesale liberalization. Book translated and read by Catherine the Great and Gustavus III./

official church

;comprising of "constitutional" clergy spurned the pope/

clandestine church

;comprising of "refractory" clergy counterrevolutionary, pro-pope Tended to be favored by Good Catholics (like the King), former aristocrats, peasants, and urban working-class families/

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790

;new program for the clergy • Parish priests and bishops were elected • Protestants, Jews, and agnostics could legally take part in the elections • Archbishoprics were abolished, all borders of existing bishoprics were redrawn • Bishops were allowed to merely notify the pope of their elevation, they were forbidden to acknowledge any papal authority, and no papal letter or decree was to be published in France except with government permission • All clergy received salaries from the state • Abuses by which the church had supported noble families were abolished The pope condemned the whole Revolution an all its works/

Talleyrand

;one of the seven bishops willing to accept The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790/

Old Regime

;pre-Revolutionary society, legally aristocratic and somewhat feudal/

September Massacres (1792)

;revolutionaries break into prisons across france and massacre thousands of many innocent people for fear that political prisoners will aid the austrian-prussian army./

Third Estate

;the common people. Consisted of Bourgeoise (upper crust) and the rest who were more poor because prices increased more than wages/

Bourgeoise

;upper crust of third estate As they became stronger, more widely read, and more self-confident, they resented nobles more and more. Reasons: nobles were arrogant and exempt from the taille (direct tax)/

Gentry

A class of powerful, well-to-do people who enjoy a high social status

Brahe

A Danish astronomer who designed and built new instruments for observing the heavens and trained many other astronomers. He rejected heliocentrism despite his discovery of a new star and comet that disproved Aristotle's theory.

Legislative Assembly

A French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the constitution of 1791 in September of that year. It replaced the National Assembly that had been established by the Tennis Court Oath. It was replaced in September of 1792 by the National Convention

John Calvin

A Frenchman who was trained as a priest and a lawyer and had a humanists's knowledge of Latin and Greek, as well as Hebrew. He was the author of Institutes of the Christian Religion.

Henry VII (Tudor) (336):

A New Monarch. King who began the Tudor dynasty and the centralization of England.

Inquisition

A Roman Catholic tribunal for investigating and prosecuting charges of heresy; active in Spain during the 15th century to suppress heresy

Gneisenau

A Saxon who was one of the army reformers in Prussia in attempts to beat Napoleon. -observed military value of patriotic feeling in American soldiers during the War of Independence -wanted that same nationalistic feeling for the Prussian army

Escorial

A Spanish monastery and palace built by Philip II. A new royal residence which well expressed in solid stone its creator's political and religious determination.

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)

A believer of skepticism; all beliefs are relative varying with time and place. Believed that strong beliefs were silly.

Clergy

A body of officials who perform religious services, such as priests, ministers or rabbis.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

A book by John Calvin which addressed his severe, logical ideas to the world. If someone was dissatisfied with the existing Roman Church, they could find cogent expressions of universal propositions. Which they could apply to their own local circumstances.

Naples

A busy port and the largest city in southern Italy.

Gregorian Calendar

A catholic corrected calendar issued by Pope Gregory XIII; used by most everywhere today but slowly accepted.

Don Quixote

A comedic book written by Miguel de Cervantes during the Renaissance. The title character is now used to refer to idealists that champion hopeless or fanciful causes.

Pizarro

A conquistador who in 1532, marched into South America, and conquered the Inca Empire. Atahualpa offered a room filled with gold and twice and silver for his release, but they strangled him

Numismatics

A critical examination of the inscriptions on old buildings and ruins, looking for the earliest possible information about specific people or events.

95 theses

A criticism of the Catholic church (including indulgences & the Catholic sacrament of penance. He posted these theses on the door of the castle church at Wittenberg.

Court of Star Chamber

A division of the English royal council, a court that used Roman legal procedures to curb real or potential threats from the nobility, the court so called because there were stars painted on the ceiling of the chamber in which the court sat.

High vs Low culture (554)

A division that emerged in the 1700s between writings aimed at the Noble and Middle Class cultures (high) and those writings aimed at the lower classes. All print culture had historically been high culture, but the growth of literacy sparked the development of low culure. In Modern America, TV is low culture, Opera is High. : )

Thirty-Nine Articles

A document composed by a committee of bishops, defined the Protestant creed of the Anglican church.

Act of Supremacy

A document passed by Henry VIII that granted the English king the "Protector and Only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England." ALl subjects were required to take the oath of supremacy acknowledging the religious headship of Henry and rejecting that of the pope.

Commercial Revolution

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

Abbe Sieyes

A first estater who had enough with the estate system. He joined the third estate in the tennis court oath. Wrote an essay called "What is the 3rd estate."

Anglican Church

A form of Christianty that was defined by; defined by the Thirty Nine Articles. Many of the bishops were appointed by Queen Elizabeth as a strong Calvinist impress was set upon Anlgican belief in the time of Elizabeth.

Blaise Pascal

A french mathematician and scientist. He believed that religious faith was necessary because reason alone could not satisfy peoples, hopes and aspiration. Untiy and Truth. wrote Pensees (means to think)

Encomienda pt. 2

A grant of authority over a population of Amerindians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the American Indians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians.

Encomienda

A grant of land made by Spain to a settler in the Americas, including the right to use Native Americans as laborers on it

Tycho Brahe

A great authority in physics and the heavens; never accepted heliocentrism.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

A great authority in physics and the heavens; never accepted heliocentrism.

Pierre Bayle

A great spokesman for Skepticism and Relativism. Published "Thoughts on the Comet" and "Historical and Critical Dictionary" in 1697.

League of Schmalkalden

A group of Lutheran princes and free cities that allied with France and went to war with the Emperor Charles V because of their resentment of the "universal monarchy."

Danton

A leader of the Jacobins & colleague of Robespierre on the Committee of Public Safety. Eventually labeled an "enemy of the revolution" and executed during the Reign of Terror. His execution scared everyone, since it was obvious to all that anyone could be labeled an "enemy." It was shortly after his death that a group got the guts to go after Robespierre and end The Terror.

Christian Humanism

A movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of REFORMING the Catholic Church (NOT SECULAR)

Levee en Masse

A national draft in France in 1794, created under the Jacobins, of a citizen army with support from young and old, heralding the emergence of modern warfare. Even if some were unsuitable for military service, they still were forced to serve the colours, like Lagrange and Lamarck who are considered the fathers of modern chemistry, even though Lavoisier was guillotined later in 1794

Public Opinion (554)

A new creation of the 1700s. Art/thinkers had always been supported by wealthy patrons. Now, mass readership supported writers/thinkers/artists and created an independence and multitude of opinions that were widely circulated and often critical of those in power.

Coffeehouses (555)

A new creation of the enlightenment. A public space that provided a social spot for discussions of politics, literature, & ideas. Helped spread enlightenment ideas.

Protestant

A new form of Christianity that differed from Catholicism, and it dominated Northern Europe.

Dutch Golden Age

A period of Dutch History (1600s ) in which The Dutch Republic dominated world trade and used that wealth to become the world's center for arts and sciences. However, they were a seafaring power, NOT a military power. France will emerge in this era as the dominant military power.

Mestizos

A person of mixed Native American and European ancestry

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry.

Entrepreneur

A person who organizes, manages, and takes on the risks of a business to make profit. They usually start out as merchants

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution

Girondins

A political party that emerged in revolutionary France after the fall of the monarchy in 1792 when the jacobins split into two factions. Named for the region in southwestern France where many of their leaders were from. They were members of the professional class (lawyers and merchants) who wanted a constitutional governemnt, opposed the growing influence of Parisian miltants, and championed the smaller provinces bewond the city of Paris. They agreed the king was guilty of treason but were reluctant to execute him, arguing for exile or a referendum on his fate. They were first to be targeted as the beginning of the Terror. They became the party of international revolution and felt hat the revolution in France would never be secure until it spread to the world. This propelled a group of this party, led by Lafayette, to support a war with Europe

Martin Luther

A pope who was not satisfied with the idea of sacraments, fasts, and large masses to earn grace, but believed that grace was earned by "faith alone."

Rococo

A popular style in Europe in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.

Tithe

A portion of money or crop, often 10%, given to the church by a family.

Thermidorian Reaction

A reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls.

Sans-Culottes

A reference to Parisian workers who wore loose-fitting trousers rather than the tight-fitting breeches worn by aristocratic men. In the French Revolution, a radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange.

Puritans

A religious group who wanted to purify the Church of England. They came to America for religious freedom and settled in New England. VERY EXTREME CALVINISTS.

Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches

Florence

A republic Italian city-state which, IN ACTUALITY, was controlled by the powerful Medici banking family during the Renaissance (ex. Cosimo, Lorenzo, Giovanni); also believed to be the area where the Renaissance began

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

A scientist and artist; discovered accurate human anatomy, movement of earth and parachutes. Unpublished works; isolated.

Industrial Revolution

A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods.

Agricultural Revolution (1700s)

A series of innovations that greatly increased food production in Europe, and led to a growth in population. These innovations included New Crops (turnips/potatos), new methods (fertilizers), and new land methods (enclosure). It began in the low countries and quickly spread to Britain.

métayer

A sharecropper

Plebiscite

A simple yes/no vote. Example- Do you want Napoleon to be Consul for life? Used by Napoleon to show that he was the people's emperor. go figure. Napoleon won those plebicite's because the people were tired of Revolutionary violence/chaos. He was a Hobbes-ian strong man who brought order.

Giovanni Boccaccio

A student of Petrarch, he was also a pioneer of humanist studies. Authored "Decameron."

putting-out system

A system developed in the eighteenth century in which tasks were distributed to individuals who completed the work in their own homes; also known as cottage industry. This was a system of merchant-capitalists "putting out" raw materials to cottage workers for processing and payment that was fully developed in England

Slavery

A system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, they were also forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time their captured, purchased, or birth and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation.

tithes

A tax of sorts levied by the church, e.g. on agricultural products

congress poland

A treaty to answer Polish-Saxon question. -new poland greated, called THIS -lasted 15 years -alex became king, and gave it a constitution -effective transfer from French to Russian control

War of the Roses

A war between the English houses of Lancaster (red rose) and York (white rose); Lancastrian Henry VII took power and centralized power through the establishment of the Star Chamber (tortured people)

Vesalius (1514-1564)

Dutch anatomist who broke with Church tradition and studied anatomy through dissection. Updated human anatomy and brought medicine out of the second century Galen slums. Published "Structure of the Human Body" which expresses the study of anatomy.

Dutch Barrier

Dutch got this at Treaty of Utrecht, got this as reassurance against a French invasion, string of forts on the Belgian side of Dutch western boundary, made Dutch feel very secure but they never recover completely

Erasmus

Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe

Declaration of Rights and Man

French Revolution document that outlined what the National Assembly considered to be the natural rights of all people and the rights that they possessed as citizens

Sir Edmund Burke

An Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist and philosopher who, after moving to England, served for many years in the House of Commons of Great Britain as a member of the Whig party

"Paris is worth a Mass" (395)

Famous quotation from Henry of Navarre when he converted to Catholicism in order to become King of France. Perfect example of the intermingling of religious/political struggles. English Translation: "Governing France is worth going to a church I don't really believe in"

Bishop Bossuet

Famous theorist for Absolute Monarchy. Argued "Divine Right" of kings

Agriculture Economy

Farming, Fishing, Hunting, Natural Lifestyle

Cardinal Richelieu's Motives in the 30 years War

Feared encirclement by the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. his motives were to weaken the Hapsburgs and gain power for France.

banalités

Fees collected by nobles from their monopolies over the production of certain local goods

Banalites

Fees collected by the manor lord from his monopoly businesses.

Florence

An Italian city-state and leading cultural center during the Renaissance.

parlements

French regional courts dominated by hereditary nobles. The Parlement of Paris claimed the right to register royal decrees before they could become law.

Fallow Fields

Fields left unused in the belief that they will "regenerate" It's part of the medieval 3 field system. The practice doesn't work. The abandonment of this practice is part of the Agricultural Revolution

Brothers of the Common Life

An influential lay religious movement that began in the Netherlands and permitted men and women to live a shared religious life without making formal vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.

battle of Austerlitz

Napoleon had a great victory at this battle after losing at Trafalgar. -Russian army withdrew into Poland -Austria signed treaty of Pressburg

"...to increase its wealth, a nation must increase its productivity."

Adam Smith; a nation must manufacture, trade, and sell products to become successful

Spanish Inquisition

An organization of priests in Spain that looked for and punished anyone suspected of secretly practicing their old religion instead of Roman Catholicism. -Built in honor fo St. Lawrence

Menno Simons

Anabaptist who stressed a rejection of the world. Mennonites and the Amish are descendants of his strand of Anabaptism. Example of: Once the door to change had been opened, more changes continued to develop. The Anabaptist were condemned by the Calvinists, Lutherans AND Catholics.

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher whose ideas dominate "science" until the 1600s

Marquis de Lafayette

Appointed by assembly to command the national guard in Paris to keep order

Johannes Kepler

Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She had remained Catholic and had been queen of France and had been the queen of Scotland. Elizabeth kept her imprisoned. Executed in 1587

Family Economy

Basic structure of production and consumption in preindustrial Europe. Used Families to produce goods and services. Domestic interdependence.

7/14/89

Bastille Day.

Battle of Lutzen

Battle in which Gustav Adolphus was killed, thus ending any real hope the protestants had against Emperor Ferdinand.

[War of the Roses

Battle of Bosworth, New Monarchs (& in a roundabout way Ferdinand/Isabella)]

Battle of Bosworth (337):

Battle that ended the War of the Roses, established the Tudor dynasty, and put Henry VII on the throne.

William III

Became co-monarch of England after the Glorious (Or Bloodless)Revolution. BROUGHT THE AUSTRIAN AND SPANISH HAPSBURGS, BRANDENBURG, AND DENMARK INTO ALLIANCE WITH THE DUTCH REPUBLIC DEFEATED LOUIS.

Constitution of the Year III

After the Thermidorean Reaction members of the Convention wrote a new constitution. Went into effect at end of 1795. Set up a Directory and a Bicameral legislature which allowed for the rise of Napoleon

The Diplomatic Revolution

After centuries of French-Austrian conflict, Maria Theresa turns to France as an ally (to serve as a counter-weight to Prussia). It was an amazing turn of events. It would be the modern equivalent of Iran and Israel becoming allies in the Middle East.

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

Claimed all religious aspects to be false and that all government was unjust and biased; rational philosophy.

Chronology

Age of the world and the dating systems of various peoples.

Treaty of 1494

Aka Treaty of Tordesillas. Pope Alexander VI divided the world between Spain and Portugal (for commercial dominance) with the creation of the Line of Demarcation (north to south line through Atlantic) Spain obtained Americas minus Brazil (founded by Pedro Cabral for Portugal) Portugal obtained East (Africa, Asia, East Indies) minus Philippines (founded by Magellan for Spain)

holy alliance

Alexander created this and almost all monarchs signed -agreement to uphold Christian principles of charity and peace -meant as a condemnation to violence -at first not seriously -weird mix of Christianity and politics to some

Grand Empire

All of Napoleon's land.

Federalist Rebellions

Also in great provincial cities like Lyons, Bordeauxengra, Marseilles - many rebelled against the Convention in Paris - especially after the fugitive Gridirons reached them. Wanted a decentralized republic. Like the Vendettas, they objected to the ascendancy of Paris. Rebellions became counterrevolutionary. Assistance from outside France.

Frederick William of Prussia

Became emperor of Prussia and promised to grant a liberal Prussian constitution. However he is elected to be the leader of all of Germany, and, upon seeing other revolutions fail, backs out of this revolution. He decides just to go back to an absolutist government.

Thomas Paine

American Revolutionary leader and pamphleteer (born in England) who supported the American colonist's fight for independence and supported the French Revolution

Creoles

American-born Spaniards who owned land, but ranked below "real" Europeans.

Baruch Spinoza (560)

Amsterdam rejected his ideas that God is everything

Henry VIII

An English King (1509-1547) who prided himself on his orthodoxy. He himself wrote a "Defense of the Seven Sacraments" in refutation for which a grateful pope conferred upon him the title "Defender of the Faith."

East India Company

An English company formed in 1600 to develop trade with the new British colonies in India and southeastern Asia. British joint-stock company that grew to be a state within a state in India; it possessed its own armed forces. For some it was not possible for individual European merchants to act by merely private initiative (The Muslims and Russia). In order to get a good deal of capital, merchants and their respective governments came together to create this trans-ocean trade. This would result in the Northern Europeans peoples to encroach on the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly in America.

Venice

An Italian trading city on the Ariatic Sea, agreed to help the Byzantines' effort to regain the lands in return for trading privileges in Constantinople.

Baroque

An artistic style of the seventeenth century characterized by complex forms, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought.

Holy Roman Empire

An empire established in Europe that extended from France to Poland and Hungary

Catherine the Great

An enlightened despot who ruled over Russia. She is responsible for many positive changes in Russia, as well as securing the country a warm water port.

The Counter Reformation

Another Name for the Catholic Reformation. Usually when Counter Reformation is used (instead of Catholic Reformation) the author is focusing more on the Anti-Protestant actions of the Church. The revival of the Inquisition, the creation of The Index, etc.

Bourbons

Another powerful family in the south and west of France. In league with the Montmorency-Chatillon, the Bourbons supported the Huguenot protesters to battle the Guises for political reasons.

The Test Act

Anti-Catholic laws passed by Parliament. Created a religious test for public office stating only members of the established Church of England were eligible for service.

Ecclesiastical Reservation

Any Catholic bishop or other churchman who turned Lutheran in the future (or who had turned Lutheran as recently as 1552) should not carry his territory with him, but should turn Luthera as an individual and move away.

Episcopal System

Any Church system that is extremely hierarchical. The Catholic Church is an Episcopal system. Elizabeth's Church of England is also an Episcopalian system. The Anglican Church (Church of England) in America is called the Episcopal Church. FYI

Oligarchy (320):

Any government by "the few." Aristocracies are a form of Oligarchy (rule by the few nobles!) Florence was "officially" a Republic but one that was really dominated by an oligarchy of rich merchant families (businessmen).

Wallenstein

Appointed by Emperor Ferdinand to assemble a force of professional fighters and raise is own independent policy to commit many torturous actions. A Bohemian noble that took advantage of of Fernidad's victory over Frederick and defeated the Dutch. He was assasinated but would bring victory for Southern Germany

Archbishop Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I. Attempted to impose an Episcopal System on the Presbyterian Scots. (which starts the Civil War)

Baron de Montesquieu

Argued that the British Constitutional system was the best. Argued for Separation of Powers between the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches. Believed that each would check and balance the others. Had a major impact on the constitutional form of liberal democracies for the next two centuries.

Thomas Cranmer:

As Archbishop of Canterbury he declares that Henry's marriage was null and void; rules for Edward VI after Henry VIII's death. Architect of extreme protestant changes under Edward. killed for heresy by Mary

Parlemenents

Bodies of nobles in France. Often used by nobles to gas up urban unrest among the masses of paris against the Monarchy.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Assistant of Brahe who carried on heliocentrism. Used formulas to discover that planets orbited the sun in ellipses and not perfect circles like Copernicus thought.

John Kepler

Assistant of Brahe who carried on heliocentrism. Used formulas to discover that planets orbited the sun in ellipses and not perfect circles like Copernicus thought.

Archbishop James Usher

Claimed the creation of the world to be 4004 B.C.; was disproved with evidence of ancient China and Egypt.

Treaty of Campo Formio

Austria accepted French Belgium, Rhine left bank, and cisalpine republic; Austria received venice and venetia mainland

Metternich

Austrian foreign minister. Signed the Peace of Vienna.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

Austrian general in the service of the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Spanish Succession (1663-1736)

Silesia

Austrian province in eastern Germany that is later seized by Frederick II of Prussia in December of 1740, provoking the War of the Austrian Succession.

Alexander Pope (cw)

Author of Essay on Man. In which he epitomizes the enlightenment optimism by proclaiming "whatever is, is right."

Charles I's palace in London

Baroque

Franz Joseph's Palace in Vienna

Baroque

George I's Palace in London

Baroque

Emperor Ferdinand

Began the 30 years war by trying to pacify the Calvinistic Palatinate. Eventually tried to eradicate all protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire during the first phase of that war.

Archbishop of Canterbury

Beginning of Chapter: Highest Catholic Bishop in England. End of the Chapter: Religious Head (Highest Bishop) in the Church of England. When England was Catholic it had been the highest ranking Bishop in England, when England Broke with Rome it remained the highest ranking CHURCH office. But the King is still the official "Head of the Church in England".

Samuel Pufendorf

Believed that all nations should work together for the common good of the people.

Defenestration of Prague

Bohemian Calvinists threw Emperor Ferdinand's catholic boyz out of a window into a pile of pooh. They were not happy. Started the 30 Years War. Significances: Shows the extreme behavior religious passion will stir up in this chapter. example (if a minor one) of the atrocities people will commit.

battle of the Nile (Aboukir)

British cut off French in Egypt by winning this battle.

Trafalgar

British fleet under Lord Nelson defeats the French and Spanish navy fleets.

viscount castlereagh

British foreign prime minister -knew that allies needed money -found a common ground with Metternich because both feared domination of Russia -got Russia, Prussia, Austria and GB to sign the treaty of Chaumont, establishing the Quadruple Alliance

Prince Henry the Navigator (342):

Brother of the King of Portugal who created a school for navigators and promoted the cause of exploration. His actions give the Portuguese a head start on the wealth to be gained from exploration.

Cortes (345):

Brutally conquered the Aztecs in Mexico. Typified Spanish treatment of natives

Pizarro (345):

Brutally conquered the Incas in Peru. Typified Spanish treatment of natives

Virtu (?):

Classical morality. Rediscovered by Civic Humanists. It's a moral system based on excellence & manhood not on 'christian piety'

Cosimo de Medici

By allying himself with influential people in Florence he became an unofficial ruler himself in the earlyish 15th century son of Giovanni de Medici

French-British Colonial Rivalry

By the 1700s France and Britain were the dominant colonial powers. They conflicted in the Northern Hemisphere (the mid west), the Caribian (West Indies) and new ports in India Britain won in all areas as a result of the 7 Years War (1763) and became the dominant colonial empire for the next 200 years

Council of Trent

Called by Pope Paul III to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists did not attend.

Geneva

Calvin established a theocracy in this city by 1540; became home to Protestant exiles from England, Scotland, and France, who later returned to their countries with Calvinist ideas.

Institutes of the Christian Religion 1536

Calvin's definitive theological statement of the Protestant Faith. The overarching theme of the work is God's total sovereignty, particularly regarding salvation. It is a very readable (lawyerly) argument for Calvin's doctrines.

The Elect

Calvin's term for those going to Heaven. They are already chosen by God. It is debatable whether Calvin claimed that we could KNOW whether we were of the elect or not. Most historians claim that Calvin believed that you couldn't know until death, however, modern Calvinist claim that he believed that you could know.

Dechristianization

Campaign to eliminate Christian faith and practice in France undertaken by the revolutionary government.

Prague (CW):

Capital of Bohemia (modern day Czechoslovakia). Location of the Defenestration of Prague which is another example of the ferocity that wars of religion produce.

Rome

Capital of Italy

Raison d'etat

Cardinal Richelieu's philosophy of government summed up in a quick phrase. Reason of State. There is NO limit to a king's rightful authority IF he can justify it for the good of the State, Total contradiction of the Right-based philosophy of government that you have.

Cardinal Ballarmine

Cardinal who condemned Galileo for his Copernican teachings

Ursuline Sisters

Catholic Order of Nuns established in 1535 by Angela Merici and dedicated to education of young girls. In general though, provision for girls schools was more sporadic. Spread from Italy to France and thence to Quebec and New Orleans.

Jansenists

Catholic Radicals in France. Louis XIV lays the smack down on them. Significance: Shows that Louis is not REALLY concerned about religion. But will smack whomever necessary to consolidate his power.

Politiques

Catholic and Protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Catholic attack on Calvinists, lead to civil war, rioting and slaughter killed Huguenots in France, caused the War of Three Henrys

French Religious Wars

Catholic monarchy imposed very heavy taxes on the people; the wealthy, the middle class switched over to Calvinism as a form of rebellions; major issue: iconoclasm

Clerical Pluralism

Clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (rewarded position) at the same time

Radicals

Championed by Thomas Paine and Dr. Richard Price, these men of England desired an overhaul of Parliament and the church. They also were those who corresponded with the National Assembly of France

Dr Pangloss (cw)

Character in Candide that is a lampooning of the common enlightenment belief that a rational god had created a rational world. Dr Pangloss goes throughout the novel proclaiming that "this is the best of all possible worlds and the product of a benevolent creator" He is modeled on von Liebnitz.

Civil Code

Code of laws established by Napoleon which preserved many of the ideals of the French Revolution. He attempted to spread throughout empire.

Illegitimate children

Children born out of wedlock. Their numbers increased in the 1700s. Often led to infanticide or abandonment.

Thomas Moore

Christian Humanist; wrote "Utopia" about an imaginary land inhabited by a peace-loving people, an ideal place; basically everything was perfect and uncorrupted; o yeah and he got beheaded by the English government for implying God>Ruler

Passive Citizens

Citizens who have all of the rights of Frenchmen; HOWEVER, since they don't pay much in taxes, are not given a vote (or a say in society)This distinction (Active vs Passive Citizen) was created in the Constitution of 1791 Wow, Brentwood just put the screwgie on Antioch. Better watch Old Hickory Blvd for Trucks with guns.

Active Citizens

Citizens who have rights and the vote, and pay taxes. Rationale for only allowing the wealthy to vote "Stake in Society" theory. Only those with something to lose should have a say in the government.This distinction (Active vs Passive Citizen) was created in the Constitution of 1791

Milan

City South of the Alps and North of Rome

Sack of Magdeburg

City destroyed in the 30 Years War. Example of the atrocities both sides will commit and try to avenge.

Sack of Antwerp: (401)

City destroyed in the Dutch Revolt. Angry/unpaid spanish soldiers decided to pay themselves by looting Antwerp for 3 days (killing 7000). Amsterdam will benefit by becoming the new commercial center for the dutch. Example of the autrocities both sides will commit in the name of religion and others try to avenge.

college

Combined English grammer school other educations. An institution of higher education that awards degrees and certificates.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Combined the ideas of Galileo and Kepler and made one large, extraordinary philosophy.

Sir Isaac Newton

Combined the ideas of Galileo and Kepler and made one large, extraordinary philosophy. Also incepted the newtonian system, which suggested that human beings are not the center of the universe, but it was the human mind.

Deism (559)

Common enlightenment religious belief. They believed that God existed, but only as a creator, not as a meddler.

Hernando Cortez Spain

Conquered the Aztecs between 1519 and 1521

First Estate

Consisted of Catholic clergy.

Third Estate

Consisted of peasants and the bourgeoisie. Often ignored by higher classes and were often wage earners.

Second Estate

Consisted of wealthy aristocrats and nobles.

Constitution of 1795

Constitution created by the French Revolution that had no monarchy and an executive called the Directory

Pride's Purge

Cromwell felt king should be executed to prevent counterrevolution. Parlt. hesitated so Cromwaell used army to break up Parlt. which had started at 500 in 1640 and already sunk to 150. Used Colonel Pride to remove dissenters(100 of them) and left only about 50 - The Rump.

Bastille

Crowds at Paris began to look for weapons- they came on July 14. The crowd requested the governor to remove his cannon, crowd turned into a mob and murdered six soldiers, a few officials, and the governor

Paleography

Deciphering, reading, dating, and authentication of manuscripts.

"On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs"

Copernicus' book that held heliocentric ideas.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs

Copernicus' book that held heliocentric ideas.

prerogative courts

Courts set up by Charles I which were not part of the traditional system, not liked by Parliament-no customary and afraid he might try to take over justice system

Mary Stuart. Mary, Queen of Scotts (403, 406):

Cousin & rival of Elizabeth I. Catholic extrimsts hoped to replace Elizabeth with Mary Stuart. Elizabeth eventually had her executed. Elizabeth could be cunning at times (fox) but she'd whoop you if you needed it (lion). Mary got the Whoopin. Oh, and her execution prompted Philip II to send the Armada to England

Revolutionary Calendar

Created by the National Convention, it established after the French Revolution -day one was the first day of the French Republic

Committee of General Security

Created during the Terror as a kind of supreme political police to protect the Revolutionary Republic from its internal enemies.Victims ranged from Marie Antoinette to many Girondins.

General Maximum

Created on September 9, 1793, extended the Law of Suspects to most other areas of the revolutionary French economy.

"Foundling" Hospitals

Created to deal with the increase in abandoned children. Massive increases in the numbers caused a strain on this system. Only about 10% of the "foundlings" of Paris survived to 10 years old.

Copernicus

Creator of the Heliocentric Model of the Universe. Significance: Well, man is no longer the center of the universe. hmmm

Biblical Critisism

Criticized the Miracles and the accuracy and falsities in the Bible using scientific or historical evidence.

Biblical criticism

Criticizing the bible and doubting it's authenticity.

Wagram

Decisive battle in Austrian War of Liberation (1809) where the French were able to defeat the Austrians.

Discourse on Method

Descartes ideas. Advanced principals of systematic doubt.

Creoles

Descendents of Spanish-born but born in Latin America; resented inferior social, political, economic status. THEY WERE AMERICAN BORN "WHITES."

Madame De Chatelet

Did the first and only translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica

God Gold Glory (cw):

Different motives for exploration. God = missionary zeal, Gold= the $ that was possible, Glory = fame/glory

First, Second, and Third Estate

Different strata of French society—the nobility, the clergy, and everyone else

Coup detat of Fructidor

Directory asked for Napoleon help and with strong dislike of royalists, killed election; increase military reliance

Napoleon dictator

Directory chose NB; forcefully drove out legislators

William Harvey

Discovered circulation of blood through veins and arteries; discovered capillaries and vivisection of animals.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

Discovered circulation of blood through veins and arteries; discovered capillaries and vivisection of animals. Writer of "On the Movement of the Heart and Blood."

Nicholas Copernicus

Discovered that the sun was the center of the solar system, contradicting geocentric ideas.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

Discovered that the sun was the center of the solar system, contradicting geocentric ideas.

Galileo

Discovered the composition and shapes of planets and found moons around other planets using the telescope; discovered gravity and began work on dynamics and motion.

Galileo (1564-1642)

Discovered the composition and shapes of planets and found moons around other planets using the telescope; discovered gravity and began work on dynamics and motion.

Edmond Halley

Discovered the reoccurrence of comets and most famously, Halleys Comet

bourbon restoration--reasons

Discussion about the new government after Nap's abdication, and Talleyrand stepped in, advocating for this solution and for these reasons: -legit king = Louis XVIII -would provoke the least factionalism and opposition -Louis would need no foreign support because he was rightfully the king of France

Predestination

Doctrine associated with Calvin that everyone's fate heaven or hell is decided by God before birth. It's a doctrine that goes back to St Augustine but is often associated with Calvin and the Puritans. Calvin's predestination focuses on the sovereignty of God and the smallness of "man"

Divine Right of Kings

Doctrine that states that the right of ruling comes from God and not people's consent

National Convention

During the French Revolution, this comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly which sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (the 4th of Brumaire of the year IV under the French Republican Calendar adopted by the Convention). It held executive power in France during the first years of the French First Republic. It was succeeded by the Directory, commencing 2 November 1795. Prominent members of the original Convention included Maximilien Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, Jean-Paul Marat (affiliated with the Jacobins, though never a formal member), and Georges Danton of the Cordeliers. From 1793 to 1794, executive power was de facto exercised by the Convention's Committee of Public Safety. While a republic had been claimed earlier in the revolution, this was the first government to hold officially all the power, completely separate of the monarchy which had been destroyed during its rise. This body would rule during France's military advancement during the War of the First Coalition and the Reign of Terror

Fall of Constantinople (324-25):

During this chapter, The Turks finally conquered the last holdout of the old Byzantine Empire, the capital at Constantinople. The Turks changed the name to Istanbul and made it the capital of their Ottoman Empire. Fleeing greeks brought much of their artifacts and works to Italy, fueling a greco-roman fad in Italy (called the Renaissance)

Solemn League and Covenant

During war, as price of support from Scottish army, Parliament adopted this, 1642, which prescribed that religion in England, Scotland, and Ireland should be made uniform "according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed churches." Thus "Presbyterianism"became the established legal religion of the three kingdoms.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch Christian humanist; author of "The Praise of Folly" (satirized corruption/greed); believed in a "Christianity of the heart," not one of ceremonies or rules; believed that, to improve society, people should study the Bible

Erasmus

Dutch Humanist and friend of Sir Thomas More. Perhaps the most intellectual man in Europe and widely respected. Believed the problems in the Catholic Church could be fixed; did not suport the idea of a Reformation. Wrote Praise of Folly.

Leeuwenhoek

Dutch scientist used microscope to see bacteria, sperm, and cells.

the Fronde (Frondeurs)

Early French Rebels against Louis XIV's when he's a kid. The terror that he experiences convinces him to get out of Paris (go to Versailles) and to be tough against rebellion.

Ulrich Zwingli

Early Reformer in Switzerland. His reforms went much further than Luther's. Tried to combine with Luther but couldn't agree on the Lords Supper, Marburg colloquy. Shows that once the door is open for rebellion, it's impossible to keep it closed. Revolutions will almost always make more changes than the originators, Luther, intended.

Diggers

Early Socialists. Brutally put down by Cromwell. Shows that revolutionaries (Cromwell) usually do not want the revolution to go beyond where they want to take it. (the diggers had gone too far for him)

modern carthage

Early as 1793, French republicans said that England was ... this phrase... -ruthless mercantile and profit seeking power -England had monopoly over shipment of overseas commodities -produced certain manufactures the cheapest -B's everywhere else resented them -Napoleon used these feelings to make England seem like the real enemy.

John Wycliffe (1324 - 1384)

Early critic of the Church. He was an English Priest & theologian who translated the Vulgate Bible into English. He pushed for many reforms and was eventually declared a heretic.

Levelers

Early democrats. More radical than radical Cromwell, and crushed by Cromwell. Example of how revolutionaries want to make their changes and then STOP the revolutionary spirit from going any farther. It rarely works.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Economic Advisor for Louis XIV. Associated with Mercantilism

Urban Economy

Economy that uses the resources of the city to produce goods and services

Directory upper class voting (Directory Weakness)

Electors mostly upper middle class who had time and money for job

Act of Uniformity (403):

Elizabeth's attempt to reduce the hatred between Catholics and protestants in England. Each wanted the church of england to be in line with their beliefs. Elizabeth split the difference. The Church of England would be protestant (with protestant doctrines) BUT would avoid the excesses of Protestantism by keeping the look/feel of the catholic church. It would keep the pomp and formality of catholic liturgy. However, There would be ONE church in England. A Uniformity of worship throughout the country. Elizabeth showed little mercy to any who threatened the unity of her rule.

"Dare to Know!"

Emmanuel Kant's call for people to put away the ideas and assumptions that they have been taught and search for truth themselves. A nice motto for the Enlightenment

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Ends the War of Austrian Succession. Prussia keeps the territory gained from Austria: Silesia. Maria Theresa gets to stay in power

Puritans (403):

English Calvinists who (working within the Anglican Church) wanted to PURIFY the church of every remnant of Catholic stuff. Both in the practices of the Church and of its doctrines. They wanted a plain church service, in English, with very little ritual and formality. They also opposed the Episcopal system (favoring a Presbyterian model)

Presbyterians [presbytery system] (403

English Calvinists who wanted to create semi-independent presbyteris (and rejected the Episcopal system of the Anglican Church). John Knox would establish this form of church in Scotland. Thus, Scottish Calvinists are . . . Presbyterians!

Quakers

English dissenters who broke from Church of England, preach a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equity, under William Penn they founded Pennsylvania. BELIEVED IN EQUALITY FOR ALL PEOPLE.

Locke

English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience

Lollards

English followers of Wycliffe. They preached in English and distributed Bibles in English. Once peasants begin revolting inspired by the teaching of the Lollards, political authorities declared it subversive and outlawed the movement.

Oliver Cromwell

English general and statesman who led the parliamentary army in the English Civil War

Thomas More (341):

English humanist. author of Utopia. criticized contempory Europe by imagining the perfect society.

King Edward III of England

English king during the 14th century who started the Hundred Years' War in 1337 by attempting to take the French throne

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)

Newton

English mathematician and physicist

Jean-Paul Marat

Famous Jacobin killed in his bathtub by a Girondin. His execution is used to justify The Terror. "We've got enemies of the revolution living in our midst!! We must root them out!"

Queen Elizabeth I of England

English queen who allowed religious freedom as long as the people practiced "quietly"; Elizibethan Settlement (this should be a giveaway); centralized power by appeasing religious extremists (both Catholics and Protestants)

Tudors

English royal family, dynasty founded by Henry VII; includes some of England's most influential monarchs; Elizabeth.

Print culture [of the 1700s] (553)

Enlightenment culture in which books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets become very important. The volume printed increased as did the number of readers. The novel emerged in this era. Nobles and the middle class were expected to read and be knowledgeable.

Philosophes (554)

Enlightenment writers and critics who were the leaders of the new 'public opinion'. In general they favored change, reform, and toleration. They were not an organized group and often disagreed with one another.

University of Lima

Estab. 1551, Predates Harvard(1636). Early educational development in New World. Five such universities on Euro model established in Sp. America before Harvard founded.

Committee of Public Safety

Established and led by Robespierre, fixed bread prices and nationalized some businesses. Basically secret police and also controlled the war effort. Instigated the Reign of Terror.

Committee of Public Safety

Established and led by Robespierre, this group was 12 were reelected every month (although Robespierre always ruled the group) by the National Convention to rule over France and ensure the preservation of the Revolution and safety of the Mountain. The group fixed bread prices and nationalized some businesses. Basically secret police and also controlled the war effort. Instigated the Reign of Terror.

Jean Mabillon

Established the science of paleography.

Phillip II of Spain

European ruler who tried to make England Catholic by marrying the Queen and sending an armada; Spain reached the height of its influence and power because of him, he did not listen to his advisors and dictated all actions of Spain

Sugar

Europeans used slave labor to grow a wide range of profitable crops on the islands of the Caribbean; this was the most important and profitable of these crops

Leipzig , Battle of (Battle of the Nations)

Famous first defeat of Napoleon, results in his exile to elba. That is all

Trafalgar

Famous naval battle in which England defeated the French Navy. It ended Napoleon's hope for invading England. Established England as 'the shark'

History and Evidence

Evidence became required and the history of events became distrusted and required evidence.

Twelve Years' Truce

Exactly 12 years of cease fire Truce between Spain and the Netherlands Union for 12 years that was more of a barring of fighting that any actual peace. This truce cause the NETHERLANDS TO BE PARTITIONED.

1649-

Execution of Charles. good reference-point since you don't need to know all of the dates in this story.

Thermidorian Reaction

Extended Political Reign of Terror. Goal was increasingly an ideal democratic republic where justice would reign and there would be neither rich nor poor. their lofty goal was unrestrained despotism and guillotine. In Mar. 1794, to the horror of many sans-culorres, Robespierre's Terror wiped out many angry men who had been criticizing Robespierre for being soft on the wealthy. It recalled the early days of the Revolution. In an extent of the revolution, Robespierre was guillotined to general applause.

Hebertists

Extreme radical faction who were violently anti-Christian and wanted to see the government make further economic controls.

yeomanry

Families on small southern farms. A group of men who held and cultivated small landed estates.

Stuart Monarchy

Family of Monarchs in England after the Tudors. James VI of Scotland becomes the first Stuart Monarch (James I) in 1603 after his cousin Elizabeth I dies. England develops a limited (constitutional) monarchy during their rein.

Erasmus (340):

Famous (infamous) religious writer. Criticized the Church through his humorous writings (think Steven Colbert). Condemned ritualistic religion and tried to get people to live "the philosophy of Christ" in which simple morality was more important than formal rituals and dognma. He did NOT condemn the Church as an institution, he condemned individuals for not living up to the standards. This is why he was never condemned by the church.

The Medicis (320-21):

Famous Banking family in Florence. Kinda like the first Mob family. Patrons of the renaissance arts. Significance: Patrons of the arts in Florence.

Capitulation at Baylen

First Napoleon French surrender without fighting (July 1808).

Bartolome de Las Casas

First bishop of Chiapas, in southern Mexico. He devoted most of his life to protecting American Indian peoples from exploitation. His major achievement was the New Laws of 1542, which limited the ability of Spanish settlers to compel Amerindians to labor.

Novum Organum

First part of "Instauratio Magna" insisting on inductive method

Population Growth 1700

First real rise in Europe, better health and water, sewage waste care better, plague gone, small pox vaccination

"Man was born free, and everywhere is in chains."

First sentence of Rousseau's The Social Contract. He is diametrically opposed to Hobbes' view of human nature and the state of nature. He believed man was a noble savage and that modern societies have a corrupting influence. (but an positive one as well)

Jan van Eyck

Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and pioneered modern techniques of oil painting; used realism in art

Deist

Followers of Sir Isaac Newton's idea of natural law, reducing God to the position of a remote Creator.

capitulation at Baylen

For the first time since the Revolution, a French general surrendered without fighting because of this event. Napoleon began to lose many battles against the Spanish guerrillas and English armies afterward.

Poor Law of 1601

Forced people to work and relieved absolute destitution. In England. They offered ways to raise money for charity and provide work for beggars - kept poor in their area rather than wandering about.

Talleyrand

Foreign Minister for Napoleon. Made large sums of money from German princes. Turned on him in 1809.

John Calvin

French Christian humanist whose theological writings profoundly influenced religious thoughts of Europeans. Developed Calvinism at Geneva with strict, nonsecular government. Wrote Institutes of Christian Religion

Empiricism

Founding of knowledge based on observation and experience

Belgium situation (Directory Weakness)

France claimed Belgium without settling with Habsburgs or British

"Instauratio Magna"

Francis Bacon's "Great Work"; completed only two parts.

"...the young men will go fight, married men will make arms and transport supplies, women will make tents and uniforms."

Frederick the Great; society will come together in times of crisis

Huguenots

French Calvinists

Huguenots (392)

French Calvinists. Only 10% of Frenchies, but 40% of French nobility. Wanted political sovereignty in their region and thus supported political decentralization

French Revolution--influences on germany

French Revolution--influences on ---- -showed what people were capable of once they took over a state -showed that ordinary men could rise up to be free citizens -that the state could be unified -in general, caused a national awakening in this country/area

Catherine d Medici (393):

French Wars of Religion. Regent of France who tried to balance the power of the radical Catholics (Guise Family) and the Protestants (Bourbon Family). Sided with each faction at different periods of time. Architect? of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Eventually ousted by Henry Bourbon.

Henry III (Henry Valois) (394)

French catholic king during the War of the 3 Henries. Assassinates the radical catholic Henry Guise, and teams up with Henry of Navarre to defeat the Catholic league

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)

French essayist who expressed skepticism and a broad-minded, humane society.

Talleyrand

French foreign minister

Charles VIII of France

French king; invited by Sforza family of Milan to invade Florence; fought over Italy with Ferdinand of Aragon (Spain) in the first of many French-Italian wars; in 1494, he controlled Florence, the Papal States, and Naples

Emigres

French nobles who fled from France during the peasant uprisings. They were very conservative and hoped to restore the king to power. They also took almost all of the wealth of the country out of the country, making the governments of the National Constituent Assembly and Legislative Assembly very poor

Politique

French political faction with no strong religious ties that tried to manipulate political divisions in France for its own political gain.

Blaise Pascal

French scientist who wanted to keep science and religion together. He had a mystical experience and from then on sought to convert rationalists to Christian religion, which he was determined to show did not conflict with reason (which was done in his book Pensées)

Friedland

French victory against Russia in 1807

Politiques (391) :

French wars of ReligionFrenchmen who wanted to see religious passions taken out of politics. They wanted to subordinate theological doctrine to political unity, urging tolerance, moderation and compromise- even indifference -in religious matters. Early advocates for the separation of church and state. "believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of a civil war"

Manila Galleons

From 1565 to 1815 Spanish Galleons (ships) sailed between Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico. They took luxury goods (spices, porcelain, silks, and ivory) and precious metals back and forth.

Telescope

Galileo was the first to use the telescope to study the planets and stars, inaugurating a new age in astronomy

"But it does move."

Galileo; the Earth does move around the Sun even though it goes against popular belief

Inquisition (336):

Generally: Church court designed to root out heretics within our midst and enforce orthodoxy in our own community. Specifically in this chapter: Instituted in Spain in 1492, to root out the conversos (jews and muslims who converted to Christianity but retained their original faiths in their hearts - false converts.). Important (if repugnant) step in Spanish unification.

Republic (320)

Generally: Originally, any government without a Monarch. Modern definition - any government deriving its authority from the people. Specifically: Several of the Italian city-states were republics (Venice Florence).

Iconclasm (I.G. 114)

Generally: The Destruction of Religious imagery (icons). Specifically: Dutch Calvinist of the Netherlands destroyed images in Catholic churches. This sparked Philips attempt to pacify the Dutch (which only served to unify the Dutch against him) Uses: use it in an essay on Religion and politics. or how calvanism was a destabalizing force in 16th century europe.

Kepler

German astronomer who first stated laws of planetary motion

Thomas Kempis

German ecclesiastic; author of "the imitation of Christ"; early Northern Christian writer who challenged individuals to live a godly life rather than focus just on knowledge, summarized philosophy of Brothers of the Common Life in 'Imitation of Life', associated with Brethren of the Common Life, He was the leader of the mystic group known as Modern Devotion

"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"

This book by Newton proved that all motion could be timed and measured through mathematical formulas; universal gravitation.

Catherine the Great

German of a HRE House, repressed Pugachev's rebellion, expanded territorially, turkish war, expanded serfdom

Martin Luther

German peasant, lawyer, Catholic monk who will eventually establish the Lutheran Church. What began as his stand against indulgences in 1517, gradually escalated into a full scale revolt against the authority of the Church and the State (Holy Roman Empire).

Johann Herder (574)

German philosopher who condemned European colonization. He attacked the subjugation of people based on the new notion of 'cultural relativity.' For him, every society possesses intrinsic value and cannot be compared with another culture. Each culture, according to Herder, possessed deep social complexities that made simple comparisons impossible. With the new contact with different worldviews and cultures, it became increasingly difficult to believe that European culture was the only acceptable way of organizing humans.

shame of the princes

German princes gave up their land on the left bank of the Rhine for land on the right bank of the Rhine.

Catherine II

German wife of Peter III of Russia and came to power after his murder; ruled Russia 1762-1796; interested in enlightend reforms but didnt do any; had policy favoring landed nobility but this led to worse conditions for Russian peasents and led to rebellion; the rebellion spread across spouthern Russia but she halted all reform and serfdom expanded into newer parts of the empire; expanded Russian Empire

1688

Glorious Revolution 2nd uber-major date of the class. (1517 being the other)

Cartesian Dualism

God created two fundamental realities: "thinking substance" and "extended substance"; Descartes.

The Commonwealth

Government created after the Civil War in which the Monarchy, the House of Lords, and The Anglican Church are abolished. It is a REPUBLICAN government. (A Republic is any government without a king). It is created by the Rump Parliament and ruled by Cromwell

Leviathan

Government must be a powerful, unquestioned monster with all authority; Thomas Hobbes' book.

The Republic

Government of France between 1792-1794 (it replaced the limited monarchy) Created by the radical revolutionaries after arresting ('92) & beheading Louis XVI ('93).

Intendant

Government officials who work for the crown. The creation of these from the middle class or the Nobles of the Robe allowed kings to siphon off the power of Nobility.

Depostism

Government under an absolute rule.

The Convention

Government which sat from 1792 to 1795. It held executive power in France during the Republic. In 1792, when radicals demanded the abolition of the monarchy, the Legislative Assembly called for the creation of a "national convention" which should draw up a new constitution. The Convention abolished the monarchy on its second day. The Convention lasted for three years and ruled France during the Radical phase of the revolution (and Reign of Terror)

Dutch East India Company

Government-chartered joint-stock company that controlled the spice trade in the East Indies.

Significance

Governments will often use a real tragedy to whip up people's fear, and then use that fear to get people to go along with anything the government proposes for the safety of the people.

Louis XVI

Grandson, recalled old parliaments and abolished Maupeou's parliaments, pacifying privileged class, headed by Turgot

Leonardo da Vinci

Great early scientist though his works and ideas were never published. He was known as an artist, and died silent on his scientific discoveries in anatomy and other fields

René Descartes

Great mathematician. Inventor of coordinate geometry.

Francis Bacon

Great scientist. Father of empiricism. Supported inductive method. Chapte

Confederation of the Rhine

Group of German rulers who supported Napoleon.

Brandenburg-Prussia

Group of German territories, ruled by the Hohenzollern family, that became one of Europe's most powerful states in the seventeenth century. A militaristic country

Peninsular War

Guerilla war in Spain. (French occupying troops vs Spanish insurgency) Napoleon had difficulties eradicating the resistance. It sapped his time and energy,

Oxenstierna

Gustavus Adolphus' chancellor who carries on offensive and takes Swedish forces down into Germany, period of uncertainty of what resolution, period of limbo

Matthias

HRE ruler during the outbreak of the thirty years war.

Crown Domain

Half of Prussia income. Manors and other productive enterprises ruled directly by lord/ruler.

Kingdom of Westphalia

Hanoverian and Prussian territories ruled by Napoleon's brother, Jerome.

Maximilian I (337):

Hapsburg ruler of Austria. Tried to be a New Monarch by attempting (but failing) to centralize the Holy Roman Empire. Loser.

materialism (492).

Hard: There is nothing other than material objects/world. If it's not physical, it's not real. Soft: There may be a spirit realm, but since we can't study it, we'll agree to just ignore it . Thomas Hobbes was the first modern materialist. (in public). Modern Science assumes a (soft) materialism. It's part of the basic definition. Although Deism was THE concept in the Enlightenment, some philosophes began embracing a more materialistic concept of the world.

James VI of Scotland

He became James I of England. He inherited the rule of England and Scotland after the death of Elizabeth. He wrote the "True Law of Free Monarchy", and believed in royal absolutism. He was always in need of money and was therefore always at odds with parliament.

clemens von Metternich

He conducted foreign affairs in Austria for 40 years after the war of 1809. -did not hold grudges against France for how it humiliated and partitioned Austria -believed Russia to be the real problem and France to be a wise ally -willing to follow Napoleon

John Locke (1632-1704)

He revived Thomas Aquinas and believed that a good government is based on a social contract.

Francis Bacon

He thought that the best guide to knowledge is through your own experiences and senses, that you should begin with observations and from them derive general trends (inductive reasoning)

Frederick I of Prussia

He was of the Hohenzollerns dynasty and first king of Prussia. He was the elector of Brandenburg. He made an agreement with Austria and the HRE against France in the War of Spanish Succesion to gain his "king" status. (Gave troops) --Very strong army

John Churchill

He was one of the great soldiers that dominated the alliance against France. He was an Englishman and duke of Marlborough. Eugene, Prince of Savoy represented the Holy Roman Empire, was the other great soldier. Eugene and Churchill inflicted a severe defeat on Louis XIV in 1704 at Blenheim in Bavaria. Marlborough followed with another victory at Ramilies ear Namur in Brabant. (545) General of Grand Alliance, beat Louis XIV in every major conflict.

Galileo

He was the first person to use a telescope to observe objects in space. He discovered that planets and moons are physical bodies because of his studies of the night skies.

Torqemada (336):

Head of the Spanish Inquisition. One bad mutha

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

This book by Newton proved that all motion could be timed and measured through mathematical formulas; universal gravitation.

Edict of Nantes (396)

Henry IV's religious settlement in France. It granted rights to the Huguenots but made Catholicism the official religion of France. Significance: first document of religious toleration in Europe

Edward VI

Henry VIII's son by Jane who takes throne at age 9 and is assisted by Cranmer and Cromwell who move church into an extreme protestant direction.

Thomas Cromwell:

Henry's advisor who helped orchestrate his break with Rome. He had no real desire for sweeping reforms or interest in religious doctrines

The Hapburg Dynasty (cw):

Hereditary rulers of Austria! Always "elected" to be the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. This dynasty failed to centralize authority in the H.R.E and failed to become a new monarchy, however, the H.R.E will dominate Europe internationally for some time to come. (but its inability to centralize puts it at a disadvantage against other states)

Don Juan

Hero of the Spanish victory at Lepanto and half-brother of Phillip II. In 1576, he became the governor general of the embattled Netherlands. -Developed a plan to subdue the Netherlands and then use that country to invade England - He then put Mary Stuart on the throne and became king to re-Catholicized England. -Died in 1578

Dumouriez

Heroic general of the French revolutionary army - victorious in Austrian Netherlands BUT, in April of 1793 he was defeated to Austria. Allied armies then drove French out of Belgium and again threatened to invade France. Counterrevolutionaries rejoiced. Revolutionaries shouted - "We are betrayed!"

Dumouriez

Heroic general of the French revolutionary army - victorious in Austrian Netherlands which lead to their annexation, but, in April of 1793, he defected to Austria. Allied armies then drove French out of Belgium and again threatened to invade France. Counterrevolutionaries rejoiced. Revolutionaries shouted - "We are betrayed!" This man's betrayal caused the Girondins to loose all power which led to their mass execution in the Reign of Terror by Robespierre and his mountain

Episcopal System

Hierarchical setup of a church. The Church of England has an Episcopal setup, with a rigid organization of Bishops. The number of Englishmen who want a less rigid system is growing during the 1600s.

Columbus (342):

Hired by spain to find a westward approach to india in order to compete against Portugals wealth producing eastward route. Starts that whole "new world" thingy instead.

Castiglione (323):

His book, The Courtier, was a practical guidebook for nobles. He suggested that young nobles behave with class in addition to beating the crap out of people. His suggestions never mention acting in a "good christian" manner. He just focused elsewhere. Example of Renaissance secularism.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor that called for the Diet of Worms (tried to arrest Protestants); supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation by use of the Counter-Reformation; he tried to centralize his power, but did a very bad job at that and cause a lot of disunity in the places he ruled

Charles V

Holy Roman emperor (1519-1558) and king of Spain; summoned the Diet of Worms (1521) and the Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Zurich Switzerland

Home of Zwingli's reformation. Example of: The tight relationship between governments and all types of churches.

St Teresa of Avila

Important Spanish nun who had mystical visions. She was a Catholic reformer / writer who encouraged a contemplative life through mental prayer. Importance/Example of: The new emotionalism/piety of the Catholic Reformation. Catholics were getting as "fired up" as Luther/Calvin but staying faithful to the Church.

John Locke (552)

Human Nature: Humans have no innate nature. All humans enter the world a blank page (tabula rasa). Personality is the result of external experiences. Experience shapes character. Improve human conditions = improved humans : ) Rejection of predestination and 'original sin'

Cogito Ergo Sum

I think, therefore I exist -Descartes

Separation of Powers (567)

Idea articulated by Montesquieu in which he described the brilliance of the British system. Government power (which is dangerous to individual liberty) is spread out between competing institutions in government. Executive power to enforce the laws (with the King), Legislative Power to create the laws (with Parliament), and the Judicial power to interpret the laws (in the courts).

Checks and Balances (567)

Ideas articulated by Montesquieu in which he described the means in which individual rights are protected from government encroachment. Competing institutions within government would not be able to act without some form of limiting force from the other branches. In this way, no one power in government could become too dangerous without being 'smacked down' by another. Example: how parliament 'checked' the power of the monarchy . . . by chopping off Charles I's head.

Kingdom of Prussia

In 1701, Frederick III proclaims Brandenburg-Prussia to be the Kingdom of Prussia. He will become Frederick I King IN Prussia

Maria Louise

In 1809, Napoleon was worried about having no heir for his hereditary empire and so divorced his wife and married the 18 year old daughter of the Austrian Emperor, whose name was ..... She bore him a son, known as the King of Rome.

Kingdom of Italy

In 1810 included Lombardy, Venetia, and most of the former papal states. Ruled by Eugene Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepson, Josephine's son.

Addresses to the German Nation

In Berlin, 1808, Fichte delivered these after French troops conquered Germany. He declared that the German spirit was more noble than other peoples and needed to be kept pure of outside influence. -considered a firebrand by most Germans but later declared a national hero

Assignats

In December of 1789 this was a paper currency issued by the Constituent Assembly which had confiscated church property and issued this paper money based on this land. Initially could just by land with it though later it was used as a general currency. Supposed to help ease the difficulties of peasants but all sorts of problems with it - overissued plus easily forged. By the middle of the 1790's inflation had made it totally worthless and bartering was the main method of transaction in France for significant lengths of time

Constitution of 1793

In June of 1793 the Committee produced a Republican Constitution and had it adopted by the Convention. It provided for universal male suffrage but was suspended indefinitely because of state of emergency and Committee continued to govern using reason that government would be "revolutionary until peace" i.e. extra/outside the constitution.

Cahiers de doleances

In a last ditch effort to fix a failing country, Louis XVI had the people of France make a List of Greievences that each community was to present for the King & the Estates General

british blockade

In response to the Continental system, the British formed this against France and its allies. Chief aim: to keep trade of certain imports out of enemy hands, kill off enemy commerce and shipping short run: weaken war-making powers of the enemy government by undermining revenues and navy long run: weaken enemy's position in markets of world. note: willing to have british goods past through neutrals/ smuggling.

Nothing

In response to the National Assembly drafting a new constitution, in effect the first phase of the French Revolution, William Pitt, Catherine the Great, Frederick William II, and Leopold II (despite the fact he was brother to the French Queen and his emigres demanded war) did this

Commune

In response to the revolt of the Parisian working class in August of 1792, Paris established this that Usurped the powers of the Legislative Assembly and demanded a new constitution that would be assembled by a new elected body that was elected by universal male suffrage. This Constitutional Convention would govern France through this time

Sans-culottes

In the French Revolution, a radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages

The Plain

In the French Revolution, the moderate deputies in the National Convention. They formed the majority of the assembly's members and were essential to the passage of any measures. Led by Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes, the Plain initially voted with the moderate Girondins but later joined the Mountain in voting for the execution of Louis XVI. In 1794 they helped overthrow Robespierre and other extreme Jacobins.

Prussia's "moral advantage"

In the eyes of German nationalist, Prussia had this... -of all German states, it was least compromised by collaboration with the French -East-Elbian Prussia became the center of all German movement.

Treaty of Pressburg

In this treaty after the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon regained Venetia and added it to the kingdom of Italy -Napoleon established Bavaria and Wurttemberg as kingdoms and Baden as a grand duchy, dissolving the HRE!

Revolt of the Vendee

In western France, in Vendee, peasants revolted against military conscription. Encouraged by nonjuring priests, British agents and royal emissaries of Count of Artois.

French Empire

Included: France Belgium Left Bank of the Rhine (1810) "tentacles"

Eylau

Indecisive battle in 1807 between France and Russia

Lorenzo Medici

Indirect ruler in Florence who patronized many artists and humanists including Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Botticelli (he's a Medici)

Taille

Influential tax that was paid mainly by peasants, as nobles and certain bourgeoisie were exempt. The exemptions caused debt in the French government.

Jethro Tull

Innovator in Agriculture. Created the seed drill. Just recognize his name as associated with the Ag Rev and not crappy 70s music (Aqualung!)

Charles "Turnip" Townsend

Innovator in the Ag Rev. Advocated crop rotation using nitrogen replacing plants (turnips/clover)

treaty of chaumont--quadruple alliance

Insisted upon by Castlereigh, its members were Russia, Austria, Great Britian and Prussia. -lasted for 20 years -against france -first time since 1792 a solid coalition formed -3 weeks later entered Paris and abdicated Nap.

Marseillaise

Inspiring revolutionary song composed by Rouget de Lisle, a captain in the army engineers. Lyrics called people to defend the revolution against outsiders. Sung by provincial troops, from Marseillais, as they marched into Paris. Very nationalistic and opposed to tyranny. Later, 1795, adopted as national anthem. Still is today. Controversial in late 20th century because of belligerant, ultranationlistic lyrics.

Heliocentric Theory

Introduced by Nicholas Copernicus stating that the sun was in fact the center of the solar system.

Guttenburg (339):

Inventor of the Printing Press. (kinda). Signifigance? Are you kidding me?

Archbishop James Ussher

Ireland. Studied the bible and concluded that 4004 BC was the year in which the world was created.

La Rochelle

It is a city in France, which belonged to the Huguenots. It gained support from England during French Civil Wars.

Mendelsohn (561)

Jewish philosopher who believed that Jews should maintain a distinct community and that this diversity posed no threat to the state. This was a radical view of religious tolerance at the time. Now, it's pretty common. (I hope)

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist; filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time; best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503); also the name of a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle

Machiavelli

Italian political theorist whose book The Prince (1513) describes the achievement and maintenance of power by a determined ruler indifferent to moral considerations.

Popolo

Italian underclass; a new force that disenfranchised (deprived of power) and heavily taxed the people bitterly for being excluded from holding power; used armed force and violence to take over the government.

City States (319).

Italy did not exist as a political entity. It was divided between 5 major cities-states (Florence, Milan, Papal States, Venice, Naples)

J.G. Fichte

J.G. --- A moral and metaphysical philosopher, greatly admired in many countries, who believed -inner spirit of the individual created its own moral universe -the French Revolution was an emancipation of human spirit -the Terror was good that it was "forcing men to be free" -shared idea of "General Will"

J.G. Herder beliefs

J.G. ---- beliefs -copying of foreign ways made people shallow -all true civilization or culture must arise from native roots, from the common people "volk" and not upper classes -each people had its own attitudes, spirit , or genius -nations were just different, not in competition, none was better than nother -thought everyone developed their own genius

Marat

Jacobin French revolutionary leader (born in Switzerland) who was a leader in overthrowing the Girondists and was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday (1743-1793)

Danton

Jacobin French revolutionary leader who stormed the Paris bastille and who supported the execution of Louis XVI but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794)

Conversos (337):

Jews who supposedly converted to Christianity in order to avoid expulsion from Spain. These conversos (along with the Moriscos) were a big target of the Spanish Inquisition which accused them of falsely converting.

Geneva Switzerland

John Calvin's city that was to become a model Christian community. A city whose laws matched the will of God or Calvin. Geneva was a refuge for persecuted Protestants.

"Reasonableness of Christianity"

John Locke argued that Christianity was a reasonable religion.

"Essay Concerning the Human Understanding"

John Locke asked how we attain knowledge and if anything is certain; held that the mind starts blank but is then shaped; political theory.

"Reasonableness of Christianity"

John Locke- Agued that Christianity is a reasonable form of religion. Softened the friction between religion and natural knowledge but tended to shut out the supernatural and merge religious feeling into an unruffled common sense.

"Letter on Toleration"

John Locke; a church that tolerated all but atheists and Catholics

Significance of the Holy Roman Empire:

Just when England, France, & Spain are becoming modern States (New Monarchies) by centralizing power from local nobles to a King, The H.R.E. fails to do this. Thus it fails to modernize and thus remains weaker than it should be compared to the emerging powers. (A preview: When the Germans DO get their act together and unify to create Germany in 1871, they will be the most productive and populous country in modern europe).

Three Major Changes:

Justification through faith, not works. Every man is his own priest.

Jena and Auerstdt

Key French victories against Prussia. Prussians flee to get help from Russia.

Flight to Varennes

King Louis XVI and his families attempt to escape Paris June 21st of 1791; made it only to this city where they were arrested and put on house arrest. End of French Monarchy as they were soon killed on January 21th, 1793 (Marie Antoinette was killed 10 months later in October)

Count of Artois

King Louis XVI's brother- emigrated to foreign parts and was preparing to agitate against the Revolution

William and Mary

King and Queen of England; William of Orange married to Mary, one of James's Protestant daughters. Invited to invade England to stop James's new son from getting the throne. Wisely accepted the Bill of Rights and embraced the idea of limited (constitutional) monarchy

James I

King of England (first Stuart monarch); was James VI of Scotland, didn't understand Parliament and refused Puritan demands to eliminate Episcopal system of church organization in the Church of England; ruled by divine right. Anger and dissent gradually increased during his rein (1603 - 1625)

Charles I

King of England during the Civil War and eventually executed. He avoids calling Parliament for 11 years, introduces more ritual into Anglican Church which upsets Puritans. His need for cash for the war on Scotland instigated the English Civil War; is beheaded by the Rump Parliament

Henry VIII

King of England who enacts the Act of Supremacy, breaks England from the Catholic church and the authority of the pope, and begins the English Reformation. Does it so that he can divorce his first wife Catherine for Anne Boleyn; makes moderate changes in the church; had six wives and three kids

James II

King of England; Charles II's very Catholic brother who is overthrown by the nobles in the Glorious Revolution. He engages in a series of antagonistic moves against Parliament and Protestants. However, rather than go through the upheaval of regicide again, Englishmen decide to "wait it out" for his death and the ascension of his cool protestant daughter.*but then...his new wife has a son (Catholic); . . .

Fredrick William I

King of Prussia from 1713-1740. Famous for his intensely trained and very large army. During his rule he nearly doubled it's size and pushed it to become the best trained force in Europe. (personally i think he was gay)

The "New" Monarchies (cw):

Kingdoms that, in the late 1400s, began reestablishing/centralizing royal authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and dominating all territories under their rule. Spain, England, & France were the new monarchies successful in reversing the decentralized feudal system and sucking power from the Nobility & Church into themselves!

allied states

Kingdoms under the rule of Napoleon. Included Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Sweden.

Frederick I & Frederick William I

Kings of Prussia (Hohenzollern) who create an absolutist state in central Europe. Gave nobles free reign over peasants, no taxes,etc. in return that they do not challenge his control. Follow mercantilist policies. Enacted religious toleration.

Seven Years War

Known in America as French and Indian war. It was the war between the French and their Indian allies and the English that proved the English to be the more dominant force of what was to be the United States both commercially and in terms of controlled regions.

Household Economy

Labor organized within the family unit for the good of the group

Taille

Land tax in France. Most French nobles were exempt from this tax. Came to symbolize the unfair position/rights of nobles in the old regime.

Spanish Armada (406):

Large Spanish fleet sent by Philip II to attack England's Elizabeth I in 1587. The English won a stunning victory. Impact: gave heart to Protestant resistors across Europe. Dealt a blow to Spanish power from which it never recovered. England (while still a second-rate power) is set up to expand into a global empire.

Sumptuary Laws

Laws governing the clothes that one is allowed to wear. Only nobles were permitted to wear certain fabrics. These laws were becoming increasingly annoying to the rising bourgeoisie (who increasingly had more cash than nobles)

Game Laws

Laws granting nobles the exclusive right to hunt game for sport. These laws forbid all other people from hunting for food. Poaching (illegal hunting) was a capital offense. In Times of famine, peasants could not kill wild animals for food no matter how plentiful they may be. One of the clearest examples of aristocratic dominance and manipulation of laws of the old regime.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the Parliamentarians against Charles I in the English Civil War. Executed Charles I and created the Commonwealth. Eventually became Dictator (Lord Protector) by disbanding Parliament and ruling alone.

Frederick of the Palatinate

Leader of the Protestant princes against Ferdinand during the first phase of the war. Failed.

Emelyan Pugachev (Pugachev Rebellion)

Leader of the largest peasant revolt in Europe. He promised Russian peasants land and freedom. Catherine the great brutally suppressed this revolt. Thereafter, any thoughts of improving the lives of peasants was set aside for a generation. Example of Catherine's willingness to be brutal and an example of how attempts to improve conditions can unwittingly cause a backlash.

the continental system

Napoleon hoped to ruin England economically. -after battle of Jena, issued the Berlin Decree -forbid the important of British goods into any part of Europe allied with or dependent on himself -therefore, he established this...

Potosi

Located in Bolivia, one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America. (profits of Potosi resulted in the funding of European Projects such as the Anti-Protestant Counter Reformation)

"...the state of nature had a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone, and reason, which is that law...not to harm another in life, liberty, and property."

Locke; people should be allowed to overthrow a monarch if they abuse their power

Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII's chief governmental minister. 1) Eliminates political/military rights of Huguenots while keeping religious rights to make them more dependable. 2) Spies to uncover plots/conspiracies 3) creates Intendants to execute orders; his policies eventually strengthen the monarchy

"I am the state."

Louis XIV of France; I am all of France because I am the absolute monarch

Philip of Anjou

Louis XIV's grandson. Spanish War of Succession.

Edict of Fontainebleau

Louis XIV. Repeals the Edict of Nantes. Bans Huguenots. Part of a return to "One King, One Faith, One Law"

Maupeou

Louis XV's chancellor, set up new parliaments

"I am the state"

Louis XVI 's famous quote. - Government is not the people, nor is Government it the body of ministers. Government resides in the person of Louis XVI. Used to justify any actions.

The Sun King

Louis XVI, meaning he's the light of his country. France revolves around him. Symbol of his reign

royalist threat to directory

Louis XVIII (XVI brother) emerged to encourage royalists

Declaration of Verona

Louis XVIII announced intention to restore Old Regime and punish all involved in revolution

constitutional charter of Louis XVIII

Louis XVIII came into power and issued this, partly at insistence of Alex, partly because he wanted approval of who was influential. -in practice, what most Frenchmen wanted -promised legal equality -nothing feudal -parliamentary government with two chambers -recognized Napoleon law codes, concordat, etc -confined vote to a very few large landowners

berlin decree (1806)

Napoleon made this decree in 1806, basically declaring the Continental system: no trading with Britain. response from Britain: "order in council"

September Massacres (1792)

Louis's imprisonment was followed by this. Wild stories seized the city that imprisoned counter-revolutionary aristocrats/priests were plotting with the allied invaders. As a results, angry crowds invaded the prisons of Paris and summarily slaughtered half the men and women they found.

Diet of Worms (1521)

Luther's Heresy trial before Charles V in the Holy Roman Empire in which Luther was expected to recant . He did not, and the Diet issued the Edict of Worms: banishment from the H.R.E.

Priesthood of all believers

Luther's belief that every believer is his own priest

Gustavus Adolphus

Lutheran king of Sweden who helped the Lutherans in Germany by sending in his army. Saved Protestantism in the 30 Years War. Died at the successful Battle of Lutzen

"A prince needs only to conquer to maintain his position. The means he has used...will be praised by everybody."

Machiavelli; a prince only need to conquer and expand if his country needs to; a prince needs to rule with an iron fist and be smart as well

The Fuggers (350):

Major Bankers in Northern Europe. Replaced the Italian Medicis as the dominant bankers. Significance: This shift from Medici to Fuggers is one of many examples of the shift of European wealth from South to North during this period. Use it in an essay!

Antwerp (401):

Major commercial/trading city of the Dutch. Sacked by the Spanish in the Revolt of the Netherlands. Referred to as the Spanish Fury. This brutality convinced the Catholic southern provinces to unite with the Protestant northern provinces against Catholic Spain. A good example of the ferocity that wars of religion produce. Amsterdam will become the major trading city as a result of this. : )

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Political Philosophy)

Man in a state of nature had been a "noble savage" and when we form governments we lose some of that nobility. When we form government we give up our "individual will" and infuse the government with what he called the "general will" It's a radical form of democracy. Since the government represent the will of us all (general will), to obey the general will was the definition of freedom. ??!! [ As I hope you notice, this could easily degenerate into a form of tyranny of the majority. ]

Robot

Mandatory service that serfs owed to the landlords in Austria. Source of anger/resentment

95 Theses

Martin Luther's ideas that he posted on the chuch door at Wittenburg which questioned the Roman Catholic Church. This act began the Reformation

95 Theses

Martin Luther's ideas that he posted on the church door at Wittenburg which questioned the Roman Catholic Church. This act began the Reformation

"Here I stand."

Martin Luther; I won't take anything back because it goes against what I believe in

Napoleon and Alexander, conversation on the raft

Napoleon and -----, conversation on the raft -Napoleon charmed this leader and said that England was the cause of all troubles -Frederick William III of Prussia was also present, but took less of a role -Napoleon was to be recognized as Emperor of the West, the other as the Emperor of the East (with the gain of areas like Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan and India)

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Mass slaying of Huguenots (Calvinists) in Paris, on Saint Bartholomew's Day, 1572.

Hobbes

Materialist. Believed that all phenomena, including man and animals, consist exclusively of particles of matter. Even human consciousness derives from the movement of tiny particles in the brain.

Margburg Castle

Meeting place of Luther and Zwingli in an attempt to unite their reformed churches in 1529. They failed because of differences in their interpretation of the Lord's Supper.

Admiral de Coligny

Member of Fr. nobility who was a leader of the Hugs. and had influence over the young King Charles IX. Led wedding party to Paris in 1572. Was killed in St. B's Day Massacre. Coligny's head sent to Pope who returned a Golden Rose in gratitude.

Presbyterian

Member of a Protestant church governed by elders and founded by John Knox. During the Scottish rebellion, England adopted it as their main religion.

Junkers

Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism.

Junkers

Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism. "Prussian aristocrats"

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus; an "army" of obedient Catholic scholar-monks. The Jesuits were created by Loyola as an organization that took special vows of obedience to the Pope. When Protestantism spread, the Church sent the Jesuits to stop it. When the Jesuits showed up, Protestants scattered!! (Jesuits have been called "God's Marines")

Peasantry

Members of the lowest class in some social class systems.

feudalism

Napoleon assaulted this Middle Ages/Old Regime form of landownership by: -establishing legal equality of everyone -nobility lost privileges -careers open to talent -manorial system was liquidated -fees and tithes generally gone (though not completely as it had in France) at times, Napoleon had to compromise with the aristocracy, in places like Poland, to gain support, but ALWAYS went for a separation of church and state.

Deductive Method

Method of drawing logical implications based on what we already know

Inductive Method

Method where one arrives at a knowledge based on observed facts

Duke of Alva

Military leader sent by Philip II to pacify the Low Countries. SENT BY PHILLIP TO TO THE NETHERLANDS WITH 20,000 SOLDIERS.

Bohemia

Modern Day Czech Republic. During this chapter it is in the Eastern quadrant of the Holy Roman Empire.

Feudal Dues

Money or crop owed to manor lords. Resented by peasants because they were the only ones working the land.

120,000; 500,000; 12.5 million

More than ____ African slaves were brought to America by 1575, and another _____ arrived in the next 50 years. ____ slaves would be transported in the next two centuries.

Utopia

More's Humanist work that explores the perfect (imaginary) society.

The Mountain

Most Radical political faction in the Convention. Became fierce critics of the Girondins. The Mountain & Jacobins will eventually become synonymous. Claimed to represent the aims of the Sans-culottes.

taille

Most important direct tax in France from which nobles were exempt

The Enclosure Movement (replaced the open field system)

Movement in the 1700s by landowners to enclose (fence off) their land. The goal of landowners was to increase production to achieve greater commercial profits. This change of culture brought about a lot of turmoil and the poor often rioted against it. Parliament approved this historic change because the large landowners controlled parliament. Importance: agriculture became more about profits, and the traditional protections for the poor decreased.

Grenada (337):

Muslim Kingdom in the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. Isabella & Ferdinand complete the reconquesta by conquering Grenada in 1492! Significance: Its destruction is an important step in the creation of Spain.

Moors (337):

Muslims in Spain. Driven out during the Reconquista.

waterloo

Nap escaped and met with the powers at this place, where he lost this battle to the Duke of Wellington. Sent to St. Helena, where he would die.

"...to destroy the island of shopkeepers."

Napolean; his Continential Plan says Britian will be destroyed by collapsing it's ability to trade

Ulm

Napoleon defeats Austrian force of 50,000 at Ulm in Bavaria.

Concordat of 1801

Napoleon's arrangement with Pope to heal religious division in France and Catholic church

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

Napoleon's attempt to recreate a Polish state.

battle of Leipzig

Napoleon's first failure in battle that caused his exile to Elba. -Nap rushed out of Russia and raised a new army that was untrained and unsteady -army was smashed at this battle, which Germans call the Battle of Nations -allies drop Napoleon back to France.

Talleyrand

Napoleon's foreign minister whose role to Alexander I was important. -confided to Alexander that Napoleon was overreaching himself and that Alexander should wait to make deals -acted as a traitor to prepare a safe place for himself when Napoleon fell -acted like an aristocrat of the Old Regime -believed that peace was only possible if there was a balance of countries. -Rus+Fr alliance to him = against Balance of Power politics -later named Prince of Benevento

Emperor (1804)

Napoleon's self acclaimed title at the Height of his power.

Lepanto

Naval battle between the Spanish and the Ottoman Empire resulting in a Spanish victory in 1571 and a TURKISH DEFEAT.

Ferdinand II of Bohemia

New Catholic king of Bohemia and soon confiscated the estates. Tried to close Protestant churches

Isabella of Castile (336):

New Monarch of Spain. Began unification/centralization of Spain with her marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon.

Scientific Method

Newton fused the inductive and deductive methods of reasoning into the single scientific method which began with systematic observations and experiments, which were used to arrive at general concepts. Deductions from these general concepts could then be tested and verified by precise experiments. The Scientific Method told how things worked but did not give an answer for why they did.

"The Prince"

Niccolo Machiavelli analyzed a ruler without the influence politics and theology and discussed their behavior.

the Great Elector

Nickname for Frederick William, one of the greatest Hohenzollern rulers.

Long Parliament

Nickname for The Parliament was called during King Charles I's reign, led the revolt against him, executed him, and then ruled during the Commonwealth. It's not an official title. It is just what historians refer to it as.

feudal elements of old regime

No serfdom in France- peasants worked for themselves or as sharecroppers However, some features of the feudal age still existed: Manor owner had: Hunting rights Monopoly over the village mill, bakeshop, or wine press, which he collected fees (banalités) Vestigial powers of jurisdiction in the manorial court and certain local police powers Right of eminent property

Nobles of the Robe/Sword

Nobles of the Sword are hereditary noble from the middle ages and must be weakened if a king is to exercise real authority. Louis gives them a social life in Versailles so that they do not get in the way of government business. Nobles of the Robe are the wealthy middle class nobles created by Louis XIV to help run the country. (and siphon power from the Nobles of the Sword)

- - Humanism:

Northern renaissance humanism was more religious than it's italian counterpart. these Northern (Christian) Humanists sought to go back to early chuch writings and rejected the formalism of the medieval Church.

Peiter Brueghel (cw):

Northern renaissance painter. famous for peasant scenes.

frankfurt proposals

November 1813, Metternich proposed these to napoleon. -Napoleon would remain emperor and retain its "natural frontier on Rhine" -peace seemed unreachable but Nap did not accept.

Tennis Court Oath

Oath taken by the Third Estate to become the National Assembly and to write a constitution for France. Beginning of the Revolution!!!

Lord Protector

Oliver Cromwell's title that he took when becoming DICTATOR of England

General Augereau

One of Napoleon's generals that he sent to Paris to oversee the council's annulling of its elections from the previous spring.

The Papal States (319):

One of the 5 Major Italian City States, centered in Rome. This was land in central Italy that was governed directly by the church. The pope had Temporal power over this region, in addition to spiritual authority.

Florence (320):

One of the 5 major Italian city-states. 1) was the home-base for the Medici family. The most powerful banking family in Europe. 2) had the appearance of a Republic but was really an oligarchy of businessmen 3) was the center of the cultural renaissance.

Botticelli

One of the leading painters of the Florentine Renaissance; The Birth of Venus (look it up, you'll remember it)

Jacques Hebert

One of the most radically left-leaning of the Jacobins, he proposed the Cult of Reason in opposition to Robespierre's Cult of the Supreme Being, and for his troubles was guillotined during the climax of the Terror.

Father Jahn

One of the nationalist Germans who some considered too extreme. -somewhat the inventor of political gymnastics, had young men do calisthenics for the Fatherland -organized a youth movement -taught them that certain groups, like Jews, corrupted the purity of the German volk

"Novum Organum"

One of the two parts of "Instaturatio Magna"; inductive method; 1620(Bacon)

Napoleon

Overthrew French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile. (p. 591)

Assignats

Paper Money created by the new revolutionary government. Issued on the value of the lands confiscated from the Church. The money lost value and led to massive inflation. Inflation hurts the poor disproportionately . Notice Land was not given to the poor. Land was used by the new government to print money.

The Puritan Rump

Parliament's taking of power from the other Parliamentarians

Roundheads

Parliamentary forces mostly made up of Puritans

Council of Trent

Part of the Catholic Reformation. Reform-minded Catholics proposed a meeting that was to reach a compromise between the Catholics and Protestant. However, Hard-line Catholics got control of it and declared that only faithful Catholics would attend. Since only Catholics could participate, it left the church in the same conservative situation. After much study the Council determined that church was indeed correct (and Protestants were wrong) regarding doctrine! HOWEVER, the council did condemn some of the abuses (luxury, absenteeism etc) that needed to be cleaned up. Side Note: This is one of the most important Church Councils ever created. It defined / redefined many basic doctrines/practices of the Church.

Toleration Act

Part of the Glorious Revolution. Law signed by William and Mary that allowed Puritans the right to publicly worship.

Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt

Partitioned the Spanish Empire. It gave England a lot of land, and helped in their rise as a world power. It gave France the throne of Spain, but they couldn't have a French king be king of Spain. It kept the Dutch safe, and Savoy and Brandenburg became Sardinia and Prussia respectively. The Austrian Habsburgs got the Spanish Netherlands and Milan, Naples, and Sicily in Italy. England got the asiento and had a presence in Gibraltar, increasing their mediterranean influence.

Pascal's Wager

Pascal decided that if he was a good Christian and God did exist, it would be good and if he wasn't a good Christian he would go to hell. If God didn't exist than it didn't matter. Therefore it was a safer bet to be a good Christian just in case God exists. The religious response to the new science. the church kept with the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian theory of cosmology, which greatly hurt them as mind of the educated person began to separate scientific investigations and religious beliefs. Science began to win over, causing a growing secularization in European intellectual life, exactly opposite of what the church had hoped for.

Treaty of Nimwegen (1678)

Peace between the Dutch Republic and France. Also established the northern border of France (close to the border today)

Peace of Utrecht

Peace treaty that ends the War of Spanish Succession. Creates 2 Bourbon houses (one in France and a new one in Spain)

Great Fear

Peasant Uprisings against the old order in the summer of 1789. Based on their fear that the country was going to be invaded by foreign powers that would crush the revolution. . . and a desire to right injustices done to them by the nobility. Demonstrates that 1) all classes were participating 2) it's gonna get violent

Nobles

People from rich and powerful families

Mulattoes

People of African and European descent

National Guard

People's "army" of the revolution during those early days of the Revolution. Led by Lafayette. It was like a private volunteer police force that served as the "muscle" of the revolution in the summer of '89.

Charles XII of Sweden

Perhaps the most capable of Sweden's kings , was attacked by Denmark, Poland and Russia, fled to the ottoman empire and became a guest and protege of the turks before returning to Sweden

"Dark Ages" (cw):

Perjorative (negative) term for the middle ages coined by Renaissance thinkers (Petrarch) . Renaissance thinkers considered the 1000 years after the fall of Rome (476 A.D.) as a period of superstition and ignorance (and that they were living in a new period of learning!) Modern Historians do not use this term.

Servant (p 486)

Person hired to work for the head of the household in exchange for room, board, and wages. Usually young people trying to get enough money to create their own household.

Table of Ranks

Peter I's creation of a new system of Nobility. A system based on service, not on birth. It was the cornerstone of his plan to weaken the Russian nobility.

Battle of Lepanto (399):

Phillip II Spain. Naval battle in Mediterranean Sea between Christian Spain and Muslim Turks. Philip ejected the Turks from the sea. Example of Philips' desire to be "the most catholic king"

William the Silent

Phillip II's "stadholder" or lieutenant in the County of Holland. (Also called "William of Orange" as he ruled Orange)

Divine Right

Philosophy that God chooses who has the right to the throne. Contradicts our notion of equality. Articulated by Bishop Bossuet & James I

"a chameleon" (cw):

Pico's discription of humanity. We have the abilty to be whatever we choose to be. We are not worms in the dirt or victims of cosmic forces. Great example of the "dignity of man"

Lutherans of Germany

Pietism, quest for an "inner light"

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who was the first to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the earth from the center of the universe. This theory is considered the epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution.

Jacobins

Political Clubs in Paris. Radical republicans, claiming to represent the interests of the sans-culottes. The Mountain AND Girondins had been members of the Jacobin Clubs.

Pope Clement VII

Pope during the Sack of Rome (Ended the Renaissance). Also refused to recognized Henry VIII's (English king) divorce from Catherine of Aragon (Spanish Queen), which led to the English Reformation.

Population trends of 1700+

Population has steadily increased since the 1700s. Causes: Death rate declined due to fewer wars, epidemics, and better hygiene/sanitation. (medicine is NOT a factor in the 1700s). Food production is THE reason however. The agricultural revolution increased the yield dramatically. Impacts: created new demand for consumer goods. Provided new pool of labor. Major contributor to the decline of the Old Regime (since traditional institutions/cultures could not cope)

St. Francis Xavier

Portuguese Jesuit who, by 1550, baptized thousands of souls in India, Indonesia and Japan - in areas of Portuguese influence. Followed da Gama & Albuquerque.

Da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, which led to Portuguese control of the spice trade

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route. He found himslef in the midst of the unknown world of Arab commerce. Later he CAME BACK IN 1502 AND BROUGHT 21 VESSELS and broke out a ferocious war between the Arabs and the Portuguese.

Hohenzollern dynasty

Powerful German Family of Northern Germany. Will become rivals of the Hapsburgs for supremacy in central Europe.

Castile (336):

Powerful kingdom that will unify Spain. Isabella's Realm

Old Regime

Pre-revolutionary French society

Edmund Halley

Predicted the Next time Halley's comet would show up.

Feudal States

Premodern states in Europe in which power in a territory was divided among multiple and overlapping lords claiming sovereignty

Salons

Private drawing rooms where wealthy Parisian women would have intellectual discussions with aristocrat

problems of taxation

Privileged elements often evaded or were exempted from paying taxes Much of what taxpayers paid never came to the treasury Church insisted that its property was not taxable by the state

New Model Army

Professional, dedicated, religious, and very effective Army Created by Oliver Cromwell

Protestant Resistance Theory (394)

Protestants originally believed that the religious should be obedient to secular rulers (even if they were ungodly) based on Romans 13:1 They gradually embraced the concept of opposition to ungodly rule (ie Catholic rule) One of the most famous documents in this transformation was John Knox's First Blast of the Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment of Women in which he argued that the removal of a heathen monarch was not only permissible, but a Christian Duty!

Pius VII

Protested that Napoleon's son be the "King of Rome." Napoleon took him prisoner and interned him in France.

"Two Treatises of Government"

Provided on Locke's ideas of a social contract between people and government.

battle of Jena and Auerstädt

Prussia had previously been uninvolved but after Austerlitz, decided to join in alone against France. -defeated heavily at these two battles -afterward, Napoleon had a long series of many wins -made Alexander I unsure of what to do -Third Coalition ended soon

Brandenburg

Prussia. Non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern dynasty. Major north-eastern German state after the 30 Years War. The German State of Brandenburg was the traditional holding of the Hohenzollern family. The Duchy of Prussia was outside of the HRE (in Poland) and was acquired by them in1618.

Junkers

Prussian nobility

Richard Simon

Published works criticizing the Bible saying the Old Testament was based on medieval manuscripts of doubtful origin.

Louis XIII

Puppet King of France for Cardinal Richelieu. King during the 30 Years War

polish-saxon question

Q: what was to become of poland and saxony? -Russia and Austria temporarily allied, Talleyrand the scum assisted -Metternich and Castlereaghf reaked out and made a secret pledge to go to war with Russia and Prussia if they obtained waht they wanted.

David Hume (560)

Radical enlightenment thinker who 1) attacked Christianity and its miracles on a rational basis 2) attacked enlightenment faith in rationality. Created the famous "hume's fork" in which he questioned the ability of humans to know anything with certainty.

John Calvin

Reformer who creates Calvinism which focuses on predestination and the elect; builds a Calvinist city in Geneva, Switzerland. Calvin is the second more radical wave of the Reformation. Becomes more influential on the look and feel of Protestantism in the long run than Luther. Reformed Church" is a reference to a Calvinistic Church.

Elizabeth I (403)

Reigned 1558 - 1603 (the end of the Tudor family tree). Exceptional monarch of England, created a strong nation poised to expand into a global empire. Domestic Policy: created a religious settlement between Catholics and Protestants that prevented religious differences from tearing England apart. Created the modern Anglican Church with Protestant Doctrine and traditional Catholic ritual. Foreign Policy: supported Protestants throughout Europe (notably the Dutch Revolt). Successfully protected England from Spanish domination.

Anglican

Relating to the Church of England, run by Queen Elizabeth I.

Patriarchs

Religious leader of the Orthodox Church. Peter will abolish this position and transform the Russian Orthodox Church into an office of Government

Milan Decree (1807)

Response to Britain's "order in council". -any neutral vessel that had been previously at a British harbor would be confiscated.

The Catholic Reformation

Revival Movement WITHIN the Catholic Church spurred by the attacks of the Protestant Reformation. There were many Catholics who wanted to see Church practices cleaned up but wanted to remain faithful to the Church. These Catholic reformers created new orders of monks (Jesuits); new lay movements to foster piety; and called for a study of doctrinal reforms (Council of Trent). WARNING: do not confuse the Catholic Reformation with the Protestant Reformation.

Significance

Revolutions occur in times of rising expectation.

Moses Mendelssohn

Rewrote the torah in German transliteration. He advocated entering German culture while keeping Jewish law. He was orthodox but had a few reform principles.

The Fuggers (397, 350)

Rich Banking family in Augsburg (German version of the Medicis). Bankrolled the Hapsburg. Philip II will borrow/spend like a maniac. He will eventually default on his loans, thus bankrupting the people he borrowed from: the Fuggers.

eminent property rights

Rights of a French manor owner to collect taxes from his subordinate landowners

Worship of the Supreme Being

Robespierre introduced this in 1794. It was a deistic natural religion. The Republic recognized the existence of God and immortality of the soul . Wanted to reconcile Catholics and agnostics on this ground. But Catholics beyond reconciliation and freethinkers, in tradition of Voltaire, saw Robespierre as a reactionary, mystery monger and were instrumental in his downfall.

Cult of the Supreme Being

Robespierre's attempt in June of 1794 to an alternative to Christianity with this deistic cult. It proclaimed that the French were to recognize the existence of God and the immorality of the soul, but not a church, especially the Catholic Church, although the Catholics were to tolerated. All of this was done to not alienate the religious, which, while not an enlightened though, encompassed most of the French population at this time

Republic of Virtue

Robespierre's desire to reshape France based on the idea of civic virtue from the writings of Rousseau. He attempted to created a secular version of what Cromwell attempted in England. Most of France was not on board with his vision of Virtue. Who wants to be good all of the time??

Cuius Regio, Eius Religio

Whoever reigns, HIS religion

Hohenzollerns

Ruling family of Prussia

Second Coalition

Russia, Britain, and Austria Alliance formed against France.

Boyars

Russian nobles. Peter will try to "westernize" them.

muzhik

Russian peasant

Insurrection of Prairial

Sans-culottes rising of May 1795 after the Thermidorian Reaction to announce their general dissatisfaction with the execution of Robespierre and the end to the Terror

Insurrection of the Prairial

Sans-culottes rising of May 1795 after the Thermidorian Reaction to announce their general dissatisfaction with the execution of Robespierre and the end to the Terror

Royal Society of London and Royal Academies of Sciences in France

Scientific societies that formed early research facilities.

The New Atlantis

Scientific utopia who's inhabitants enjoyed a perfect society through knowledge and command of nature

Christine de Pizan

She was highly educated; one of the first women to earn a living as a writer (short stories, biographies, novels, and manuals on military techniques); one of the first European writers to question different treatment of men and women (Renaissance)

Book of Common Prayer

The book used in the churches in England during the reign of Edward VI. Very Protestant in doctrine and in English!! Not accepted by many because it made a lot of changes from what English churches had been like.

Astronomy

The branch of science that deals with the study of the universe

"The Advancement of Learning"

Second Installment of "Instauratio Magna"; 1623; Same ideas. (Bacon)

Freemason: (554)

Secret society created to spread/discuss enlightenment ideas. Subject of many conspiracy theories.

Indulgences

Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money. The practice led to the Reformation. If you buy it- all sins relieved

Treaty of Tordesillas (cw) :

Settlement of the divisive issue of New World ownership between the Spanish and the Portuguese. It was brokered by the Pope based on faulty maps. Spain got the majority of South America. Portugal got modern day Brazil. Guess which country in South america speaks portuguese today? no really guess.

Liberal Arts (321):

Seven areas of study that formed education (grammar, rhetoric, logic, math, geometry, astronomy & music) based on ancient "classical" values. Notice the absense of "Theology"

Elizabeth I of England

She supported the northern protestant cause as a safeguard against Spain attacking England. She had her rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, beheaded. Elizabeth I of England succeeded Mary and reestablished Protestantism in England

Slave Corps in Ottoman Empire

Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a legal and important part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society until the slavery of peoples of the Caucasus was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were allowed.

Silesia: (532)

Small strip of land owned by Hapsburg Austria. Prussia always coveted it because it separates Brandenburg from Prussia. IF Prussia could gain it, she would finally connect her lands. Frederick succeeds in the War of Austrian Succession.

Charles II

Son of Charles I who was restored to the throne in 1660. Kept his head. Very smart.

Stein's abolition of serfdom

Stein's ---- This event in Prussia was considered impossible because it was agitate the Junkers, but in order to fight for equality, it had to be done. -Stein's ordinance of 1807 abolished the hereditary subjection -peasants could move, migrate, marry, etc -if peasants remained on the same land, then they still had to do work -Edict of 1810, peasant could convert tenure to private property, but 1/3 had to go to a Junker. -later, peasants tended to be mere hired agricultural laborers

War of Spanish Succession

Spain's ruler leaves throne to Louis XVI's grandson, Philip. England, Holland, Austria, and German states fear France and Spain will join (Louis's grandson will eventually gain France's throne also) and throw off the balance of power. Ends with treaty saying Philip may take Spanish throne but the French and Spanish thrones must be separated.

conquistadores

Spanish 'conqueror' or soldier in the New World. They were searching for the 3-G's: gold, God, and glory.

Siglo d'Oro

Spanish Gold Century -sixteenth century where Spain had control (1550 to 1650

Ignatius Loyola

Spanish Soldier and Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits); Loyola became a Catholic leader during the Catholic/Counter Reformation. Loyola's focus was on the need for unquestioning obedience to the Catholic Church and her leaders.

Habsburgs

Spanish and Austrian, ruling family, dreamed of uniting Europe under Catholic Rule, stopped by Adolphus, enemies of France/Richelieu.

Pininsulares

Spanish colonists that had been born in Spain

Conquistadores (345):

Spanish conquerors of the new world (Pizarro, Cortez, etc). Typified the brutality of spanish conquest of the new world

Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547)

Cortez

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547)

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima (1475-1541).

Humanism (321+):

Specifically: Renaissance intellectual movement focusing on the Greek and Roman Classics. Generally: the Renaissance belief that man has inherent value and unlimited potential! Pico's The Dignity of Man!

Numismatics

Studies of ancient coins

Prince of Parma

Succeeded as governor general of the Netherlands after Don Juan Died in 1578. A diplomat as well as a soldier, Parma broke the solid front of the 17 provinces by a mixture of force and persuasion

"God's might and Mohammed's miracles are my companions."

Sulieman the Magnificent; God and Mohammed will help us in our efforts to expand

Francis I of France

Supported the Renaissance movement, 1st Renaissance king of France, controlled large parts of the French Church, prevented the Reformation movement of France

Roundheads

Supporters of Parliament in the English Civil War. Puritans

Cavaliers

Supporters of the King in the English Civil War

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish Lutheran king who conciliated all parties in Sweden and had extended Swedish holdings on the east short of the Baltic. He won victories for the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War and lost his life in one of the battles (1594-1632).

Austerlitz

Sweeping victory for napoleon against the coalition of Austria, Russia, & England. Establishes His dominance of the Continent. he's the "the tiger' to England's "shark"

Jacques Necker

Swiss bank advisor to Louis XVI. (just recognize him if you ever see it)Last ditch effort to save a bankrupt France

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss theologian whose sermons began the Reformation in Switzerland

Tricolor Flag

Symbol of the Revolution. Thick Red, White, & Blue vertical stripes. Replaced the White flag of the Monarchy. White becomes the symbol for conservatism for the next 100 years.

Inquisition

System of Courts recreated during the Counter Reformation established by the pope to ferret out doctrinal errors and persecute protestants. The official name was the "Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Universal Inquisition" ! Most people just call it the Roman Inquisition

Ecomienda system (349):

System of Spanish rule of the new world. Conquestadors were given a free-hand in governing the native peoples. Very Feudal structure.

Corvees

System of forced labor for public works in France. (i.e. get 'drafted' to build a road) Nobles were exempt from this. Another source of anger/resentment in the old regime

Asiento System

System that took slaves to the New World to work for the Spanish. Required that a tax be paid to the Spanish ruler for each slave brought over.

Putting Out System

System which was basically an assembly line which made goods easy to manufacture and cheaper to create. Took less time, made guilds obsolete.

Mercantilism (p 517)

THE dominant Economic theory of the first semester. Belief that governments heavily regulate trade and commerce in hope of increasing national wealth. The Goal was to have the most gold in the government coffers. Countries obtained wealth by selling more goods abroad than they purchased. Rules should be established which promoted your businesses (subsidies / monopolies) and reduced other countries businesses (import taxes). Colonies were created in this system because they provided 1) cheap resources and 2) captive markets to buy your stuff. It's based on the flawed notion that wealth is 1) finite and 2) based on gold/silver.

Prussian-Austrian Rivalry

THE dominant conflict in Central Europe was between the rising Prussians and the decaying Hapsburgs over who would be the dominant 1) German power & 2) central power. Prussia will gradually win this fight.

"scorched earth"

Tactic used by the Russians against Napoleon's invasion. just retreat as they invade, drawing them further into the heart of Russia. Key point. Burn all supplies in your own country as you retreat. This will deprive the enemy of forging for food (their supply lines are getting stretched as they invade). Eventually, they the winter will get them. Same tactic worked against Hitler.

feudal dues

Taxes collected by manorial lords to finance their standards of living in the absence of big agriculture

internal tariffs

Taxes on imports and exports from other countries. Provincial and municipal tariffs against imports from outside. In effect from medieval times to protect local industries/crafts united under guilds. Mercantilists sought to end these tariffs and impose external tariffs to protect domestic industries. Much resistance to this and took a while to accomplish. England more successful in breaking down internal tariffs than continental Euro.

Great Schism

Taxing the clergy- Philip the Faire wanted to tax the clergy to finance war with England Papal Bull- Boniface VIII stated claim to papal supremacy Babylonian captivity of the Medieval Church

The Ancien Regime (the old Regime)

Term for Europe before the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution. The Old Regime was a world in which hierarchy, and communal interests dominated. It is associated with Politically: Absolute rule and aristocratically controlled armies/culture Economically: Agricultural dominance / Scarcity of food Socially: Group mentality / Rights as groups /

Metayer

Term for peasants who worked as sharecroppers.

Glorious Revolution (1688 to 1689)

The "bloodless" revolution and overthrow of James II by nobles determined to assert the Rights of Parliament. Culminates in the joint-reign of William and Mary; the passage of the Bill of Rights! : and the passage of the Toleration Act. England will now be a Constitutional Monarchy.

Absolute vs Constitutional Monarchy

The 2 Models of government structure that develop during the 1600s

"order in council"

The British response to the Berlin decree. -neutrals can enter Continental ports only if they have stopped at Great Britain first -exactly what Napoleon had tried to prevent Napoleon's response: Milan Decree

Frederick V

The Calvinist Elector Palatine; The new elected king obtained by the Protestants in order to keep Protestant assistance.

Reconquista (336):

The Christian crusade to drive the muslim kingdoms out of the Iberian peninsula. Important step in the unification of Spanish authority. The last Muslim kingdom, Grenada, fell in 1492.

Petition of Rights

The Document that the Short Parliament forced Charles I to sign outlining the rights of Englishmen. After signing it, Charles dissolves Parliament and ignores it (for the next 11 years). Just be aware that the Petition of Rights and the Bill of Rights are not the same thing.

Continental System

The Economic System that napoleon enforced on Europe in order to stick it to the British. The Brits can't do business on the continent. The Brits retaliate with a blockade around the continent. Everybody loses. It fails.

Estates General

The French council that advised the king; France's 'parliament'. Wasn't called for good time until Louis XVI.

Levee en Masse

The French policy of conscripting all males into the army. This created a new type of military force based upon mass participation and a fully mobilized economy.

The Bourgeoisie

The French term for the middle class. The new professional urban class of merchants/lawyers/etc. They fed the consumer culture with their large incomes. They had $ but no respect / rights. They were despised from above and envied from below. They will "overthrow" the nobility. Important: the industrial revolution is treating these people right. They are the primary beneficiaries of the profits and the primary consumers of the new products.

Protestantism

The religious group that broke away from the Catholic Church and formed their own beliefs, such as personal interpretations of the Bible, ministers had no special powers, and had only 2 mentioned sacraments, and hated idolatry

Versailles

The King's palace 20 miles from Paris. The women of Paris marched to here and brought the king back toParis in 1789

Handel

The Messiah

The Protectorate (1653-58)

The Military Dictatorship of Cromwell created when he disbanded the Parliament altogether.

Second Estate

The Nobility Resurgence since the death of Louis XIV

The Dutch Republic

The Northern Dutch that fought for independence against Spain. Their culture and economy will flourish during the 1600s. Reasons for Dutch Prosperity. Religious Tolerance, Urban Culture, Overseas Trade, Seaborne Empire in Asia / New World

The Restoration

The Period after the Commonwealth when The Stuarts (Charles II); the House of Lords; and the Anglican Church were restored to power. Can refer to either the event in 1660 or the period of time. 1660-1688

Leon Alberti

architect/writer; "Men can do all things if they will"; idea of the universal man

Armada Catolica

The Spanish fleet of ships designed to attack the English that ultimately was destroyed in a major defeat and the beginning of the demise of the Spanish.

National Assembly

The Third Estate invites the other 2 Estates to join it and call themselves the National Assembly. A symbolic gesture. "We are not divided into estates, this political group is an assembly of the entire nation." The National Assembly then starts to create the new government (limited monarchy). It will become the Legislative Assembly when the limited monarchy is created

1517-1648

The Years associated with the Reformation and Wars of Religion.

Eminent property rights

The ability of nobles under the manor to own land/property, and lease/sell/buy it as they please. However, they had to pay a fee for the privilege.

- - Art Styles:

The art of the Northern Renaissance was much more secular in subject matter.Northern Renaissance artist were less likely to paint religiously themed painting. (mainly because these guys, being away from Rome, weren't hired by the Church)

Revolutionary Calendar

The calendar adopted by the first French Republic in 1793 and abandoned in 1805, the calendar adopted by the first French Republic in 1793 and abandoned in 1805. Dates were calculated from Sept. 22, 1792 (the Establishment of the Republic) and all religious holidays were eliminated for one national holiday which became Bastille Day

Cultural Relativism (574):

The belief that no culture can claim its customs are more "right" than the customs of another culture. According to this view, it is not wrong for Amazon Rainforest indians to have multiple wives. If it's OK in their culture, then it's ok. This is relativism 'lite'. It is still possible to be wrong WITHIN a cultural context. Thus, once your culture determines that marriage is monogamous, then it is wrong to have multiple wives . . . in that culture. As (educated) Europe came increasingly into contact with the rest of the world, cultural relativism became a more common worldview. It became more difficult to claim that European customs were the "correct" way.

Closed Commercial State

The book that J.G. Fichte published. He sketched out a totalitarian system where the state planned the whole economy and shut itself off from the world to develop on its own.

First Estate

The clergy The church was the greatest of all landowners The income from the church properties was divided unequally

Magyars (533)

The dominant minority in the Austrian Empire. These Hungarians will use their power to extract rights/concessions from the Hapsburg monarchy. So not only are the Austrians dealing with the Prussian outside their country, they've got unrest within their country.

The Institution of Christian Religion

book by John Calvin in which he opposes Catholic ideas and develops Calvinist ideas

The Constitution of 1791

The first government created during the French Revolution. It created a Limited Monarchy (like England's) which focused on the rights of people. It represented the desires of the Bourgeousie elements of the revolution.

Indulgence

The forgiveness of the punishment due for past sins, granted by the Catholic Church authorities as a reward for a pious act. Martin Luther's protest against the sale of indulgences is often seen as starting the Protestant Reformation

Oligarchies

The government is ruled by an elite few, usually a ruling family or a group of generals. Citizens have very little to no say in government.

Alexander I

The grandson of Catherine the Great, he became tsar after a palace revolution when his father was murdered. -surrounded himself with liberals and zealous men -regarded partitions of Poland as a crime -hailed as rival of Napoleon -moralistic and self-righteous

Paris

The heart of the Enlightenment.

peace Vienna-weak points

congress of vienna, some notes -did not satisfy nationalists -did not satisfy democrats -some peaces broke down 1830 and 1848

Predestination

The idea that God's omnipotence would know all that would happen in life. He believed that the ones who were saved were "God's chosen few."

Infanticide

The killing of unwanted infants usually by smothering or exposure to the elements. One of the many unfortunate consequences of the population explosion of the 1700s

Magellan

The leader/captain of the first people to circumnavigate the world, led Spanish expedition to Philippines

39 Articles of Faith (403):

The list of beliefs of the Church of England created by Elizabeth. They are moderate in their protestant ideas. The 39 are an easing up of the 42 Articles created by the radical protestants under her brother, Edward VI.

The Index

The list of books prohibited by the Catholic Church (obviously Luther's and Calvin's works are included in the Index). The goal was to protect the faith and morals of Catholics by preventing people from being contaminated. It was created during the Counter-Reformation as a way of stopping the spread of Protestantism.

Marburg Colloquy

The meeting of Luther and Zwingli to unite their two movements. They failed over the issue of communion. Zwingli believed the Bread and Wine were symbolic. Luther could not go that far.

Hidalgos

The minor nobility of Spain. Often they possessed little wealth and were interested in improving their position through the overseas empire.

Louis XIV's palace at Versailles

The most elaborate baroque monument to political absolutism was:

Voltaire (557)

The most influential and famous philosophe. Outspoken advocate for free speech and religious toleration. He rejected democracy and supported enlightened absolutism.

Anabaptists

The most radical group of the Reformation. They had ideas that both Catholics and other protestants considered dangerous. They believed infants should NOT be baptized. Only adults could make this decision & be baptized. They believed in the separation of church and state and that Christians should not participate in government activities of any kind. Including going to war. They believed that Churches were for true Christians only. They did not believe in compulsory Church attendance.

Viceroyalties

The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata. SPanish America consisted of 2 Great VICEROYAL TIES- those of Mexico and Peru, with 22 bishoprics, and a university in each viceroyalty.

The Rump

The new 50 to 60 puritans in Parliament who supported Cromwell and wanted to trial Charles I for treason.

Gregorian Calendar

The new calendar that was 10 days apart from the earlier Julian Calendar

The middle class (of the 1700s)

The new urban group that is not as 'high' as the nobility but not as 'low' as the peasants. They are a new force in Europe and the traditional institutions are not equipped to deal with them . . .yet.

Balance of Power

The relationship between the major countries during the 1700s No one country could gain dominance over the others; although, all of them wanted and tried to. Whenever any one would begin to dominate, and alliance would form against them. Kinda like Whac-a-Mole.

hunting rights

The privilege afforded to the French nobles of keeping a game preserve and hunting on others' land

Hunting rights

The privilege of a manor lord to keep game preserves and free hunting on his and his peasants' land.

Feudal reaction

The process of feudal lords collecting more dues or reviving old, disused taxes to raise their living standards, ultimately lowering their peasants'.

Decline of Spain

The rise in population coupled with inflation led to a weakening of Spanish industry and emigration. The expulsion of Jews and Moors in 1492 also contributed to the decline, as they were productive members of the economy.

Anabaptists

The sects that emerged from the social groups that created a protest of mixed religious ideas against the whole social order.

Old Regime

The society of France that existed in France before the French Revolution. Included absolutism and feudalism.

The Spanish Netherlands

The southern part of the Low Countries that stayed loyal to Spain. During this chapter, The Spanish Netherlands are still ruled by Spain, but will be invaded by France, and eventually given to the Austrians by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Its capital was Brussels

Mestizo pt. 2

The term used by Spanish authorities to describe someone of mixed native American and European descent.

Renaissance

The time period which Europe flourished and the rebirth of new ideas and love of art, The great period of rebirth in art, literature, and learning in the 14th-16th centuries, which marked the transition into the modern periods of European history

Open Field System

The traditional way European agriculture was organized. Traditionally, farmers cultivated unconnected strips of land held "in common". This common land was controlled/owned by the community. This system was not the most efficient BUT was designed to favor poorer farmers. This system was designed to guarantee a steady food supply, and was not designed to promote innovation and increase the amount of food.

treaty of Tilsit

The treaty was signed after a conversation on a raft. -France and Russia became allies mainly against Great Britain -alliance lasted 5 years -Alexander accepted Napoleon as Emperor of the West.

Britain (hostility toward)

There was a lot of hostility felt toward this one country because: -it had been successful in the 18th century struggle for wealth and empire -threatened to dominate the seas completely

Townspeople

There were serfs, peasants, merchants, king, nobles, knights, lords. The rise to prominence of this class was one of the most important developments in European society during Medieval Ages.

Silesian

Theresa's domestic advisor, flow of tax and soldiers

Kaunitz

Theresa's foreign relations advisor

Foundling Hospitals

These hospitals in citys such as London and Paris were established to care for thousands of abandoned children.

Federalists

These rebels to the French Revolution, located in the great provincial cities like Lyon, Bordeaux, and Marseilles demanded some sort of federal government in which they would experience the same liberties they had had during the old regime. While they received a great deal of foreign aid, all were hunted and by Robespierre and the movement never could gain power in France for fear of the guillotine.

Enrages

These were even more extreme than the sans-culottes . They were leftist, extremists in Paris and the provinces who declared that parliamentary methods were useless. Included women. Worked through-out the whole country. Formed revolutionary armies scouring countryside for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.

Enrages

These were even more extreme than the sans-culottes. They were leftist, extremists in Paris and the provinces who declared that parliamentary methods were useless. Included women. Worked thro-out the whole country. Formed revolutionary armies scouring countryside for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.

Feudal Lords

They were the only people with the right to exploit the land, in exchange they pledged obedience to the king.

Benedict de Spinoza

Thinker from Amsterdam who was excommunicated from the Amsterdam synagogue. He was greatly influenced by Descartes and followed his rational approach to knowledge, but was unwilling to accept the separation of mind from matter, and of an infinite God from the finite world of matter. He felt God was in everything.

War of the First Coalition

This (1792-1797) was the first major effort of multiple European monarchies to contain Revolutionary France. France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy of Austria on 20 April 1792, and the Kingdom of Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later. These powers initiated a series of invasions of France by land and sea, with Prussia and Austria attacking from the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhine, and Great Britain supporting revolts in provincial France and laying siege to Toulon. France suffered reverses (Battle of Neerwinden, 18 March 1793) and internal strife (Revolt in the Vendée), and responded with extreme measures: the Committee of Public Safety formed (6 April 1793) and the levée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counter-attacked, repelled the invaders, and moved beyond France. French arms established the Batavian Republic as a satellite state (May 1795) and gained the Prussian Rhineland by the first Treaty of Basel. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Holy Roman Empire ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French "Sister Republics". Spain made a separate peace accord with France (second Treaty of Basel) and the French Directory carried out plans to conquer more of Germany and northern Italy (1795). North of the Alps, Archduke Charles of Austria redressed the situation in 1796, but Napoleon carried all before him against Sardinia and Austria in northern Italy (1796-1797) near the Po Valley, culminating in the peace of Leoben and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The union for which this war is named collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France. The main force behind this collapse was the unwillingness for the Dutch and English to send land troops into battle coupled with the fact that Prussia was weak under Frederick William II and Austria was distracted by Prussia and Russia in Poland (Also Francis II was quite weak as well)

Volkgeist

This German idea eventually spread to all of Europe has a general romantic movement among countries. -emphasized genius or intuition and not reason -stressed differences rather than similarities of mankind -reflection of local conditions was important -inner genius more important than "rules" that everyone was expected to follow

Voyage from St. Petersburg to Moscow

This Russian work by Radischev, inspired by the French Revolution, condemned the evils of serfdom

Constitutional Convention

This body was to replace the Legislative Assembly to govern all of France after the Commune took power in Paris and effectively destroyed the Legislative assembly in August of 1792

Augsburg Confession

This document, created in 1531, is the main list of beliefs of the followers of Luther. It was presented by Luther-friendly Princes to Charles V in an attempt to codify and explain the beliefs/convictions/differences of this new belief: "Lutheranism"

shame of the princes

This event involved: -German rulers competed for the absorption of German territory -bribed French to gain interests--Talleyrand gained 10 million francs -HRE was mauled by princes

The Elizabethan Settlement (406):

This is the nickname for the compromise establishing the look of England's official church (The Church of England) by the Act of Uniformity. Most people accepted it. Only Extreme Protestants (Calvinists-Puritans) and Extreme Catholics were unhappy with this compromise.

Baron Stein

This man attempted to reconstruct the state of Prussia in order to get it ready to reconstruct the army. -committed to the philosophy of Kant and Fichte--dwelt on concepts of duty, service, moral character, etc -believed in an equality of duties and less of rights -caste structure of Prussia became less rigid -B's could now buy land and serve as officers in the army

William Wordsworth

This man wrote in joyous response to the French Revolution: "Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, but to be young was very heaven!"

Jean-Marie Roland

This man, along with Condorcet, led the Girondins during the Legislative Assembly

Jean Bodin

This was the man who created the theory of sovereignty in which a state becomes sovereign by claiming a monopoly over the instruments of justice.

Alsace

This region was the last in France to have feudalism, remaining at the demand of the German Lords that had been forced to enter the Kingdom of France after the Peace of Westphalia. The Constituent Assembly abolished this feudalism in 1791, offering compensation in return.

Avignon

This region, which was always left to the direct rule of the papacy, was forcibly annexed by the Constituent Assembly

Peace of Ryswick

This treaty secured Holland's borders and thwarted Louis's expansion into Germany. The secured the borders of Holland and ended Louis XIV's expansion into Germany.

Fuggers

This was a family of prominent bankers and merchants in Augsberg. They were members of the mercantile patriciate in Augsberg and were venture capitalists. They gained great status through wealth, and dominance similar to that of the Medicis. They were allies of the Habsburgs, which was profitable for both families. FIRST STARTED A BUSINESS IN A NEW KING OF CLOTH, CALLED FUSTIAN, in which cotton was mixed with other fabrics. They then dealt also in spices, silks, and other goods.

The Mountain

This was a political party within the National Convention named because the people that made up this party sat on the highest benches in the assembly hall. These people were the activists within the Convention. This party, which quickly became the most radical in the National Convention, worried that the Girondists would become conservative because of their already moderate beliefs. Although they were in competition with each other, this party eventually won due to their alliance with the Sans-Culottes, resulting in a more radical group of people. The mountains believed in equal outcome.

Johann Tetzel

This was the man who was hired by Archbishop Albert of Mainz to sell indulgences, which he did extremely successfully and pissed off Luther

confederation of the rhine

This was likely the most notable of the dependent states in napoleon's domain. Consolidating a great deal of the HRE, it contained a league of German princes who were considered sovereign. -4 newly named kings of Saxony, Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Westphalia

Vile Riffraff

This was the advanced terminology used by Catherine the Great to describe the literary works of the French Revolution, and the enlightenment in general once the revolution began, banishing them from being translated in Russia, including her old friend Voltaire

Magellan

This was the first person to lead an expedition that circumnavigated the world. (1520)

Joseph II

This was the ruler of the Habsburgs that controlled the Catholic Church closely, granted religious toleration and civic rights to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom

Revolutionary

This was the term that allowed for the Committee of Public safety to exist even under the new French Constitution that was signed in June of 1798. It essentially meant that until peace had been made with the First Coalition, them Robespierre was allowed to run a dictator state in order to ensure victory (and ensure that he would stay in power longer)

Peter the Great

Tsar of Russia; wants to westernize his country. Gains control of Orthodox Church, makes Russia into great state/military power; creates the table of ranks

Age of Exploration

Time period during the 15th and 16th centuries when Europeans searched for new sources of wealth and for easier trade routes to China and India. Resulted in the discovery of North and South America by the Europeans.

King of Rome

Title Napoleon gave to his son.

Robespierre

To eliminate those who wished to destroy the revolution and created a more radical and therefore more perfect revolution, the Hebertists, this man had them ousted from the government, but so not to have a reaction, this man also excluded the Mountain, now known as Dantonists, from the government as well. The bureaucracy was to only be run by supporters of this man and no one else: a modern dictatorship that Napoleon would prefect

Duke of Alba (400):

Took a "get tough" approach against the rebellious Dutch. Counterproductive in that it only unified the diverse dutch people against phillip.

treaty of Pressburg

Treaty between France and Austria after French victory at Austerlitz. Napoleon took Venetia from Austrians.

treaty of Tilsit

Treaty between France and Russia in 1807. High point for Napoleon's success. France and Russia became allies (lasted for 5 years). As for Prussia, Napoleon continued to occupy Berlin with his troops, and he took away all Prussian territories west of the Elbe (to become part of his Confederation of the Rhine.

The Treaty of Paris (1763)

Treaty ending the 7 Years War: Britain gets Canada / everything east of the Mississippi river. Britain also gains dominance over India.

treaty of Amiens

Treaty in 1802 that ended fighting between the French and Great Britain

Campo formio

Treaty where German princes were guaranteed areas of the former HRE to compensate for what France took from them left of the Rhine. Reaffirmed several times and signed by Austria.

Illyrian Provinces

Trieste and the Dalmatian Coast

Francis Bacon and René Descartes

Two thinkers of the 1600's; reasoning and doubt.

Dutch Republic

United Provinces of the Netherlands-1st half of 17th century was golden age-government consisted of organized confederation of 7 provinces each with representative government

The English Civil War (1642-1651)

War between the Supporters of Charles I and monarchy on one side and the supporters of Cromwell and the parliament on the other. Results with the execution of Charles I in 1649. A major step in the limitation of monarchy in England and the strengthening of Parliament.

Vesalius

Updated human anatomy and brought medicine out of the second century Galen slums.

Reformation Parliament

Used by Henry VIII to end pope's power in England, make him head of church and to grant him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

Inductive Method

Using knowledge and facts to come to a conclusion; observations.

Deductive Method

Using knowledge to get facts; reasoning.

Hapsburg Valois

Wars between Charles V and Valois family of France to gain control of Burgandian Netherlands

Candide (558)

Voltaire's most famous work. It's a satirical attack on 17th century Europe. It was also an attack on the Enlightenment optimistic assumption that 1) human society could be improved and 2) the optimistic notion that a deistic God has created the best of all possible worlds.

"The Holy Roman Empure is neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."

Voltaire; the Holy Roman Empire has many weaknesses and they will be its downfall

Hugo Grotius

Wanted to combine and bring order to nations.

War of Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748)

War between Austria and Prussia over Silesia. Frederick the Great wanted it, Maria Theresa of Austria was determined to keep it. She failed. France Supported Prussia and England supported Austria. The War ended in stalemate, but Prussia retained it's prize from the war: Silesia

Peninsular War

War between France and Spain from 1808-1813. Started when British Duke of Wellington sent help for Spanish guerrillas.

War of Jenkins Ear (1739)

War between Spain and England over trade in the West Indies. Significance: got many of the later wars going.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Was an important leader of the Haïtian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti. In a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator, even though the National Convention in 1794 conveyed the rights of man to the colonies, banishing slavery. Napoleon would reestablish slavery in Haiti in 1802, banishing this man to die in a French prison. Napoleon failed, a Haitian Republic was established in 1804 as his armies were destroyed by Yellow Fever, and so he sold the rest of France's territories in the western hemisphere that could be sold (Louisiana) to the fledgling United States

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Was an important leader of the Haïtian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator.

The Seven Years War (1756-1763)

What begins as a Prussian- Austrian conflict in central Europe erupts into a full scale colonial war between England (Prussia's ally) and France (Austria's ally) over much of the Globe. England will emerge as the dominant colonial power, France will be bankrupted and lose its colonies. Prussia reduces the Holy Roman Empire to a shell and becomes the dominant German power. Austria will shift its focus toward eastern Europe and the Balkans .

battle of Trafalgar (significance)

When Lord Nelson defeated Napoleon at this naval battle, it established the supremacy of the British navy for the next century.

Transubstantiation

When Luther condemned the seven sacraments to baptism and communion. He repudiated that god was mysteriously present in the bread and wine.

Indulgences

When people would sell the grace of god to fund a Church. Example, when Tetzel was traveling through Germany distributing indulgences to finance the building of St. Peter's building.

Hereditary Subjection

When serfs were forced to live under the roof of a lord because of hereditary reasons (ie. their grandfather worked for that lord's grandfather). They could not take another job or go to University without the permission of said Lord. Serfdom in Germany

Peace of Augsburg

When the war between the Schmalkalden League and Chalres V ended. The terms set at Augsburg signified a complete victory for the cause of Lutheranism and stats' rights. No individual freedom of religion was permitted; Each state of the empire received the liberty to be either Lutheran or Catholic. 1555!

Humanism

a Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements (as opposed to Medieval glorification of God); could be secular or nonsecular

95 Theses

a list of 95 criticism of Indulgences. Historians mark the beginning of the Reformation with his posting of the 95 Theses on October 31, 1517 on the Cathedral door at Wittenberg. It must be remembered that he did not advocate breaking with the church in 1517.

Anne of Austria

Wife of Louis XIII, Mom of Louis XIV. Runs France (with Mazarin) while Louis is a kid. She's a Hapsburg. Hmmm Hapsburg-Bourbon union. Their kids will cause trouble in Spain

Marie Antoinette

Wife of Louis XVI. Became a symbol of the decadent aristocracy for the revolutionary masses: "Let them eat cake." Eventually executed by Robespierre's Jacobins

Jean Mabillion

Worte "On Diplomatics" in 1681. Established the Science of Paleography.

The Advancements of Learning

Written by Bacon. True knowledge is useful knowledge.

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Written by Edmund Burke, the philosophical conservative, in England. He had previously advised slow adaptation of liberties for England and used this background to comment on the revolution in France. He predicted anarchy and dictatorship as a result of the too rapid advancement of liberties. He said each country should shape its government based on national circumstances and historical background and character. Advised against wholesale liberalization. Book translated and read by Catherine the Great and Gustavus III.

True Law of Free Monarchy

Written by James I of England, this work reasoned that God had placed kings on earth to rule and that he would judge them in heaven for their transgressions. THIS EMPHASIZED THE IDEA OF ROYAL ABSOLUTISM.

Rights of Man

Written by Thomas Paine. It has been seen as a defense of the French Revolution, but it's also an influential work that embodied ideas of liberty and human equality.

Terms of the Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Written in French (not Latin) and without the Pope's consultation (thus signifying that State and Church affairs were separate) Added Calvinism to the Peace of Augsburg (legal recognition). granted independence to the Swiss Confederacy from the H.R.E. Recognized Dutch independence from Spain. IMPACT: France is the new international power. Spain is done. Within the Holy Roman Empire: this treaty perpetuated the political weakness of the HRE. 2 German states would be international powers and rivals within Germany: Austria and Prussia. upstart Brandenburg - Prussia becomes the most powerful German state in the northeast.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola

Wrote "On the Dignity of Man" during the Reniassance which stated that man was made in the image of God before the fall and as Christ after the Resurrection. Man is placed in-between beasts and the angels; also believed that there is no limits to what man can accomplish

Castiglione

Wrote The Courtier which was about education and manners and had a great influence. It said that an upper class, educated man should know many academic subjects and should be trained in music, dance, and art.

Book of Common Prayer

You go to church in 1500 and it's a catholic church. You show up one day in 1540, and notice that a couple of changes have been made no mention of the pope, and lots of references to King Henry. You go again in 1550 and notice that there have been changes priest is married, no similarity to the church service that you attended waaay back in 1500. You go back in 1555 and the Catholic Priest is back in the pulpit, the mass is in Latin

Maximilien Robespierre

Young provincial lawyer who led the most radical phases of the French Revolution; his execution ended the Reign of Terror.

The Catholic League (394)

a Radical Catholic group under Henry Guise created to destroy the Huguenots and put a good Catholic (Guise) on the throne.

Inertia

a body will stay at rest OR in motion forever until an outside force acts upon it. first proposed by Galileo who added the "in motion" to Aristotle's ""at rest." Revolutionary because it is counterintuitive to what you observe in your daily life.

Sistine Chapel

a chapel in the Vatican; built in the late 15th century under Pope Sixtus IV; contained a painted ceiling and fresco of the Last Judgment by Michelangelo and also frescoes by Botticelli (but mainly Michelangelo); exemplified (is a typical example of) how the church

Midwife

a child-delivery assistant (traditionally a woman, men began to take over the practice during the Scientific Revolution). Significance: well, this can be viewed within the narrative of guys muscling in on another field of women. OR it can be viewed in the larger "scientification" of all aspects of life.

Duma-

a council of Boyars who assisted the tsar in Russia

Battle of White Mountain

a decisive battle during the Bohemian phase of the war resulting in the defeat of Frederick V by the generals of Ferdinand II

Guillotine

a device used for carrying out executions by decapitation during the Reign of Terror. It was created as a humane and rational way to execute enemies of the revolution.

night of August 4

a few liberal noblemen arose at the Assembly and surrendered their hunting rights, banalities, rights in manorial courts, and feudal privileges

Signori

a form a government during the Renaissance that consisted of a one-man ruler (despots); acted to protect and support the people but used illegal acts to rule.

Andrea Mantegna

a painter celebrated by Pope Innocent VIII who painted everything from frescoes to farm animals his greatest work are his frescoes in the bridal chamber of Gonzaga Palace (we didnt go over this guy in class)

School of Athens

a painting by Raphael displaying classicism/humanism; shows Pluto, and Aristotle along with many other philosophers (search it up)

social structure

a pattern of organized relationships among groups of people within a society. Any relatively stable pattern of social behavior

Thermidorian Reaction

a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It was triggered by a vote of the Committee of Public Safety to execute Robespierre and several other leading members of the Terror. This ended the most radical phase of the French Revolution. The name refers to 9 Thermidor Year II (27 July 1794), the date according to the French Revolutionary Calendar when this revolt occurred.

Patronage

a system common during the Renaissance where nobles would pay artists to create masterpieces in order to glorify their power

Canton System

a system to control forign trade which confined all trading to the port of Canton

New Christians (Conversos)

a term applied to Jews who were forced to accept Christianity prior to the Inquisition

Enlightened despotism

absolute monarchy influenced by the enlightenment (rationality and secular), Louis XV, Maria Theresa

Oath of the Tennis Court

affirmed that wherever the members of the Third Estate foregathered the National Assembly was in existence and that they would not disband until they drafted a constitution

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

affirmed the principles of the new state- the rule of law, equal individual citizenship, and collective sovereignty of the people

Declaration of Pillnitz

afraid that other countries would follow France's lead and begin revolutions, Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued this declaration in August 27, 1791, inviting other European monarchs to intervene on behalf of Louis XVI if his monarchy was threatened. If Louis XVI (and more importantly his wife) was threatened, England, Prussia, and Austria would all invade France (A defense of the Habsburg daughter with the bonus of annihilating a revolutionary France)

hunting rights

allowed manor owner to keep game preserves and hunt on his peasants' land (feudal element of old regime)

napoleonic wars--benefit to england

answer: napoleonic wars--benefit to ---- This country likely avoided a difficult social crisis (caused by the misery of the Industrial Revolution) by aiming all thoughts against Napoleon. -all classes rallied against "boney" and there was no more talk of reforming parliament or tampering with historic liberties.

War of the League of Augsburg

an aggressive war waged by Louis XIV against Spain and the Empire and England and Holland and other states (1689-1697)

favorable balance of trade

an economic situation in which a country sells more goods abroad than it buys from abroad. This was the ideology that most states used to gain the most money from their exports by increasing the amount of finished materials while decreasing the amount of raw materials.

commercial capitalism

an economic system in which people invested in trade and goods in order to make profits.

The silk industry

an industry encouraged by the Trustees to support mercantilism; colonists planted mulberry trees to support the silkworms; the silk industry never developed into a profitable venture.

Pugachev rebellion

an insurrection where Pugachev claimed to be Catherine's deceased husband and setting up his own government

break up of Second Coalition 1799

answer: break up of ------ 1799 -Austria accepted the peace of Lunéville in 1801 and this dissolved this. -at the same time, Britian signed the peace of Amiens with France. -the one time the euro powers weren't fighting between 1792 and 1814.

break up of the First coalition 1795

answer: break up of the ------- 1795 -France broke up this and the British army withdrew from the Continent -Prussia made a separate peace with France, recognized as "protectors" of germany north of the river Main -Spain allied with France because of British hostility in Gibraltar -Austria signed the peace of Campo Formio, officially ending this.

Ghetto

any distinct district of a city into which a minority is segregated and treated as a distinct group. Ghettos historically refer to Jewish sectors of a city.

Medici

aristocratic Italian family of powerful merchants and bankers who ruled Florence in the 15th century

coup d'etat of brumaire

armed soldiers drove legislates from their chambers, proclaimed the consoled with 3 counsels

Council of State

assists in drafting laws for France

Madame Rosalie Jullien

attended a meeting of the Paris Jacobin club- observed that the Jacobins are "the flower of the Paris bourgeoisie, to judge by the fancy jackets they wear"

Fouche

became the minister of Police to Napoleon. He was once a leader of the Terror and and an extreme Herbertist.

potemkin villages

bogus evidence of a fake property

Fructidorian gov't

broke off english relations; settled with Austria (treaty of campo formio)

Festival of the Federation

brought together a vast crowd in Paris to mark the first anniversary of the assault on the Bastille, to celebrate the new liberties of the French people, and to begin creating rituals

Military dependance (Directory Weakness)

called military to keep order

campo formio--effect on HRE

campo formio--effect on HRE -Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden consolidated and became large. -many states and free cities and ecclesiastics were done away with. -thought that no Catholic Habsburg could again be emperor

Cardinal Richelieu

chief French minister who led Catholic France against Catholic Germany in the 30 years war. War became (catholic) Bourbon vs (catholic) Hapsburg

Careers Open to Talent

citizens able to rise in government service purely according on their abilities

Oligarchies

committee of a group of wealthy rulers; often ruled Italian city-states during the Renaissance; a small percent of men could vote

Directory

common man elects electors; electors choose department offic. and Legislative Assembly (Council of Ancients + Five Hundred); LA choose Directory (5 directors)

Plebeians

common people of society

the napoleonic domain

composed of two parts: 1: core: French empire, including Belgium and Left Bank of the Rhine 2: dependent states/ republics: Italy, Holland, Swiss Federation, Illyrian provinces, Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Confederation of the Rhine

official church

comprising of "constitutional" clergy spurned the pope

clandestine church

comprising of "refractory" clergy counterrevolutionary, pro-pope Tended to be favored by Good Catholics (like the King), former aristocrats, peasants, and urban working-class families

Montesque

concerned about practical political liberty. "Spirit of the Laws", separation of powers; balance, not absolute

peace of Vienna-strong points

congres of vienna, some notes -minimum resentment in France now -ended 2 centuries of colonial rivalry, brit in charge -control of poland and german dualism solved -guaranteed sovereignty of many areas

Austria and Prussia

countries who opposed the Revolution in France and created the Declaration of Phillnitz which invited other countries to fight the Revolution. (because each feared the revolution would spill over into their countries). Some French revolutionaries felt that a war against these enemies would generate patriotism and support for the government. Unfortunately, France's war against these countries is going to bring down the Limited Monarchy.

What is the Third Estate?

declared that the nobility was a useless caste which could be abolished without loss and that the Third Estate was the one necessary element of society. Written by Abbe Sieyes

Act of Supremacy

declares king as the only supreme head of the Church of England; passed by Henry VIII and again by Elizabeth

The Rights of Man

defended the French Revolution. Gave the phrase a powerful impact in English. Written by Thomas Paine

Renaissance in France England and Spain

described by new monarchs centralized power using Renaissancian ideas of nonsecular, powerful government

Lack of lower class help (Directory Weakness)

didn't help scarcity or inflation

plebiscite

direct vote of all members of an electorate

Calonne

director of finances Proposed a general tax to fall on all landowners without exemption, a lightening of indirect taxes, an abolition of internal tariffs, and a confiscation of some properties of church was dismissed

Jacques Necker

director of finances- tried to tax the privileged classes, was dismissed

Directory gave up on being a republic

disassociated with assignats and debt; failed to fix financial problems; more rebellion; clergy a problem as religion more divisive

Isaac Newton

discovered the universal law of gravitation and by using this, linked the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo to form a new cosmology and establish the modern conception of the universe (he wrote Principia, which stated the three laws of motion). Also, he linked Bacon's inductive method and Descartes deductive method to form the Scientific method. THE creator of the modern mind.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

document issued by the National Assembly ordering that all bishops and priests of the Catholic church be elected and paid by the state and that they must take an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution; was outlawed by the Pope and caused turmoil in the church and therefore in the lives of Catholic French citizens. Many priests, who had previously supported the revolution, refused to take the oath and were declared "Refractory" Clergy.

Medici family

dominating family of Florence during the Renaissance; acquired wealth through banking; spent lots of money on art and whatnot

Geocentric

earth-centered (Ptolemy)

Fredrick II

encouraged legal reform and religious freedom and pushed Prussia to be a leading force in Europe

Summation of the Peace of Augsburg (1555)

ended the German religious civil wars. Each prince within the Holy Roman Empire could choose to be Lutheran or Catholic. His turf (and all those living within) would be of that religion. It's a strange kind of religious toleration (for the leaders only). 1555: Peace of Augsburg and the ending of the first chapter of the religious wars in Germany.

Joseph II

equal punishment, ended serfdom, created a secret police to report performance of the government

NB foreign policy

established "Cisalpine" republic in Po Valley--Milan as capital; Directory was going to return Milan to Austria for Austrian acceptance of Belgium as France's; Austria negotiates with Napoleon

Henry VII of England

established the Tudor dynasty and ended the War of the Roses by marrying Elizabeth of York.

Bank of France

established to assist government financing

Michelangelo

famous Italian Renaissance artist that painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling and sculpted the statue of David; also the name of a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle

Tetzel

famous seller of indulgences for the Catholic church; "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Tetzel's crude methods inspired Luther's actions and sparked the Reformation.

Marianne

female symbol of liberty

Royalist foreign policy

fine with giving away Belgium and Milan for peace

Sir Francis Drake

first Englishman NAVAL OFFICER to sail around the world. HE ALSO SAILED INTO THE PORT OF CADIZ AND BURNT THE SHIPS ASSEMBLING THERE TO JOIN THE ARMADA

Henry VII

first Tudor king of England from 1485 to 1509

Directory

first formal French Republic, weak

National Convention

first government of the French Revolution, first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether.

democratic revolution

independence, everything associated with absolutism, feudalism or inherited rights is shunned, end of "nobles"

taille

land tax paid by peasants

Poland in the 18th century

largest state in europe, no army = absorbed by growing neighbors, Poniatowski, catherine the greats puppet, prussia and austria got poland

Maria Theresa

last Habsburg ruler, ruled Austria, education reforms

Titian (cw):

late Italian Renaissance painter. famous for his (secular) portraits.

Henry Guise (394)

leader of the Ultra-Catholics, opposed the Huguenots, assassinated by Henry III (Valois) in the War of the Three Henrys

Louis XV

least successful enlightened despotism, difficulty in raising revenue because only the poor paid it, "le vingteme" - war tax

French Academy of Science

it received abundant state support, and its members were appointed and paid by the state. They were encouraged to do practical work to benefit both "the king and the state" (this was mirrored in German societies)

Maupeou parlements

judges were salaried officials forbidden from rejecting government edicts

ancient regime (the old order)

just a catchphrase used by historians to refer to Europe before 1789. It's the world that the enlightenment thinkers opposed. Associated with arbitrary monarchy, lack of rights, etc. with it. The French Revolution attempted to eradicate the Ancient Regime.

Tycho Brahe

kept the most accurate observations of the time, but was most famous for taking on Kepler as his assistant

Guild (CW)

kinda like a combination Labor Union and Business Association. Craftsmen (blacksmiths, brewers, etc) would combine into a guild and determine such issues as prices, product quality, training, etc. A Guild was also like a Brentwood Mega-Church in that it was the social center for that particular group AND would take care of members who needed help (provided a social safety net in bad times). Guilds were THE basic structure of the economy in europe from the middle ages to about 1800.

Guild (CW)

kinda like a combination Labor Union and Business Association. Craftsmen (blacksmiths, brewers, etc) would combine into a guild and determine such issues as prices, product quality, training, etc. A Guild was also like a Brentwood Mega-Church in that it was the social center for that particular group AND would take care of members who needed help (provided a social safety net in bad times). Guilds were THE basic structure of the economy in europe from the middle ages to about 1800.Adam Smith and the supporters of Free Markets pointed out that Guild restrict workers from making decisions about quality/pricing/etc. and cause prices to be artifically higher than in a free market. THAT is why the fist phase of the revolution abolished them. In order to Help (free) workers.HOWEVER, guilds also were the social safety net for workers in bad times. oops

Right of eminent property

lesser landowners within the manor still owed certain annual rents and transfer fees to the owner of the manor

Sans-Culottes (culottes are knee breeches)

literally, 'without knee-breeches' The lower-middle class (Artisan / Petty Bourgeoisie) radicals during the French Revolution. They are more radical, have a new sense of class identity, and are taking to the streets. The sans culottes are the group the Jacobin Clubs claim to speak for.

Wittenberg

location of the beginning of the Reformation. Luther nailed the 95 Theses to the Cathedral door. It is in Saxony, which is in the Holy Roman Empire.

Mesmer

magic rituals

active citizens

males over 25 years and wealthy enough to pay a small direct tax qualified as "electors"- people who chose local officials and deputies to the national legislature

Women's March

march of Parisian women to Versailles because of inflated bread prices. Brings the King back to Paris making him a "prisoner" of the revolution

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

marked the end of religious warfare in Germany. The war ended in a stalemate with neither side able to impose a uniform religion on the H.R.E. The Peace made Protestantism legal. Each German Prince got to choose the religion within their own country.

Renaissance

means "rebirth" in French; a period of artistic and cultural achievement in Europe from the 14th to the 16th century (c.1350-1550); (secularism, individualism, Humanism, materialism)

Montagnards

members of the radical faction within the Jacobin party who advocated the centralization of state power during the French Revolution and instituted the Reign of Terror

Jacobin club

middle-class revolutionary group

Maria Theresa

monarch of Austria

Rembrandt van Rijn

most important painter during the Dutch Golden Age. Baroque master of shading and lighting. The Night Watch: Rembrandt's colossal painting of a company of Dutch fighters. The Syndics of the Drapers Guild: Rembrandt's work that demonstrates the status of middle- class businessmen during the Dutch Golden Age

First Free French Election

mostly Royalists elected; republicans and Napoleon not happy

Marie de Medici

mother of Louis XII who became a regent until he was of age to rule France and ruled three years after he was of age

Anticlericalism

movement in Catholic countries to remove the church from politics

Neo-Platonism (325):

movement within the renaissance that attempted to bring together Christian teaching and the philosophy of ancient Greece. Botticelli's Birth of Venus is a great visual example of this method.

Germany

nation where the Protestant Reformation started; very dis-unified

Bullionism

nation's policy of accumulating as much precious metal as possible while preventing its outward flow to other countries

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790

new program for the clergy • Parish priests and bishops were elected • Protestants, Jews, and agnostics could legally take part in the elections • Archbishoprics were abolished, all borders of existing bishoprics were redrawn • Bishops were allowed to merely notify the pope of their elevation, they were forbidden to acknowledge any papal authority, and no papal letter or decree was to be published in France except with government permission • All clergy received salaries from the state • Abuses by which the church had supported noble families were abolished The pope condemned the whole Revolution an all its works

Notables

noble

Statute of Artificers

of 1563 in England - Parliament regulated admission to apprenticeship and level of wages in various trades. Doing at a national level what guilds had previously done at local level. Thereby further demonstrating move to nation-centered economy. In effect this showed that England's government was prepared to start limiting power of guilds in order to better promote commerce in an age ripe for trade.

Zeeland (CW):

one of the provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch). Just recognize it as dutch if you ever see it.

Talleyrand

one of the seven bishops willing to accept The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790

Condorcet

only leader of the Revolution that argued for legal equality of the sexes

kuchuk kainarji

peace treaty with defeated Turks

Corvees

peasant obligations that are abolished during the 1st phase of the revolution

Justification by Faith

people did not have to earn faith by attending masses, or by taking sacraments, but to believe in "faith alone."

prefect

person who ruled over departments of Consulate assembly

Turgot

philosopher, physiocrat and government reform administrator to Louis XVI

Turgot

physiocrat, economic liberalism, suppress guilds, abolish corvee

Old Regime

pre-Revolutionary society, legally aristocratic and somewhat feudal

Wesley

preached in English American colonies, stressed individual worth independent of established religious institutions, Methodists

Bohemia

site of the beginning of the 30 years war in the H.R.E. Part of Hapsburg domain. Bohemian Nobles depose Ferdinand and invite Frederick to rule Bohemia

Junkers

private landlords

Mary Wollstonecraft

published Vindication of the Rights of Women

Continental system

purpose: destory the economy of Britain -would replace national economy with an integrated econ for the entire Continent -ruin Brit sea power and commercial monopoly -afterward, France can look toward the sea

Napoleon Egypt invasion

purpose: to threaten India and indirectly attack England; angered Russia; resulted in Russia, Austria, GB (Second Coalition) banding together and ended the Cisalpine Republic

Napoleon Bonaparte

raised in Corsica; entered and rose through army ranks; favored expansionist republicans

Inductive Method

reasoning from detailed facts to general principals using careful experimentation and sensory observations/experience (used by Bacon). I see black crows. only Black crows. THEREFORE, "all crows are black"

Deductive Method

reasoning from self-evident truths to complex conclusions using just reason, not experience (used by Descartes). All Crows are Black. That thing is a crow THEREFORE That thing is black

failure of continental system

reasons for why this system failed: -commodities were too much to give up -British could not be adequately replaced in supplying the market -transportation problems -tariffs -shippers, shipbuilders, etc, older elements of the B's were out of a job -aristocracy in Eastern Europe resented France

English Royal Society

received little government encouragement; its members appointed the new members

Indulgences

reduction of punishment in purgatory. Traditionally, Indulgences were granted for good works/ prayer as a means of replacing Penances and reducing time in Purgatory. the new practice of SELLING indulgences will spark the Reformation

Legislative Commission

reformative assembly of Catherine the Great

Turkish war

replaced muslims with greek orthodox church

Consulate

republic headed by three consuls; Napoleon = first consul

Corveé

requirement that certain peasants labor on construction for a few days each year

Great Fear of 1789

resulted from insecurity and panic in rural districts. Peasants burned down manor houses and destroyed manorial archives. They intended to destroy the manorial regime by force

Tsar

ruler of Russia

Philip III & IV

sad kings of Spain after Philip II. They are associated with the decline of Spain

Louis XIV, John Law, Maupeou, Turgot

saw the need for taxing the privileged classes

Donatello

sculptor; most influential Florentine artist before Michelangelo; his statues expressed an appreciation of the incredible variety of human nature; also the name of a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle

Highly stratified society

segregation of all classes

Pugachev's rebellion

serfs were being treated like slaves so they rebelled, pretended to be like Peter III, got followers, was betrayed by them

physiognomy

someones facial features reveals their character (Lavater)

Joseph II

son of Maria Theresa

Pietism

stressed inner spiritual experience of ordinary people (Lutherans of Germany)

Grand Alliance of 1701

summoned by Wm III of England in response to Sp succession. Included England, Holland, HREmperor with support of Brandenburg, Portugal and Italian duchy of Savoy. Came against France, Spain and Bavaria(been perpetual ally of Fr against HRE due to jealousy of Hapsburg power). William III's last attempt to stop France. It was an alliance created with many of the same countries as the League of Augsburg, and was not in action before William's death. They did, however, ultimately stop French control of Spain.

Heliocentric

sun-centered (Copernicus)

Royalists

supported monarchy

Voltaire

surrender political liberty for guarantees of intellectual freedom

Corvee

tax only on the poor

Rene Descartes

the 'father of modern rationalism', he rejected everything he was ever taught and all assumptions of his senses and decided to only accept what his reason could prove true. In his Discourse on Method, he explained his belief that one can start with self-evident truths and deduce more complex conclusions (deductive method)

Le Chapelier Law

the Assembly renewed the old prohibitions of the compagnonnages and restated the abolition of guilds. Declared that all trades were free to enter, all persons had the right to work at any occupation they choose, all wages were to be settled privately by the worker and his/her employer

Battle of Valmy

the French defeated the Austrian and Prussian troops in 1792 (with a famous cannonade from the French artillery)

Battle of Valmy

the French defeated the Austrian and Prussian troops in 1792 (with a famous cannonade from the French artillery). While practically the victory was laughable (the French were no better off) it proved to be such a moral booster that France, which had been destroyed up to that point in the war, began to win the War of the First Coalition allowing Robespierre and the National Convention to remain safely in power, despite the Reign of Terror

Estates General

the French parliamentary body that had not met since 1614 and was called by Louis XVI because of the country's debt; consisted of three estates: clergy, nobility, and everyone else

Habsburg-Valois Wars

the Italian wars where Milan invited France into Italy to invade Florence, but then France also invaded Milan. Spain wanted to check the power of France, making Italy a center of war. (Habsburgs=Spanish Family, Valois=French Family)

Louis XVI

the King of France during the French Revolution; did not agree with the Revolution but went along with it; tried to run away but was recognized; (In SECTION 4) was beheaded by a vote of the National Convention dominated by the Mountain (Jacobins)

Levee en masse

the People's army (army of the masses) that was drafted (conscripted) to fight against the Austrian/English army during the more radical phase of the Revolution. Many of these people were fighting for "France" or "the Revolution." Other armies at the time/history consists of conscripts or mercenaries.

Cartesian Dualism

the belief in the separation of mind and body (proposed by Descartes). Your "mind" is distinct and apart from "the universe"

Third Estate

the common people. Consisted of Bourgeoise (upper crust) and the rest who were more poor because prices increased more than wages

Committee of Public Safety

the de facto government of France during the Reign of Terror, created by the National Convention. It was formed under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake. The committee executed thousands of "enemies" under the pretext of being a supporter of monarchy or against the revolution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

the document written by the National Assembly that gave citizens their freedoms. Freedom of Speech, Religion, etc. Major accomplishment of the early revolution. But one cannot eat Rights. . . hmmm.

Third Estate

the estate in the Estates General consisting of 97% of the population and made up of all people who were not clergy or nobility (bourgeoisie, skilled workers, unskilled workers, and peasants)

Galileo

the first European to make systematic observations of the heavens by means of a telescope, proved celestial bodies weren't perfect, and discovered inertia. He believed it was unnecessary to pit science against religion Significance: Poster Boy for the struggle between science and the church.

Francesco Petrarch

the first humanist (founder of the Renaissance) famous scholar/teacher/poet, believed that Greco-Roman (classical) writings should be studied and imitated

Ptolemy

the greatest astronomer of antiquity who viewed the universe as a series of rotating concentric crystalline spheres with earth at the center

Paris

the heart of the French Revolution. The most revolutionary area in France. A lot of the country-side still supported the Monarchy. (and to this day is more conservative than Paris)

Legislative Assembly

the legislature of France from 1791 to 1792 (between the periods of the National Assembly and of the radical National Convention). In the spirit of "term limits" none of its members could have been members of the National Assembly. Its members were generally young, and, since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they largely lacked national political experience. It did not last a year and was generally deemed a failure.

Bourgeoisie

the middle classmen of society, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people.

Congregationalists (405):

the most extreme protestants. Congregationalists take it one notch past Presbyterians. Rather than having local AREAS be independent. Congregationalists believe that each individual CHURCH should run itself. They are also called Separatists. They are persecuted and flee to America. We call them . . . Pilgrims!!

Peace of Westphalia

the peace treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648

Price Revolution

the period in European history during the 1500s when inflation rose rapidly.

first treaty of Paris

the powers signed this and -bourbons restored -allied statesmen did not ask for reparations from France -France back to old boundaries 1792 -Napoleon exiled to Elba further questions to be answered at congress of vienna.

Usury

the practice of lending money at unreasonably high rates; lone-sharking. Bankers did this in order to recieve money back after a time. (Some would recieve almost 30 percent a year)

eastern question

the problem of European territory controlled by the decaying Ottoman Empire

hereditary subjects

the relationship of peasants to their landlords, basically meant that they could not do anything without the lord's permission

Rump Parliament

the smaller parliament of around 75 members, controlled by Cromwell and the Puritans that kills Charles, abolishes the House of Lords, and establishes the Commonwealth. Oh, the Rump Parliament is what the Long Parliament is called in its last years.

Constitution of 1791

the sovereign power of the nation was to be exercised by a unicameral elected assembly called the Legislative Assembly. King was given a suspensive veto power- could postpone legislation.

Vulgate (340):

the standard bible of Europe. written in latin. Humanists (Valla & Erasmus??) are beginning to question the accuracy and style of this translation.

Classicism

the study of Greco-Roman culture during the Italian Renaissance

Compagnonnages

trade unions outside of guilds formed by journeymen

Treaty of Campo Formio

treaty signed with Austria that required redistribution of Rhine territories thereby creating larger German states

Lomenie de Brienne

tried to push Calonne's program through the Parlement of Paris, who rejected it

partition

triumph of enlightened rulers, 3 great monarchies use balance of power to oppose national liberation

universalists

unity of human kind under a natural law of right and reason

Bourgeoise

upper crust of third estate As they became stronger, more widely read, and more self-confident, they resented nobles more and more. Reasons: nobles were arrogant and exempt from the taille (direct tax)

left threat to directory

upset about fall of Robespierre; formed "Conspiracy of Equals" (Babeuf) that attempted to abolish private property and install a dictatorship failed)

assignats

used to buy parcels of the former church lands To secure the debt and pay current expenses of the government

patriots

wanted a delaying veto for the king and a legislative body of one chamber- upper chamber would give nobility too much power

conservative revolutionaries

wanted a strong veto power for the king and a legislative body in two houses

Rousseau

wanted to escape restrictions of society and get the freedom of merging nature and neighbor, tolerance for intellectual difference, "universalists"

Babeuf

wanted to overthrow Directory and have Dictatorship with communist ideas

Louis XVIII

wanted to restore Old Regime and punish all involved in revolution, royalist and wanted to bring back monarchy

Girondins

were a RADICAL political faction in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. (but less radical than The Mountain). One historian pointed out that Girondins were the radicals in the Legislative Assembly, but the conservatives in the Convention. They opposed executing the King and were supporters of the disastrous war with Austria. Eventually lost power to the MORE radical faction of Jacobins (the Mountain).

Olympe de Gouges

woman writer who published The Rights of Woman- applied 17 articles of the Declaration explicitly to women. Also asserted the right of women to divorce, to control the property in marriage, and for equal access with men to higher education and employment

The Directory

was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding Napoleon. The period of this regime (November 1795 until November 1799), constitutes a return to a more moderate/calm phase of the revolution.

Cult of Supreme Being

was a form of deism devised by Robespierre, intended to become the state religion after the French Revolution. The cult represents part of the "de-Christianization" of French society during the Revolution, in that Robespierre sought to move beyond simple deism to a new and, in his view, more rational devotion to God. Robespierre's proclamation of the cult as the new state religion in 1794 was one of the factors that prompted the Thermidorian Reaction, which ended this new religion.

Reign of Terror

was a period of violence that occurred for a year incited by conflict between rival political factions ( the Girondins and the Jacobins) and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution." Was led by the Committee of Public Safety dominated by Robespierre, in order to suppress internal counter-revolutionary activities The Terror's leaders exercised broad dictatorial powers and used them to instigate mass executions and political purges. The repression reached a peak in June and July 1794.

Catherine de Medici

wife of Henry II, influenced her sons after the end of there father's rein. She placed an alliance with the ultra-Catholics (the militant Catholics), which was led by the second most powerful family in France, The Guise Family. She permitted the Guise Family their own independent army,which they would use to take out the other religions residing within the French Borders. This led to the civil wars in France and also the St. Bartholome's Day Massacre.

Leonardi Bruni

wrote "Humanities": Instrumental in establishing a humanist curriculum that focuses on classicism during the Renaissance; humanist educational movement restores tradition of secular rational historical writing; believed history is a guide for life today.

Abbe Sieyes

wrote "What is the Third Estate?", a civilian leader in Directory

Niccolo Machiavelli

wrote The Prince (1513) which contained a secular method of ruling a country (ruler should rule without God's help) and admired how the foreign "new monarchs" centralized their power; "End justifies the mean."

Thomas Paine

wrote The Rights of Man to defend the French Revolution. Gave the phrase a powerful impact in English

Abbe Sieyes

wrote What is the Third Estate?- declared that the nobility was a useless caste which could be abolished without loss and that the Third Estate was the one necessary element of society

The degree of change to English church

• Henry VIII: rejected the supremacy of the Pope and Rome but kept Catholic Doctrine the same (moderate)• Edward VI: made the church extremely Protestant; removed celibacy and relics and created new liturgy• Mary I: made the church extremely Catholic and persecuted Protestants