AP Euro-Packet review:

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Communication and Education Advances

Britain was the first European nation to establish a national postal system, with users able to send a letter for a penny, affordable to almost all. • The development of universal public education also meant that more people were inclined to communicate in writing. • In 1844, the first telegraph line was completed, and by the second half of the cen-tury, Europe was covered with telegraph lines. • In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, and Germans were making 700 million calls per year by 1900. • Some of those calls might have been to make social arrangements around the new entertainment options of the age, such as attending motion pictures, first shown publicly in the 1890s, while stay-at-home sorts could enjoy the phonograph, invented by the incredibly prolific Thomas Edison in 1877.

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, took the methods of modern science and proposed to find a way to treat mental disorders by delving into the human subconscious, using what he referred to as the "talking cure." As he spelled out in The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud believed that dreams revealed the inner workings of a subconscious world and devised a list of Freudian symbols—items or events that appear in dreams that actually represent other items or events stored in the unconscious. In Civilization and Its Discontents, a book written in his more pessimistic later years, Freud questioned the very premise of continuous progress for the human race and instead posited that despite attempts to suppress it, violence lies at the very core of our being.

Cultural Changes-Women

Meanwhile, there were cultural changes taking place that provided the foundations for the emergence of the so-called "new woman." Maria Montessori (1870-1952) exemplifies this new woman in Europe at the turn of the century. An Italian, Montessori became a famous educator and physician who was renowned for her teaching strategies. Factors such as the increased availability of birth control and greater educational and professional opportunities offered new horizons for women. For some men, this new woman was unsettling, with the British novelist D. H. Lawrence noting in an essay that women, who used to "see themselves as a softly flowing stream of attraction," were now "pointed and they want éverything."

Austria

The 19th century was not kind to the Austrian Empire, a multinational empire in an age of growing nationalist sentiment. By 1866, the Habsburgs had lost all their territories in Italy, and their shattering defeat by the Prussians at the Battle of Sadowa made Austria no longer a factor in German affairs. In 1867, the government in Vienna found it necessary to sign an agreement with the Magyars in Hungary, creating a dual Austro-Hungarian Empire. Each state was to be independent but united under the mutual leadership of Francis Joseph, who became Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Magyars, having achieved a measure of independence, turned around and did their best to ensure that the Croats, Serbs, Romanians, and other nationalities located within Hungary were denied any form of self-rule. As a result of a lessening influence in western Europe, Austria-Hungary attempted to become more influential in the Balkan region, ultimately with disastrous consequences.

Emergence of the Social Sciences-Sociology

Sociology, the study of human social behavior, was in part inspired by the growing tendency of governments to keep statistics on the conditions of their citizenry. Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) held the first chair in sociology at the University of Bordeaux, an appointment that was met with skepticism by the more traditional faculty.

Conservatism

-Modern conservatism is rooted in the writings of Edmund Burke whose Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) was widely read throughout Europe. -Two components of Burke's work were extremely popular in the Restoration period: his attack on the principle of the rights of man and natural law as fundamentally dangerous to the social order, and his emphasis on the role of tradition as the basic underpinning for the rights of those in positions of authority. -Burke, a member of the English House of Commons, proposed a conservatism that was not reactionary in nature. -He believed in the possibility of slow political change over the passage of time. -a more extreme form of reactionary conservatism appeared in the writings of such men as Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821), an émigré during the French Revolution. -The Church, argued de Maistre, should stand as the very foundation of society because all political authority stemmed from God. -De Maistre advocated that monarchs should be extremely stern with those who advocated even the slightest degree of political reform and that the "first servant of the crown should be the executioner."

Restoration and Revolution

-Following the final fall of Napoleon in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France, the rulers of Europe were faced with a daunting task restoring stability to the relationships between the nations of Europe while also ensuring that the specter of revolution did not reappear within their domains. -To aid in this task, one aspect of Napoleon's reign was widely copied throughout Europe—France's efficiency in controlling its population -In the period following the Napoleonic wars, states created larger and more efficient bureaucracies, secret police forces, and more efficient censorship offices. -In an undeveloped nation such as Russia, these oppressive institutions were the only well-functioning part of the state. States used another strategy to try to turn back the clock-attacking the legacy of the Enlightenment. -No institution had suffered as much from the Enlightenment and the French Revolution as the Church. -The German Romantic poet Novalis wrote in 1799, "Catholicism is almost played out. The old papacy is laid in the tomb, and Rome for the second time has become a ruin." -Despite this prediction, the churches of Europe, both Catholic and Protestant, witnessed a remarkable recovery in the Restoration period (1815-1830). - States viewed religion as a useful tool to aid in repression. -In England, the Anglican clergy worked in the House of Lords to block parliamentary measures such as the bill in favor of Catholic emancipation and the Great Reform Bill. -In Russia, the Orthodox clergy remained a bulwark of the reactionary policies of the state. -The same was true in Catholic lands such as Spain, where the Inquisition was once again allowed to operate following its disappearance during the Napoleonic domination of Spain.

Revolutionary Movements in Spain

-In Spain, King Ferdinand VII had been restored to the throne following the collapse of French control in 1814. -Ferdinand was restored on the condition that he honor the liberal constitution of 1812 drawn up by the Cortés, the Spanish parliament —which had met in Cadiz (in Andalucia, the southwestern coast of Spain), the one part of Spain that was not conquered by Napoleon. -Once restored to his throne, Ferdinand dissolved the Cortés, and persecuted those liberals who had drawn up the constitution. -In 1820, a rebellion began among army divisions that were about to be sent to South America to put down the rebellions against the Spanish empire. -The small Spanish middle class soon joined the army divisions in the rebellion. Although the king agreed to rule under the laws of the constitution to end the rebellion, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia wanted to intervene to stem the tide of the revolt. -The British, however, refused to directly intervene; they did not want the five great powers of Europe to be involved in putting down internal rebellions in other nations. -Two years later, a French army acted unilaterally- although with the tacit support of Russia, Prussia, and Austria-and restored Ferdinand to absolute power.

Views and Consequences of the New Imperialism

-In recent years, historians have asked whether imperialism was ever actually popular among the mass of population, and the question has not been fully answered. -Newspaper editors, who enjoyed an increased readership in this age of growing literacy, apparently saw imperialism as a topic of interest to their readers because they filled their pages with colonial exploits. In Britain, the pro-imperial Primrose League had more than a million members, and in Germany, Italy, and France, similar organizations existed, although with far fewer members. The Boer War (1899-1902) possibly helped dim public support in Great Britain for empire, although across Europe, the working class seemed to have little interest in such affairs. Although some hoped that the building of colonies would lead to a diminishing of tensions on the European continent, the opposite was the case. Rivalries among the European powers led to further imperial expansion, as in the case with British establishment of a protectorate over Egypt and the Suez Canal in 1882 in order to ensure Britain's dominance over India. Both the British and Russians were involved in what was referred to as the "great game" —a struggle over the generally worthless territory of Afghanistan —because for the Russians, British control over this region would put Russia's recent expansion into Central Asia in jeopardy, whereas the British were once again concerned for the security of India. Also, Britain and France almost went to war over Fashoda in the Sudan in 1898, and France and Germany twice almost went to war over Morocco in 1905 and 1911. One of the problems that helped bring about the First World War was the sense among leading German political and military figures that their country did not have a colonial empire commensurate with its position in Europe. The problem dated

Political restoration in France (Part 2-lol there was no more room)

-In the following year, Polignac issued what became know July Ordinances-which dissolved the newly elected assembly, took away the right to vote from the upper bourgeoisie, and imposed rigid censorship. -That same month, revolution broke out in Paris. -Leading liberals were afraid of the Parisian mob and wanted to avoid the creation of a republic because they associated republics with the violence of the first French republic dating back to 1792. -Instead, they turned to Louis Phil-lipe, the Duke of Orleans, a liberal who had stayed in France during the Revolution. -The July Revolution of 1830, which sparked revolutions throughout Europe, ended with the crowning of Louis Phillipe and the creation of what became known as the bourgeois, or July monarchy.

Nationalism

-Nationalism is based on the idea that all people's identities are defined by their connection with a nation and that it is to this nation that they owe their primary loyalty as opposed to their king or local lord. -The roots of nationalism date back to the early modern period; however, nationalism emerged as an important ideology during the French Revolution. -At this time, developments like national conscription, the calling of all young men for military service, helped create the idea of a citizen whose primary loyalty lies not to a village or province but to the nation instead. -Nationalism became important in other parts of Europe in reaction to the expansion in France. -In the German and Italian states, the desire to rid their lands of French soldiers created a unifying purpose that helped establish a national identity. -This growing national identity also had a literary component. Writers such as the Grimm brothers recorded old German folk tales to reveal a traditional German national spirit -Early 19th-century nationalism was often, though not exclusively, tied to liberalism because many nationalists, like the liberals, wanted political equality and human freedom to serve as the bedrock for the new state.

Socialism

-Socialism, like the other ideologies discussed above, was also partly rooted in the French Revolution. -A number of radical Jacobins took the idea of political equality for all and moved it to the next step: economic equality for all through the common ownership of all property. The early socialist writers are sometimes given the label "Utopian Socialists," a phrase coined by Karl Marx, who viewed these early writers with contempt because he felt they offered non-scientific, unrealistic solutions to the problems of modern society. -Utopian Socialists believed that expansive possibilities were available to mankind and that poor environments corrupted human nature. -The Utopians also believed that capitalism overemphasized production, underemphasized distribution, and possessed other serious flaws, such as unemployment and the suffering brought about by low wages.

AN AGE OF COMPETING IDEOLOGIES

-The Restoration period was a highly ideological period in which ideas inspired either from support or commendation of the French Revolution played a role in whether one was committed to the restored order that emerged after 1815 or wanted to see its demise. -In fact, this era is sometimes referred to as "the age of -isms."

Liberalism

-The foundations for 19th-century liberalism can be found in the writings of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, with their emphasis on the individual's natural rights and support for limits on political authorities through the writing of constitutions and the formation of parliamentary bodies. -Liberalism was also connected to the events of the early stages of the French Revolution with the establishment of the constitutional monarchy and with Lafayette's Declaration of the Rights of Man serving as a basic foundational document. -Liberals hoped to protect the rights of individuals by limiting the power of the state and by emphasizing the individual's right to enjoy religious freedom, freedom of the press, and equality under the law. -Besides being a political theory, liberalism was also a school of economic thought. -The most important of the early liberal economists individuals who collectively formed what became known as the classical school was Adam Smith (1723-1790), who published his most important work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in 1776. -Mercantilism held that nations' wealth could be measured only in gold reserves and that foreign trade would necessarily hurt one side or the other. -However, Smith realized a nation's true wealth was the goods produced by the labor of its citizens. Smith introduced two revolutionary ideas. First, specialists (whether individuals or countries) have natural skills and can produce their specialties better and faster than others. Trade could thus enrich everyone: France and Scotland would both be richer if they traded wine and coal, rather than the French mining in the vineyards and the Scots growing grapes in the highlands. Second, government price-fixing was unnecessary and counterproductive. Instead, governments should follow a laisse

Political restoration in France

-The term restoration literally refers to the events in France when the Bourbons were restored to the throne following the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. -The throne that Louis XVIII returned to was different from the one his older brother had enjoyed up until 1789. -The Charter of 1814-a hastily written constitution contained many of the freedoms from the revolutionary period, such as freedom of religion, even though it was presented to the French people by the king and contained no notion of popular sovereignty. -The charter angered many royalists by confirming land purchases made from nationalized Church property. -Politically, it allowed for a constitutional monarchy with a chamber of peers and a chamber of deputies made up of a very restricted franchise. The king held the firm reins of power, however, because only he could introduce legislation, and ministers were responsible to him instead of to the assembly. -In 1820, the son of the younger brother of Louis, Duke de Berry, was assassinated. -The ultra-royalists, individuals who wanted to see the revival of absolute monarchy, used the assassination to pressure the king to clamp down on the press and to give more rights to the aristocracy, including compensation for nobles who had lost land during the Revolution. -Political repression increased after the death of Louis XVIII in 1824. At that time, Louis's younger brother Charles X came to the throne. -Charles felt more bitter about the Revolution than his brother Louis had. A year after taking the throne, he introduced a Law of Sacrilege, which ruled death as the penalty for any attack on the Church. -In 1829, Charles appointed the Prince of Polignac as his chief minister, a man disliked throughout the country for being a leading ultra-royalist.

Revolutionary Movements in Italy

A more serious revolt broke out in Naples, a revolt that the Austrian statesman Metternich labeled as the "greatest crisi" of his career. Similar to the situation in Spain, King Ferdinand of Naples had made promises while in exile to rule as a constitutional monarch, although once restored to the throne, he refused to give up any of his absolute powers. Neapolitan army officers, perhaps inspired by French ideas, joined with members of the bourgeoisie and began, with the assistance of secret nationalistic societies such as the Carbonari, to oppose the monarch. The revolt led to nationalistic stirrings throughout Italy and to another revolt in the Kingdom of Sardinia, which ultimately came to nothing. Metternich wanted to put down the revolt in Naples, but once again, the British refused to participate in a joint attack. Metternich wanted the support of the other great powers, so he called the rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia to the Austrian town of Troppau to create what became the Troppau Protocol, which stated that the great European powers had the right to intervene in revolutionary situations. The following year, the rebellion in Naples was put down with the help of Austrian troops.

German Unification

Although Italian unification had important implications for the rest of Europe, the rise of a unified German state in 1871 totally altered the balance of power in Europe, owing to the great military and economic strength of this new state. The story of German unification is rooted in the Napoleonic era. Napoleon's domination of large parts of Germany not only increased the demand among German patriots for the creation of a unified nation but also reduced the sheer number of independent German states, which eventually aided in the actual process of unification. Following the fall of Napoleon, Austria and Prussia were the two dominant states within the German Confederation. In 1848, it appeared as if German unification would be achieved when the Frankfurt Parliament offered the crown to the Prussian king, but Frederick William's refusal delayed the process until it was achieved through means that the Prussians found more conducive to their interests. Although it was not a foregone conclusion that it was to be Prussia rather than Austria that would take the lead in creating a unified Germany, Prussia did enjoy a number of significant advan-tages. Prussia, through its creation of the Zollverein, had achieved an economic preeminence over the other member states, while Austria was specifically excluded by Prussia for membership in the Zollverein customs union. By mid-century, Prussia had achieved a significant measure ofindustrialization, while Austria remained a primarily agricultural state. In addition, the Austrian Empire was a polyglot state made up of numerous nationalities, while Prussia was primarily a German state. Perhaps most important to its dominance, Prussia enjoyed the services of one of the most remarkable statesmen of the 19ch century, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898). On taking the throne of Prussia, William I

Post-Realist Art: The Impressionists and Expressionists

Although some painters, such as Édouard Manet (1832-1883), were inspired by the realists, they wished to push their techniques in new directions. Manet's Luncheon on the Grass shows a rather peculiar picnic, with two fully clothed males and a nude female. The work was in part startling to contemporaries because nudes were acceptable only if they were figures from classical mythology and not ordinary people. But besides the perplexing subject matter, Manet was changing the way we look at art. Dating back to the Renaissance and the introduction of single-point perspective, paintings served to open the window into another world. Now, how-ever, instead of looking through the painting, Manet has us stop at the surface of the canvas, something that was to be pivotal for the development of modern art. Although Manet was a quiet man who was not looking to be controversial, he and other innovative artists of the day were to find themselves at the center of a controversy when they were not allowed to show their work at the official 1863 Salon, an annual public exhibition held in Paris. In response to the public outcry over the hanging committee's refusal to show these paintings, Napoleon III decided that the public should be given an opportunity to see them and make their own judgments, which led to the establishment of the Salon, des Refusés, or "exhibition of the rejected." Those artists who took the techniques of Manet are labeled impressionists, although the term was initially used as one of derision after a critic first used it in 1874 to blast a work by Claude Monet (1840-1926) entitled Impression: Sunrise. Instead of shying away from the label, painters embraced it, with the exception of Manet who refused to use it for his own work. Impressionists wanted to capture the shimmering effects of light, and to do this, they w

The Ottoman Empire

Another multinational empire at the crossroads was the Ottoman Empire. Commonly referred to as "the sick old man of Europe," the Ottoman state attempted in the second half of the 19th century to implement a process of modernization. This reform program, which began during the reign of Sultan Abdul Mejid (r. 1839-1861) and was known as the Tanzimat, was an attempt to adopt Western methods of waging wars, to bring about a much needed overhaul of the Ottoman economy, and to introduce such notions as equality before the law and freedom of religion. The introduction of Western education played a significant role in forming a group of liberal intellectuals known as the "Young Turks." The Young Turks were eventually able to push reform further than the government had ever planned and in 1876 helped establish the Ottoman state as a constitutional monarchy. However, when the brutal Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876-1909) came to the throne, the constitution was scrapped as part of his attempt to subjugate the non-Muslim peoples within his empire. His policies led to the deaths of thousands of Armenians (though they were only a precursor to the full-fledged Armenian Genocide that would take place under the Young Turks during the years following 1915). His policies also led to general repression throughout the state, although by the end of his reign, the Young Turks once again restored a measure of constitutional rule. Ottoman weakness, however, continued to plague the empire up until it sided with the Central Powers in the First World War. The Ottomans could do little but sit idly by when, atthe Congress of Berlin (1878), after another humiliating defeat at the hands of the Russians (the Russo-Turkish War), the other European powers recognized the independence of Ser-bia, Montenegro, Romania, and Bulgaria— all former Ottoman ter

Emergence of the Social Sciences-Anthropology

Another social science, anthropology, was born out of the sudden expansion of European dominance over large parts of the globe as a result of the new imperialism. Across Europe, national anthropological societies were established, although unfortunately, due to the endemic "sci-entific" racism of the age, such societies often spent their time exploring the "inferiority" of non-Europeans.

Women's Struggles for Increased Rights

As the century continued, a growing number of women began to criticize the civil disabilities under which they lived, such as the lack of right to divorce or to possess property. These women, who adopted the French word "feminist" to describe themselves, began to develop organizations to help bring about change. Even in unexpected places, such as in a conservative society like Greece, a feminist newspaper existed that advocated for both professional and civil rights, and it survived for more than 20 years with a circulation of 20,000. Cross-national cooperation existed among the various feminist groups, and there were also transatlantic links with feminists in the United States. Although there was a general desire for cooperation, these first-generation feminists tended to split over the issue of whether the primary struggle should be for the vote or for the improvement of social conditions. Some progressive women scorned feminism altogether, as was the case with the German Marxist Clara Zetkin (1857-1933), who saw socialism as offering women the only possibility for ending their oppression. In Great Britain, there was a split among those women who were working to achieve the vote. Suffragists, women who worked peacefully for the vote, were at times overshadowed in the public consciousness by the individuals who joined the Women's Social and Political Union formed by Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928). With her daughter Christabel (1880-1958) at her side, Emmeline and her followers (called Suffragettes) pursued a militant campaign of heckling political speakers, breaking church windows, and committing arson. These were serious crimes, and there was no sense of mercy on account of their gender or their wealthy backgrounds (poorer women did not usually have the luxury of being involved in politics). On the contrary, suffrag

Working-Class Responses to Industrialization

At first, workers were befuddled as to how to grapple with the economic and social problems caused by industrialization. For some individuals, such as handloom weavers, complete economic dislocation ensued, and their traditional way of life was threatened by machinery. Some laborers tried to destroy the machines, which they blamed for their problems. Their fictional leader was Ned Lud, and the term Luddite has stayed in the modern vocabulary in reference to those who refuse to embrace new technologies. Machinery also caused hardship for many laborers on the farms. They created an imaginary character known as Captain Swing, who righted the wrongs imposed on hardworking individuals by the advent of technology. After these rather primitive means of dealing with industrialization proved to be ineffective, workers sought to create cooperative societies, small associations within a given trade that provided funeral benefits and other services for their members. Despite government disapproval, workers in Great Britain in the late 18th century organized what first were known as "friendly societies," and these eventually evolved into full-blown unions once the ban on such activities was lifted in 1824. On the continent, it was not until the 1860s that unions were allowed to freely operate in France and in Prussia. Great Britain also took the lead in establishing the first unions that represented more than a single industry. In 1834, Robert Owen helped form the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, which several decades later evolved into the Trade Union Congress, pulling together workers from disparate industries. Skilled laborers formed the first unions; by the end of the 19th century, however, unions were being formed by dockworkers and other non-skilled workers. Unions were a critical reason for the steady improvement i

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

By the middle of the 19th century, Europe had undergone a dramatic process of economic expansion. These economic changes—sometimes referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution —had an impact on human lives that may have been even greater than what occurred during the initial stages of industrialization.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-The German States

Events in France had huge repercussions in the German states. In Prussia, Frederick William IV (r. 1840-1861) had promised to promote moderate reform for many years, but he never implemented any changes. In March 1848, disturbances erupted in the streets of Berlin. Frighteningly, two shots rang out and struck two people. Horrified by the bloodshed, Frederick ordered his army to leave the city, which left him with no defense. The king then allowed an election for a constituent assembly, which would have the task of drawing up a new constitution for Prussia. Several months later, the king was confident enough to call back the troops, and the constituent assembly was dissolved. Nevertheless, in December 1848, the king did draw up his own constitu-tion, which was rather close to what the assembly had planned. It allowed for personal rights such as freedom of the press, and it created a two-house legislature with adult-male universal suffrage for the lower house, although in the end, this provision was watered down by giving weighted votes to those who paid more taxes. In Austria, news of the revolution in France inspired assorted nationalists to break free from the control of the Austrian monarchy. In Hungary, Lajos Kossuth (1802-1894) demanded a constitution that would provide for responsible government for Hungary. In Prague, a similar revolt called for the creation of a semi-autonomous Czech homeland. From May to October, Vienna was under the control of students and workers who demanded freedom of the press, an end to censorship, and also the removal from office of the hated Metternich. As in Prussia, at first the emperor did not want bloodshed and called off his troops. By June, however, the revolt in Prague was put down by military force, and in November, the emperor was firmly in control in Vienna. However, he needed

Social Class and the Second Industrial Revolution

Far-reaching industrial developments played a significant role in changing the social dynamic in western Europe. One group in decline was the traditional aristocracy. The French Revolution created the concept of a meritocracy, thereby eliminating any special privileges based on birth. In Great Britain, the development of refrigerated railcars meant that less expensive agricultural products could be imported from the United States, Argentina, and Australia. This resulted in the propitious decline in the wealth of many of the great noble families, whose wealth was primarily based on land. The implementation of competitive examinations for civil service and military positions served to reduce the aristocracy's role in two of their traditional endeavors: government administration and command of the military. The second half of the 19th century has sometimes been called the "Age of the Middle Class." Middle classes were not new. During the Renaissance, a different "middle class" was largely responsible for the changes that radically transformed society. That middle class consisted of wealthy, city-dwelling merchants, who lay somewhere between the three traditional classes, or "estates," of medieval society—the peasants, the priesthood, and the nobility. The money ofthese merchants, and their secular interests, contributed to the intellectual progress of the Renaissance. In the late 19th century, however, the middle class was growing in size and importance. The merchants were joined by members of newly created professions (such as industrialists and engineers) and of newly wealthy ones (lawyers, journalists, doctors, and teachers). These people were "middle class" in the sense that they fell outside the carlier class system. On the whole, they were not middle-income; they were instead quite wealthy. The late 1800s were sig

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Electricity

Few developments have affected the way people live their lives as significantly as the invention of the means to harness electrical power. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the incandescent lamp. Two years later, the first electrical power station was built in Great Britain. Soon after that, European cities began to be lit after dark, and populations moved through the streets of the city more effectively with the introduction of electric tramways. Electric lights made cities far safer and even led to the expansion of nighttime activities in London and Paris, where the late 19th century saw a tremendous growth in the number of public opera houses and theaters.

Darwin

Few individuals had a greater impact on the intellectual world of the 19th century than Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an English naturalist who traveled on the H.M.S. Beagle to the Galápagos Islands off the coast of South America. Prior to Darwin, there were some, including his grandfather, who had challenged the biblical account in Genesis of creation as a one-time event. According to this view, species could never undergo a process of change- -evolution—because God cre- ated the world in six days and then stopped.) In addition, geol-ogists, like Charles Lyell (1797-1875), claimed that geological evidence proved that the Earth was much older than the biblical age of approximately 6,000 years. Although Darwin was not operating in an intellectual vacuum, he was the first to offer an explanation for the process of change. Darwin argued that certain members of a species inherit traits that over time may make them more successful in the struggle for survival. These traits are then passed down, while those members of the species who lack such characteristics ultimately do not reproduce. Darwin labeled this process "natural selec-tion" in his important book On the Origin of Species (1859). It was not until more than a decade after the publication of his first book that Darwin, a cautious man, would take his idea to its natural conclusion. In The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin argued that humans were not exempt from this process of evolutionary change and that human beings have therefore evolved from simpler forms of life. The opposition to Darwin was swift and vehement, particularly from religious groups, who saw such ideas as a direct threat to the very basis of their beliefs.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS-Judaism, Anti-Semitism, and Zionism

For Jews, the 19th century presented new opportunities as well as new pressures. The legal status of Jews improved throughout the century. In 1858, Jews were allowed to enter the House of Commons in Great Britain, and in the following decade, Jews received full political rights in Austria-Hungary and Germany. Despite their newly enhanced legal status, social discrimination remained endemic. Those Jews who wanted to rise in certain professions or in government often found the path blocked to them unless they converted. The last quarter of the 19th century was a period of increasing hardships for Jews. For many, Jews were seen as responsible for new and troubling trends in modern economic life, such as the creation of the department store, which put small shopkeepers out of business. The economic depression of 1873, which lasted for most of the remainder of the decade, led to an increase in prejudice. Economic resentment was combined with a new form of anti-Semitism (the word was first used in 1879) based on Social Darwinist notions of Jews as being part of a distinct and foreign race and not just members of a religious denomination.Hitler's early years in Vienna were spent in a city governed by Karl Lueger (1844-1928), who was clected mayor of the city on an openly anti-Semitic platform. Anti-Semitic political parties formed in Germany, while in France, the Dreyfus Affair helped give rise to Action Française, a monarchist group that was also virulently anti-Semitic. In Russia, the monarchy used attacks on Jews, or pogroms, as a tool for redirecting popular anger, which might otherwise have been directed toward the throne. Several million Jews left Russia at the turn of the century to escape the persecution that grew worse after the 1905 Revolution. For many Jews, the optimism they felt at the middle of the century that

19th century France

France seemed to have a tortured existence throughout the 19th century as it continued to grapple with the legacy of the French Revolution. A measure of stability finally emerged with the rise of the Third French Republic (1870-1940), though it too had to deal with a past that still divided segments of the French public. Following his victory in the December 1848 election, Louis Napoleon became the first and only president of the short-lived Second Republic. He used a tool developed by his uncle, Napoleon. Following a constitutional dispute with the legislature, he staged a plebiscite in 1851 that polled the people about whether to grant him dictatorial powers for a 10-year period. After winning this vote, Napoleon moved on in the following year to stage another plebiscite, this time on the question of whether to create a second French empire. Although there were numerous electoral irregu-larities, apparently large numbers of Frenchmen were perfectly content to see the revival of the empire in the hope of once again seeing France take the dominant position in Europe. France prospered greatly during the first 10 years of the reign of Napoleon III. Cheap credit provided by the government allowed for a significant economic expansion during this period. The city of Paris underwent a remarkable transformation from a medieval city to a modern one under the guidance of Georges Haussmann (1809-1891), who cleared many of the slums of the city and in their place built the wide avenues that have become a hallmark of Paris. Besides making the city more attractive visually, this new Paris was a much cleaner place, with aqueducts to bring fresh water into the city and sewers to remove waste, resulting in the elimination of one of the great scourges of the earlier part of the century—cholera. Despite the economic improvements duri

Great Britain's Industrial Lead

Great Britain was the first European nation to begin the process of industrialization. What motivated England to change so dramatically? Although numerous books and articles have dealt with this question, conclusive or definitive answers for queries of this sort are rare. Several possible factors may have contributed to England's role as the leader of the industrialization of Europe: . In the years following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Great Britain achieved a degree of political stability that created an environment friendly to economic investment. Compared to most other European states (the exception being the Netherlands), Great Britain permitted a much greater degree of religious toleration. For exam-ple, the Quakers, while closed off by law from parliamentary careers, had no such restrictions placed on their economic activities and were able to play a central role in the Industrial Revolution. Expanding population-which almost doubled in Great Britain over the course of the 18th century, due in large part to a lower death rate thanks to better diet and hygiene- -is of particular importance to the Industrial Revolution. Britain's increased population size produced not only a large body of potential low-wage workers for the factories but also a steady supply of consumers. The Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, initiated by men such as Jethro Tull, introduced scientific farming to Great Britain. Their observations led them to realize that continuous rotation of crops, instead of the traditional method of allowing land to lay fallow, allowed for an increase in crop yield while also leading to the growth of turnips and beets that could be used to feed larger quantities of animals during the difficult winter months. As a result of the Agricultural Revolution and the rise of cottage industries, England wa

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1750-1850)

Historians had formerly placed the beginning of the Industrial Revolution at 1760, when a group of new inventors appeared from nowhere and began to develop fac-tories, bringing an end to the domestic system of production that had guided manufacturing since the early modern period. Experts have modified this belief over the last several decades; some historians even avoid the term "Industrial Revolution," which they claim implies far too dramatic a change. We now know that technological progress did not begin in 1760; it had been occurring for centuries. This much is true: the second half of the 18th century saw a quickening of an age-old evolutionary process rather than a fresh break from the past. By the middle of the 19th century, particularly with the advent of the railroad, industrialization was beginning to reshape the European landscape and to dramatically alter the way in which people lived.

The Unification of Italy

In 1848, Italian liberals made an aborted attempt to create an Italian state. Although the attempt failed, the dream for a state never disappeared. Following the collapse of the short-lived Roman Republic, Pope Pius IX-when his authority in Rome was restored —inspired increasingly reactionary policies. Liberals no longer saw any potential for the realization of a federation of Italian states headed by the pope. Although some liberals wanted nothing less than the creation of an Italian republic, an increasing number looked with hope to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the one Italian state that had preserved its liberal constitution since the year of revolutions. The true architect of Italian unification, or what is referred to in Italian as the Risorgimento, was not the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel (r. 1849-1878), but Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861), his chief minister. Cavour was quite different from carlier Italian nationalists like Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), who saw state-building in romanticized terms. Cavour was a far more practical individual who primarily sought ways to enhance the power of the Sardinian state. Cavour realized that creating an Italian state would require the expulsion of Austria from the Italian peninsula. Events in 1848 foreshadowed the impossibility of succeeding in this expulsion without the aid of some other European state, so Cavour entered into a secret alliance with France. Cavour had set the groundwork for this relationship by cleverly eritering the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in the Crimean War on the side of France and Great Britain, and although its participation was minimal, it earned Napoleon III's grat-itude. Napoleon III was additionally interested in aiding the Sardinians because Austria was a traditional enemy offoreign military adventures so that he cou

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS-Religion for the Working Class and Peasants

In Great Britain, a religious census taken in 1851 revealed that attendance at church (it assumed everyone was Christian) was much lower than expected and that the working class in particular had very little connection with organized religion. On the other hand, the 19th century was not without some interesting examples of the continuing strength of popular religious sentiment. One well-known incident dates back to 1858, when a young French peasant girl named Bernadette claimed she saw a vision of the Virgin Mary, and that it happened again 18 more times. The waters from the grotto at Lourdes, where she saw the vision, became an important religious shrine.

The Arts-Music

In addition to its impact on literature and art, Romanticism influenced the world of 19th-century music. Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827) began to write compositions that broke with earlier classical forms by adjusting their length and doing unheard-of things such as putting a vocal soloist toward the end of the last movement of a composition. Beethoven was able to break with tradition because he was the first composer to earn his living directly with proçeeds from compositions and perfor-mances, earning enough to not have to rely on either aristocratic or religious patrons. Other innovative composers include Franz Schubert (1797-1828), who invented the lied, or art song, which involves a solo voice performing a melody to piano accompaniment. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) wrote pieces in which for the first time there was an attempt to tell a story without the use of singers and a written text, such as when he set Goethe's Faust to music. Some composers made use of traditional oral tales or folk songs: Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) was influenced by the music of the peasants of his native Poland, and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) wrote music based on traditional Romani music. At the turn of the century, a self-styled avant-garde sought to break with convention, so that when Sergei Diaghilev presented his ballet The Rite of Spring in 1913, the odd costumes, peculiar dancing, and jarring music by Igor Stravinsky seemed to be an utter rejection of every element of classical ballet. The artists were often well ahead of their skeptical audiences, and the premiere performance of The Rite of Spring was famous for the mayhem that ensued among the proper bourgeois crowd.

Great Britain

In contrast to France, Great Britain enjoyed remarkable stability and prosperity in the second half of the 19th century. A general sense of self-satisfaction pervaded in Victorian England. Nowhere was this more apparent than in the Great Exhibition of 1851, which boasted more than 13,000 exhibitors displaying the variety of British goods that were now available as a result of industrialization. To accommodate the exhibits and the millions of visitors, the architect John Paxton constructed a building with the greatest area of glass to date, which became known as the Crystal Palace. One contemporary wrote that because buildings represent the society that builds them, the Crystal Palace revealed "the aesthetic bloom of its practical char-acter, and of the practical tendency of the English nation." Politically, the nation was slowly evolving in the direction of increased democracy. The Great Reform Bill of 1832 was only the first in a number of steps that were taken to expand the fran-chise. In 1867, under the direction of prime minister Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), one of the most remarkable men to ever hold that post, the Second Reform Bill passed, which extended the vote to urban heads of households. In 1884, during the Prime Ministership of Disraeli's great rival, William Gladstone (1809-1898), the vote was further extended to heads of households in the countryside. The rivalry between Disraeli and Gladstone was emblematic of another important aspect of Victorian politics—the evolution of a political system dominated by two political parties, in this case, Disraelis Tory or Conservative party and Gladstone's Liberal party. The long reign of Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901) saw a continuing deterioration in the political power of the monarchy, resulting in the crown's inability to play a significant role in the select

The New Imperialism: Colonization of Africa and Asia

In the 1880s, the nations of Europe began an expansion into Africa and Asia that was unprecedented both for its speed and its scale. This period of conquest and the establishment of colonies is referred to as the "new imperialism." The term is used in part to separate the period from earlier periods of overseas conquest, such as the Spahish conquest of Central and South America, but also to denote the fundamental ways in which life was transformed in those regions that were now under the sway of Europeans. Breech-loading rifles, which allowed the user to fire from a prone position, offered a significant advantage over the muzzle loaders still in use by those Africans who had guns. Even greater firepower was provided by the introduction of rapid-fire weapons such as the Gatling gun. • Steamships allowed for rapid transport across oceans without having to deal with the vagaries of wind power, and smaller steam-driven river boats allowed Europeans to penetrate into the heart of Africa. The construction of the Suez Canal, which was finished in 1869, significantly reduced the time it took to get to Asia. : One of the most important technological developments for imperialism was the telegraph, which allowed for the exchange of messages between India and London over the course of a day —a dramatic decrease over the two years it took at the start of the century. The discovery in 1820 of quinine, a drug made from the bark of the cinchona tree, was an effective treatment for the great scourge of the tropics-malaria.The new imperialism was built on a foundation of technological advances. Although technology was vital for the new imperialism, it would have made little difference without the various motivating factors that stirred Europeans to conquer foreign lands. One important factor was the search for profits that were assu

Emergence of the Social Sciences-History

In the 19th century, there was a new impetus to take the methodology established in the sciences and apply it to the workings of society. One result of this was the emergence of history as a modern academic discipline. One of the pioneers in the new historical methods was Barthold Niebuhr (1776-1831), who introduced the close examination of primary source documents into the writing of classical history. His Roman History influenced Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) and led von Ranke to challenge the traditional way of looking at history as revealing some grand design, whether that design was the revealed work of God or led to a more secular purpose. Ranke felt that the historical texts of his day were unreliable and instead felt that it was necessary, like Niebuhr, to go to original sources.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS-The Bible as History

In the German states in the early 19ch century, a group of theologians began to study the Bible as history in search of the "historical" Jesus. A critical step in this effort was the publication in 1835 of The Life of Jesus Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874). For Strauss, the Bible consisted of a series of myths formulated by the carly Christians, ultimately providing for a scripture that contained, in his famous phrase, a "Christ of faith, rather than the Jesus of history." The work of these German theologians was brought to England by Samuel Taylor Coleridge as well as by George Eliot, who translated Strauss's Life as well as Ludwig Feuerbach's (1804-1872) Essence of Christianity, which argued that God was a man-made device that reflected our own inner sense of the divine.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-The Italian States

In the Italian states, the revolt that first broke out in Sicily led Ferdinand II to grant a liberal con-stitution. Eventually, similar revolts broke out and terrified monarchs granted charters in Tuscany and Sardinia. Even the pope granted a liberal constitution: the Papal States, at the time still a substantial territory in central Italy under papal rule, also saw revolts. After the revolt, the territory was governed by a short-lived Roman Republic. In the north of Italy, revolts broke out in the Austrian-dominated provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. This led to a call by Italian liberals for a war of unification. Charles Albert, the ruler of the Kingdom of Sardinia, reluctantly took up the banner of Italian nationalists and attacked Lombardy, only to be easily defeated by the Austrians. For Italy, the lesson for the future was that unification would not take place under the auspices of the papacy, as some Italian liberals prior to 1848 had assumed. On the other hand, the possibility of the Kingdom of Sardinia serving as the foundation for a unified state improved, because in the group of Italian states that were granted constitutions in 1848, only Sardinia governed via the constitutional monarchical course in the following years. A final important lesson had futureramifications: The Italians could not eject Austria from its possessions within Italy without the aid of another European power.

The Impact of Industrialization

Industrialization dramatically changed life in Europe. Because the location of factories tended to be concentrated in certain areas, cities began to grow and develop rapidly. Industrialization, and the urban movement it spawned, replaced the putting-out (or domestic) system, in which raw materials were delivered to the homes of peasants and then the finished products were collected and sold by merchants. The change from rural manufacturing to bringing workers to a location significantly affected life in Britain. By the middle of the century, Great Britain became the first nation to have more people living in the cities than in the countryside, one of the most dramatic transformations in the history of humankind. Unfortunately, the cities that grew from the ground up as a result of industrialization tended to be awful places for the working poor. Poor ventilation and sanitation led to conditions in which the mortality rates were significantly higher for urban dwellers than for those who resided in the countryside. Because people had to use a water supply that came into direct contact with animal and human feces, cholera became part of the early 19th-century urban landscape, killing tens of thousands of individuals. Industrialization greatly affected the family structure. The fact that the entire family was working was not new; the earlier domestic system had relied on the family as a cohesive working unit. What was different was that the family no longer worked together under one roof, with women and children now often working under conditions even more deplorable than the men's conditions, because factory owners thought they were less likely to complain. Great Britain's Sadler Committee exposed that children were being beaten in the factories. As a result, the House of Commons passed the Factory Act 1833), which mandat

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Philosophy

Just as scientific inquiry was revealing ideas and principles that appeared to be less than rational, philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, for a time a professor of classical languages at the University of Basel, began to question and even to reject the ideas of the 18th-century Enlightenment. In Nietzsche's most influential work, Thus Spake Zarathustra, he argued that it was necessary to break free from traditional morality, which is why he famously proclaimed that "God is dead." It was necessary, according to Nietzsche, to "kill" God, because religion was at the center of a Western model of civilization that he despised. Nietzsche hated the Germany created by Bismarck and instead yearned for the emergence of the artist-warrior superman. Unfortunately, after his deach in 1900, his pro-Nazi sister was in charge of his literary estate, and she edired his writings to make them supportive of Hitler's extreme nationalism and anti-Semitism, two modern chauvinisms that he, in fact, despised.

Limits to Women's Education and Work

Keeping women in the home was in part ensured by outside institutions that limited the opportunities available to females. Higher education was generally reserved for men, although exceptions began to appear, with women being allowed to attend the University of Zurich by 1865 and the University of London in 1878. With the development of professional societies in areas such as medicine and law, women found an additional barrier, as the bylaws of these societies generally excluded women. For those middle-class women who did work outside the home, certain professions-such as primary school teacher, nurse, secretary, and librarian —became almost completely female, which also ensured that they were poorly paid jobs in comparison to those held by men. Some women were able to move beyond the bounds of convention. Frances Power Cobbe (1822- 1904) was one of the first women to make a living as a journalist and later became an active campaigner against medical vivisection, and Josephine Butler (1828-1906) challenged a basic Victorian prohibition simply by talking about sex publicly. Butler helped found the Ladies National Association in 1869, an all-female organization that fought against the Contagious Diseases Act, which allowed for women who were deemed to possibly be infected by sexually transmitted diseases to be dragged off the street for examination while males went unaccosted.

THE AGE OF NATIONAL UNIFICATION (1854-1871)

Metternich once remarked that Italy was "a mere geographical expression." He could have said the same for Germany, because up until the second half of the 19th century, both lands consisted of a number of independent territories, a disunity that dated back to the Middle Ages. In the late Middle Ages (c. 1100-1500) and the early modern period (c. 1500-1789), the rulers of France, Spain, and Great Britain successfully expanded their auchority. In France, this expansion resulted in the monarchy destroying the independence of the rulers of Normandy, Brittany, and Aquitaine and incorporating them into the domains of the French king. This process was not predestined: we could just as easily imagine a Europe where modern Spain is divided between a large nation of Portugal and a small Ara-gon; and as it happened, the process of consolidation did not take place in either the northern German territories or on the Italian peninsula. However, by the early 19th century, individuals in both the German and Italian states sought to create a nation-state that would unite all Italians or all Germans under one political banner because they shared either a common culture, or language, or a fear of foreign domination. This process of national unification would have a tremendous impact on the future course of European history.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848

On January 12, 1848, there was a rebellion in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies against King Ferdinand II. This rebellion was to be the first of approximately 50 revolts that convulsed Europe in the first four months of that year. The rebellions were disjointed with very little cooperation or coordination between nations. However, there were a few key themes that ran through most of these contemporaneous upheavals. Primarily, widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership and an upsurge in nationalism motivated citizen demands for democratic government as well other liberal reforms. Following the revolutions of 1848, the Austrian Empire, now under the rule of Emperor Francis Joseph (r. 1848-1916), relied heavily on military force to subdue all forms of liberalism and nationalism. Magyars, Slavs, Italians, and Germans would have to wait to see nationalist reforms realized. The 1840s were a terrible decade for agriculture and have accordingly been labeled the "hungry forties." The Irish experienced the most terrible conditions, with the Irish potato famine of 1846 leading to the death of one million individuals and the emigration of an additional million out of Ireland.

The Arts-Romanticism in Literature

Part of the inspiration for Romanticism came from the writer Jean-Jacques Rous-seau, who in his novel Emile proposed an educational program for a young man in which the education was derived from nature and not from rote memorization of facts. Artists who worked in the Romantic tradition extolled both the beauty and mystery of nature. They also exhibited a great deal of interest in the supernatural, as for example in Goethe's Faust, which deals with a man who sells his soul to the devil in order to achieve worldly success. Romantics explored folklore and traditional peasant life because country people were idealized as living closer to nature. Romantics also found it necessary to break with the traditional styles of the past. In their jointly written Lyrical Ballads, the English poets William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) completely ignored the rules of punctuation, revealing their rejection of classical poetic forms. Many of the artists who worked in the Romantic tradition became fascinated with the Middle Ages. Although their glorification of the medieval past, an age of theocratic king-ship, would have seemingly pointed them into a more conservative direction, many of the Romantics were political liberals. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) and Victor Hugo (1802-1885) in many ways invented the popular image of the Middle Ages in novels such as Ivanhoe and The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Their influence can be felt when you look at almost any church in the United States from the second half of the 19th century; the odds are that it's built in the Gothic style.Many in the Romantic movement not only rejected traditional literary and artistic styles, but also rejected the traditional political order. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1827), an English Romantic poet, rebelled against the conservative val

Emergence of the Social Sciences-Archaeology

Scientific principles were also used in the field of archaeology, which in the 19th century still remained the preserve of dedicated amateurs such as Heinrich Schlieman, a German businessman who searched for the ruins of ancient Troy, and the Englishman Sir Arthur Evans 1851- 1941), who excavated the Minoan culture of Crete.

The Arts-Realism in Literature

Realism was also an important movement in literature. Just as realist painters wanted to show the world the actual conditions of those on the bottom of the social order, so too did novelists like Charles Dickens (1812-1870), who used his brief experience in a blacking factory as the basis for his critique of industrialized society. In Hard Times, the noble workingman Stephen Blackpool struggles against forces over which he has no control. He can't divorce his drunken wife and marry his beloved Rachael because divorce is available only to the wealthy. Mean-while, he's falsely accused of being a troublemaker at work and finds himself unable to make a living. Such works, although at times a shade maudlin, introduced many middle-class individuals in Great Britain to the hardships of working-class life. Other realist authors focused on what they perceived to be the barrenness of middle-class domestic life and most notably the institution of marriage. One such writer was Mary Ann Evans (1819-1880), who wrote under the name George Eliot. In Middlemarch, her most important work, Eliot deals with English provincial life on the eve of the Great Reform Bill. Her main character, Dorothea Brooke, despite her own beauty, marries an unattractive older cleric named Casaubon in the failed hope that his scholarly ways will broaden her world. Although her second marriage, to Casaubon's young cousin, is a happy one, frustration still remains over her inability to realize her dream of improving the living conditions for their tenant farmers. Emma Bovary, the title character in Gustave Flaubert's (1821-1880) Madame Bovary, marries a mediocre village doctor only to find that reality is far different from the romantic notions of marriage she received from books. In search of excitement, she engages in a series of affairs, but the emptiness c

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS-Religion

Religious beliefs and institutions made a significant recovery in the period after 1815, particularly considering the extent of the challenges posed to organized religion by the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic era. Secular rulers saw religion as an important fortification for the existing social order, with the revolutions of 1848 further spurring this trend toward state support of religion.

The Arts-Art

Romantic artists became fascinated with what they deemed to be "exotic," and leading painters traveled to North Africa and to the Middle East in search of subjects. Also, like their literary Delacroiss, many arists rejected the political order in their works. For example, Eugène Delacroix's (1798-1863) Liberty Leading the People, painted one year after the overthrow of Charles X, captures the stirring events of the revolution in the streets of Paris. By the mid-century mark, photography was beginning to have a significant impact on painting while also serving as a new art form in its own right. One of the pioneers was Louis Daguerre (1789-1851), who in 1835, accidentally discovered that he could produce an image when he put an exposed plate in a chemical cupboard where mercury vapor was present. It still took him several years to find a way to fix the image, a process that received the name of daguerreotype. Photography would enter into the mainstream with the introduction of celluloid film, and in the 1880s, George Eastman introduced flexible film and the first box camera, which made photography into something far less expensive that could be enjoyed by the masses.The development of photography made it increasingly clear to painters that there would be less demand for realistic landscapes and portraits. Some artists began to look to new subjects, such as those we refer to as the realists, who sought to paint the world around them without any illu-sions. In part inspired by the revolutionary upheavals of 1848, Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) began to paint works like The Stone-Breakers that rejected the romantic traditions of the day and instead focused on showing the world of the peasants in all its grim reality. Jean-François Millet (1814-1875) is most famous for The Sowers, which shows hardscrabble peasants who seem,

The Arts-

Romanticism began in the second half of the 18th century as a rejection of what was viewed as the cold rationalism of 18th-century Neoclassicism and instead placed a much higher value on the primacy of emotions and feeling.

Revolutionary Movements in Russia

Russia had emerged as a great European power as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, although in many ways, Russia was a much less developed nation than the other European countries. Alexander I (r. 1801-1825) had ruled Russia and at various times had toyed with the idea of political reform, although in the latter part of his reign he grew increasingly reactionary. Alexander's death in 1825 produced confusion as to the succession; Constantine, the older of his two surviving brothers, turned down the throne, so Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855) stepped up. In the confusion, a small group of military officers decided to stage a revolt in support of Con-stantine, who they wrongly thought was in favor of a constitutional monarchy and had been unfairly removed from the succession. This "Decembrist" revolt was put down rapidly and with great brutality. In the following years, Nicholas ruled with an iron fist, making sure to stamp out any additional movements for reform within his vast empire.

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Other Scientific Developments

Science began to play an increasingly important role in industrial expansion. In particular, the second half of the 19th century produced a series of major developments. While this trend was to continue into the first decades of the 20th century, in many ways, the optimism that one could sense in the 1880s concerning the world of science was not to be found some 40 years later. Even before the First World War delivered a terrible blow to the belief in rational progress, scientists were revealing that nature was incredibly complex; many questions would remain unanswered while at least some of the basic assumptions concerning the workings of the universe were under attack. • The introduction of synthetic dyes revolutionized the textile industry. • The invention of man-made fertilizers led to increased crop yields. • The invention of dynamite by the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) made it possible to blast tunnels through rock and to remove those hills that nature had placed in inconvenient spots. Nobel, however, was horrified by the potentially destructive uses of his invention, and in his will he entrusted money for a prize to be given in his name to those who served the cause of peace. Increasingly, the 19th and early-20th centuries witnessed greater specialization in the sciences, as scientists provided some of the key foundational work in areas such as physics and chemistry. Some of these developments include the following: • Michael Faraday produced groundbreaking work on electricity and electromagnetism. • Amateur scientist James Joule defined many of the laws of thermodynamics. • In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev developed the periodic table, arranging the known elements by atomic weight while leaving empty spaces in his table for those elements then predicted but as yet unknown. • In 1895, Wil

Socialism and Karl Marx

Some workers-particularly on the continent-found that although the unions' emphasis on gradual improvements in wages and hours worked, it was at best only a partial solution to the problems caused by industrialization. Many turned to socialism, believing that it offered a complete overhaul to an oppressive society. Socialism had early roots in the writings of such individuals as Saint-Simon, Robert Owen, and Charles Fourier; the most significant strand in socialist thought, however, was the so-called scientific socialism offered by Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx was born in the German city of Trier and eventually received a university education at Jena. As a young man, he became the editor of a Cologne newspaper, the Rheinische Zeitung, but he soon found that his political views were considered too radical by the authorities, who banned the newspaper, leading Marx to seek the freer intellectual climate of Paris. The French, however, quickly grew tired of Marx, so he left Paris for London where he spent the remainder of his life. Marx and his colleague Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) organized a Communist League to link the far-flung German Socialists, many of whom, like Marx, were living in exile. In 1848, they teamed up to write a pamphlet that was to serve as a basic statement of princi-ples for the organization. This document was The Communist Manifesto, one of the most influential political tracts in history. The very first line contains Marx and Engels's view that all history from the beginnings of time consists of the struggle between social classes, an idea that was labeled as historical materialism, or the material dialectic. The origin of this idea can be found in the writings of the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose dialectic differed from Marx's in that it saw economic conditions emanating fr

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS-Catholicism

Spain, in 1851, declared Catholicism the only religion of the Spanish people, while in Austria, the reforms that Joseph II had imposed on the Catholic Church in the late 18th century over areas such as the training of priests were repealed. Nowhere were the events of 1848 felt more than in Rome, where a revolution forced Pope Pius IX to flee his city. Restored to power with the help of French troops, he issued the encyclical Syllabus of Errors, which listed liberalism as one of the errors of modern life. In 1870, Pius put forward the doctrine of "papal infallibility," which posits that when making an official statement on matters of faith, the pope could not be in error, a controversial doctrine that alarmed moderate Catholics. Perhaps inevitably, there was a backlash against religious institutions where they appeared to be standing in the way of change. Such criticism could be clearly expected from liberal circles, but even conservative politicians could be antagonistic toward religious bodies. In the newly unified Germany, Bismarck saw Catholicism as a force that could rip the nation apart, because Catholics were tied to a supranational institution that would be the object of their primary loyalties. To deal with this purported threat, Bismarck, with the support of German liberals, attacked Catholic institutions in what was known as the Kulturkampf (cultural war), taking control over Catholic schools and the appointment of bishops. After seeing that this was having little effect, Bismarck stopped this harassment in 1878.In the last quarter of the 19th century, there was a growing sentiment among both Catholic and Protestant clergy that religion needed to address the social issues of the day. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878-1903) issued Rerum Novarum ("Of New Things"), and although the encyclical reaffirmed the right

The Crimean War (1854-1856)

The Crimean War was critical to the formation of centralized states in both Italy and Germany, though initially it was impossible to foresee such a result when the war began in 1854. Several factors led to the outbreak of hostilities, including a controversy over which nation would control access to the religious sites sacred to Christians in Jerusalem. The main issue, however, was the fear among British and French statesmen that Ottoman weakness was encouraging Russian adventurism in the Balkans and the possibility that the Russians might gain access to the Mediterranean by occupying the port city of Istanbul. Following a naval defeat by the Ottomans, who had declared war on the Russians in 1853 with British encouragement, France and Great Britain declared war on the Russians. Most of the fighting took place in the Crimean region and was notable for the incredible incompetence of all participants. Most of the half-million casualties did not die in battle but perished because of disease in filthy field hospitals, something that inspired Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) to revolutionize the nursing profession.The war came to an ignominious end after the fall of the Russian fortress of Sevastopol, Russia's chief port in the northern Black Sea and nearest access to the Mediterranean. Though reluctant to quit, the Russians were forced to reconsider when the Austrians threatened to enter the war on the side of the British and the French unless Russia accepted the offered peace terms. Russia was forced to cede some territories on the Danube River and to accept a ban on warships in the Black Sea region. This was a major blow to Russian ambitions of involvement in European politics. Since the time of Peter the Great, Russia had sought a warm-water port in the south which could provide access to the Mediterranean Sea through t

Revolutionary Movements in Great Britain

The French Revolution and the wars against Napoleon had created a backlash against the idea of political reform in Great Britain. The governing elite were also wary of possible social unrest owing to the economic downturn that occurred following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Such fears were realized in a catastrophe in 1819 when a large crowd of 60,000 people gathered in St. Peter's field in Manchester to demand fundamental political changes, including universal male suffrage and annual parliaments. Although those who attended the meeting were for the most part peaceful, the soldiers on hand shot 11 members of the crowd. This became known as the Peterloo Massacre, an obvious play on the Battle of Waterloo. Soon after this disgraceful event, Parliament passed the repressive Six Acts, which banned demonstrations and imposed censorship. The mood in Great Britain became more conducive to reform beginning in 1824 with the repeal of the Combination Acts, which had banned union activity. In 1829, restrictions dating back to the 17th century on the rights of Catholics to hold political office and governmentposts were lifted. In 1832, the Great Reform Bill was passed. The bill was hardly radical. Although it expanded the electorate to include those who had become wealthy as a result of industrialization, only one in five males in Great Britain could vote. It reduced, but did not completely eliminate, the number of so-called rotten boroughs, which were sparsely populated electoral districts. The bill succeeded in showing that political reform was possible in Great Britain without having to resort to the barricades as in continental Europe. The new electorate created out of the Great Reform Bill undertook additional reforms. Although inspired by the middle-class Members of Parliament, they showed a new harshness toward the poo

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Advances in Medicine

The beginnings of modern Western medicine took root in the 19th century, marking the first time in history that going to the doctor was not such a bad idea. • Surgery, previously dominated by practitioners who bragged about their ability to remove a leg in under 90 seconds, was transformed in 1846 when American dentist William Morton began to introduce anesthesia in the form of ether, followed by the use of chloroform anesthesia a few years later. • Overall, the most significant change in medicine in the period was that the experimental method found in the sciences was applied to medicine. Applying the experimental method, Louis Pasteur discovered that microbes—small, invisible organisms— —caused diseases. Pasteur also explained how vaccines, which had been in use since the 18th century to fight against smallpox, worked within the body by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies after coming into contact with a weak form of the bacilli. • The English surgeon Joseph Lister, building on Pasteur's discoveries, initiated the use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant during surgery. • A Hungarian doctor, Ignaz Semmelweis, made childbirth much safer for women. He demonstrated that if doctors and nurses thoroughly washed their hands prior to delivery, it could dramatically reduce the number of women who died from what was known as "childbed fever."

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Steel

The label "Age of Steel" is an apt one for the second half of the century. Previously, steel production was expensive. In 1856, the Englishman Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) introduced a method that became known as the Bessemer Process that produced steel in far greater quantities without increasing costs. A few years later, William Siemens (1823-1883), a German, introduced an even better method of making steel that produced a higher quality product at significantly reduced costs. Because of its strength and durability, steel became the metal of choice for buildings and ships, resulting in a revolution in architecture and shipbuilding.

The Rights and Role of Women

The role of the family changed in the 19th century, with one of the most significant developments being that families, which at one time operated as a cohesive economic unit, no longer functioned in such a manner. Increasingly, there were now separate spheres for both male and female endeavors, with the male going off to earn the money that provided for the family's sup-port. In the late 19th century, the rise of a sizable, wealthy middle class created new gender standards. Middle-class city-dwellers had the money and the energy to record their social views and set standards of taste for their nations. And, among those families who had the money, the new standard was for a man's place to be in the workforce and a woman's to be in the home, which was increasingly seen as a haven in an ever-changing world. In the Victorian period, this idealization of the household and the female's place within it led to the rise of what is known as the "cult of domesticity." Among the well-off, women were expected to exhibit certain traits that were to make the home a blissful paradise, Submissiveness was one of the traits that women were expected to exhibit, along with sexual purity and religious piety, because women were expected to be responsible for the religious life of the family. Books were written to provide women with tips on running their households and raising their children. Standards were quite different for the poorer majority of the country. Working-class women worked just as hard as working-class men, whether in fac-tories, or in forms of domestic labor (such as taking in laundry), or as servants. Many worked multiple jobs, and had little time or energy left to raise children, let alone read books on the subject. The working class would, nevertheless, sometimes receive visits from well-meaning but patronizing middle-clas

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION-Transportation

The second half of the 19th century witnessed many significant developments in all forms of transportation. Europe's rail network expanded dramatically. By the end of the century, well over 100,000 miles of track had been laid. In 1869, the French built the Suez Canal, though it was the British who gained control over the canal in 1875, eager to ensure their continued use of a waterway that almost halved the amount of time it took to travel from Great Britain to India.• Speedy clipper ships began to set records for crossing the Atlantic Ocean, though by the end of the century they were to be replaced by steamships. • Trains and steamships, using the ice-making machines that were introduced in the 1870s, were able to transport perishables around the world and made the United States, Australia, and Argentina major providers of European provisions. In 1885, Karl Benz invented an internal combustion engine powered by gasoline. Automobiles, however, would remain a plaything of the very wealthy until Henry Ford started producing his Model T in 1908. Finally, a whole new area of transportation was opened up when Orville and Wilbur Wright, brothers whose background was in bicycle building, launched the hirst successful airplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903.

Russia

The stresses of war can show a nation at its best or they can reveal significant problems. For Russia, the poor showing in the Crimean War, fought in its own backyard, revealed the weaknesses of its society in comparison to the nations of western Europe. Although Nicholas I was far too reactionary to contemplate reform, his successor, Alexander II (r. 1855-1881), recognized that the greatest problem facing Russia was serfdom. In 1861, he issued a proclamation freeing the serfs, though the former serfs had to buy their freedom with payments that were to extend over 50 years (a practice that was stopped following the Russian Revolution of 1905). The peasants were also generally given the poorest lands by their former owners, which meant that life remained harsh for many agricultural laborers.Administratively, to cope with a Russia that faced a burgeoning population throughout its far-flung empire, Alexander introduced zemstvos, or district assemblies, that had mandates to deal with local issues such as education and social services. The zemstuos were dominated by the local gentry and were hardly bastions of democracy, though some Russian reformers saw their existence as the potential for greater political freedoms. Alexander enacted further reforms, such as a revision of the legal system, although at heart he remained an autocrat and saw no need to implement fundamental changes like the introduction of a written constitution and parliamentary bodies. His inflexibility on these points led to a rise in revolutionary organizations such as the People's Will, which assassinated Alexander in 1881. The succession to the throne of his reactionary son Alexander III (r. 1881-1894) brought about a new round of repression and an attempt to weaken even the tentative reforms of Alexander II.

Revolutions of 1848: France

There is an old saying that when France coughs, the rest of Europe catches a cold. In 1848, a rebellion in France created the spark for revolution throughout Europe. In France, the revolution of 1830 brought about only slight changes. The wealthy bourgeoisie dominated the July Monarchy, while the workers who had played such a pivotal role in the revolution of 1830 felt that they had received little for their efforts. Louis Phillipe's chief minister, François Guizot (1787-1874), believed that France had evolved politically as far as it should and that everyone who resented their lack of political rights should simply "get rich." With the rise of censorship and the banning of openly political meetings, opponents of the regime turned to the practice holding banquets that were thinly disguised political meetings. Over the winter, there had been more than 70 of these banquets with the largest one scheduled for February 22, 1848, to honor George Washington, a great hero to continental liberals. On the day of the banquet, Guizot issued an order banning it, which resulted in four days of revolution in the streets of Paris. After the first day, Louis Phillipe forced the resignation of Guizot, which may have been enough to placate the liberals; however, the workers on the barricades were not satisfied until they forced Louis Philippe to flee to England. Political disagreements between the liberals and the radicals plagued this revolution in France from the start, with the liberals focusing on political issues such as an expansion of suffrage. The radicals, led by socialist journalist Louis Blanc (1811-1882), spoke of the need for fundamental social and economic change. Blanc's supporters successfully pressured the provisional government to set up national workshops to provide jobs for the unemployed. Outside of Paris, however

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-Russia and Great Britain

Two nations avoided the turmoil of revolution in 1848: Russia and Great Britain. Repression in Russia was so complete under the reign of Nicholas I that the nation passed the year with hardly a yawn. In Great Britain, the story was quite different, because 1848 marked the peak year for a movement known as Chartism, which dated back to the previous decade. Chartism centered on the belief that the problems of the working class could be corrected by changes in the political organization of the country. The People's Charter of 1838, from which the movement received its name, contained six points. universal adult-male suffrage (some Chartists did favor female suffrage as well) the secret ballot abolition of property requirements for Members of Parliament payment to Members of Parliament equal electoral districts annual parliaments with yearly elections In many ways, working-class dissatisfaction with the House of Commons after the passage of the Great Reform Bill was a motivating factor behind the Chartist movement, because working-class citizens believed (correctly) that the reformed Parliament was completely unresponsive to their demands. In April 1848, a mass meeting was scheduled in London for the presentation of the Charter to the House of Commons. If the petition were once again rejected by Parliament, the Chartist Convention planned to transform itself into a National Assembly that would take over the government of the country. The mood in the capital was apprehensive. One middle-class man wrote to his wife: London is in a state of panic from the contemplated meeting of the Chartists, 200,000 strong on Monday; for myself, nothing that happened would in the least surprise me: I expect a revolution within two years: there may be one within three days. The Times is alarmed beyond all measure. I have it from good author

Revolutionary Movements in Greece

With the forces of repression everywhere triumphant, Western European liberals looked to the Greek revolt of 1821 to free the "birthplace of democracy" from "Eastern despotism." This was also part of a thousand-year prejudice that claimed Turkish citizens lived and died at the whims of a tyrannical Emperor (an especially ironic claim in a time of resurgent absolutism in France, Prussia, Italy, and elsewhere). Some leading liberals even went to Greece to aid the rebels; the British Romantic poet Lord Byron (1788-1824), for instance, sent his own money to refit the Greek fleet and died amidst the struggle in Greece (not from battle, but from a fever). By 1827, Britain, France, and Russia organized a combined naval force to intervene on the side of the Greek revolu-tionaries, and in the following year, the Russians attacked the Ottomans on land. By 1832, Greece declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire-and became a monarchy with an imported Bavarian prince. The Greek revolt was also tied to what became known as the "Eastern Question"-what should be done about the increasingly weak Ottoman Empire, appropriately nicknamed "the Sick Man of Europe." Like other multiethnic empires, the Ottoman Empire was breaking down after a series of rulers who could not keep the groups united. Europeans were also uncomfortably reminded of the threat the Ottomans had posed—the Ottoman Empire had most recently besieged Vienna less than 150 years earlier. As the Greeks were breaking away from the Ottoman Empire, so were the Serbians, who had established effective independence by 1830. The new Serbia was a small kingdom about the size of South Carolina, located north of Greece on the southern border of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ironically, this tiny kingdom would be a much greater threat to Austrian, and thus European, stability th

The creation of a German Empire completely changed the direction of European history. The following are some examples:

• The new German state created a bitter enemy of France, which lost the territories of Alsace and Lorraine and was forced to pay a huge indemnity to Germany for having started the war. • The economic power of this new German state created rising tensions with Great Britain and helped set into motion the rush to build colonial empires in the last quarter of the 19th century. The mad scramble began when Bismarck encouraged the French to build an empire in Africa to distract from the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. • Eventually, all the nations of Europe sought to create overseas empires. It was a means of furthering their political and economic interests within a Europe that was trying to adjust to the tensions that arose from the development of a powerful German state.