AP Euro Units 5 and 6 Review Materials

Why Britain was the first to experience the Industrial Revolution:

#1. Agricultural Revolution. More food →more people to work in factories. More food →food prices↓ so British had money for goods other than food. #2. Lots of raw materials/mineral resources: coal, iron ore, etc #3: Supply of capital: money to invest which came from success with Agricultural Revolution and with colonialism. #4: Entrepreneurs paid little in wages and thus made large profits.. •Inventions made by entrepreneurs: Flying shuttle, Hargreaves' spinning jenny, Samuel Compton's mule, Edmund Cartwright's power looms. #5: Support of Britain's government. Few restrictions. Stable. Protected private property. Britain's parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament. Policy of non-interference. #6: Markets (geographic areas that purchase goods). Under Mercantilism, Britain's vast colonial empire had to buy Britain's goods. Crystal Palace: •By 1851, Britain world's first industrial nation and wealthiest. 1851, Britain organized world's first industrial fair. Held in the Crystal Palace: entirely of glass and iron. Showcased Britain's industrial greatness for all of world to see and was the symbol of Britain's industrial power.

the effects of Napoleon's rule on European social, economic, and political life.

1) As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while often curtailing some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions. 2) Napoleon's new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe.

Great Britain established industrial dominance through mechanization of textile production, iron & steel production, & new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political & social climates.

1) Britain used factories. Entrepreneurs saw opportunity: cheaper to move machines under one roof, so moved people to collective areas & left cottage industries so as to live in towns erected around factories. Factories originally near sources of power: rivers. Britain's industrial factories increased output. 2) mechanization via use of steam engine. Allowed factory to spread to other means of production. This invention caused by demand for more and more cheap cotton goods. Used in other areas of production and thus ensured their success too. Ensured triumph of Industrial Revolution. Invented by James Watt. 3) coal as a power source: Allowed industry to move away from rivers as power source. Effect: lowered cost for producing goods (ex: underwear could be bought by poor). 4) iron industry. •Coal resulted in development of iron industry. Iron industry: coke from slowly burning coal. Coke made more iron. Henry Cort and puddling to make higher quality iron called wrought iron. 5) transportation. Turnpikes (private roads), then canals (water) ,then railroads. •Railroads: "the most important single factor in promoting European economic progress in the 1830s and 1840s". George Stephenson's Rocket 16 mph.

the factors that influenced the development of industrialization in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

1) Britain's ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial growth. 2) Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates. 3) Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative. 4) Britain's parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament. 5) France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production. 6) A combination of factors, including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship, accounted for eastern and southern Europe's lag in industrial development. 7) Because of the continued existence of more primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages.

As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms...

1) Concordat of 1801: 2) Education: 3) Centralized bureaucracy: 4) Social hierarchy: 5) Napoleonic Code:

how the European political order was maintained and challenged from 1815 to 1914.

1) Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. 2) The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism. a) Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions. b) Conservatives reestablished control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.

how industrialization influenced economic and political development throughout the period from 1815 to 1914.

1) During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870-1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity. a) Volatile business cycles in the last quarter of the 19th century led corporations and governments to try to manage the market through a variety of methods, including monopolies, banking practices, and tariffs. 2) Along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality. 3) A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial revolution. a) Industrialization and mass marketing increased both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods— including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices—and created more leisure opportunities. b) Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship.

Consequences of European maritime competition from 1648 to 1815.

1) Expansion of European commerce accelerated growth of worldwide economic network.• 2) Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.• a) European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout 18th century. b) Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in India & Dutch control of East Indies.

France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production.

1) France will continue the use of workshops in addition to use of factories. 2) Louis Philippe aka the Bourgeois Monarch supported industrialization of his kingdom. 3) This will continue under Napoleon III •Government investment in economy. State sponsorship: key characteristic of industrialization. Bank of France provided financial aid to railroad companies. State guaranteed minimum profits for investors. NOTE: power of central government↑. Courted favor of bourgeoisie. Pro-business liberal economic policies. Cobden-Chevalier Treaty of 1860 w/ Britain lowering tariffs.

causes and consequences of social developments resulting from industrialization.

1) In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, including the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. 2) In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites continued into the 20th century. 3) Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes. 4) With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities. 5) Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women. 6) By the end of the century, higher wages, laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and increased access to birth control affected the quality of life for the working class. 7) Economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes. 8) Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

how and why various groups reacted against the existing order from 1815 to 1914.

1) In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo. 2) The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and governments and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe. 3) Russia, autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, including the emancipation of the serfs, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Russian Revolution of 1905.

During the Second Industrial Revolution, Industrialization and mass marketing increased both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods— including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices—and created more leisure opportunities.

1) Industrialization and mass marketing increased both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods— including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices— 2) mass marketing. •Businesses value new consumers. Mass marketing: ads. Goal: wider audience. "The desire to own sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters rapidly created a new consumer ethic that became a crucial part of the modern economy." 3) department stores. Provided a wider variety of goods than 18th c.•1st appeared in Paris: Bon Marché (1870). Mass Leisure: 1) Impact of industrialization on leisure: pattern of work determined by rhythms of machines. Work & leisure opposites. Leisure: evenings & weekends. 2) New tech →forms of leisure. Gas lamps →night walks. Subways→ ferris wheels at amusement parks & beaches. 3) New industries: team sports. 4) Mass leisure: organized events. Training kids: individual skills & teamwork for military. Professionalized: soccer & rugby. Stadiums. Big business. Class differences. Distractions from work. Male-dominated sports cult

how and why governments and other institutions responded to challenges resulting from industrialization.

1) Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization. 2) Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations. 3) Reformers promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of public order, nationalism, and economic growth.

how and why different intellectual developments challenged the political and social order from 1815 to 1914.

1) Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance. 2) Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women. 3) Socialists called for the redistribution of society's resources and wealth and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism. 4) Marx's scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution. 5) Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.

The French Revolution resulted from a combination of long-term social and political causes, as well as Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic crises

1) Long term with social structure of France: 1st estate (clergy): paid no taxes but owned 10% of land. 2nd estate (nobles): owned 30% of land, important role in gov't, large econ. role, Nobles did not pay taxes, especially the taille.) Third Estate (peasants & bourgeoisie) grossly underrepresented in Estates-General. 3rd Estate also had to pay Seigneurial dues to nobles. Lastly, 3rd Estate paid almost all of taxes. 2) Long-Term Political Causes for French Revolution: the absolutist rule of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI ignored long-underlying tensions. Defeat in wars made French monarchy look weak in eyes of French people. 3) Enlightenment ideas•Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot's natural rights enshrined in motto of liberty, equality, fraternity.•Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws: separation of powers.•Rousseau's Social Contract with its idea of rebellion of rights not upheld. Voltaire's support of religious toleration. 4) •short-term fiscal and economic crises: •A) Economic Crisis 1780s: Bad harvests led to rising food prices. People blamed the Monarchy. B) Fiscal Crisis (not enough revenue/taxes).•Interest on private loans accounted for half of public expenditures.•Fear government would not pay led investors to refuse further loans.Repeated failure of monarchy to get nobles to pay higher taxes led to calling of Estates General.

various movements and calls for social reform that resulted from intellectual developments from 1815 to 1914

1) Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of industrialization. a) Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform. b) Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties. c) Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions. d) Various nongovernmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery

Socialists called for the redistribution of society's resources and wealth and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism.

1) Political theorists who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions. Believed human cooperation superior to competition of early industrial society. 2) utopian socialists b/c their dreams seemed impractical. Against private property and competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism to be replaced by new systems of social organization that would be a better environment for humanity. Examples: Charles Fourier and Robert Owen. 3) Practical socialists:•No remaking of society with unrealistic plans like the utopian socialists. •a) Louis Blanc. Social problems could only be solved by government assistance. Against competition. Answer lay in workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale. State would finance workshops. Workers would own and operate them. b)Flora Tristan. Female supporter of socialism: only reorganizing of society would help women. Same job opportunities. Men & women sharing childcare & housecleaning.

the consequences of the French Revolution.

1) Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changes initiated in France to the rest of Europe 2) Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men.

the events and developments of the French Revolution influenced political and social ideas from 1648 to 1815.

1) Revolutionary ideals inspired a revolt of enslaved people led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which became the independent nation of Haiti in 1804. 2) While many were inspired by the revolution's emphasis on equality and human rights, others condemned its violence and disregard for traditional authority

how and why the Romantic Movement and religious revival challenged Enlightenment thought from 1648 to 1815.

1) Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role of emotions in the moral improvement of self and society. 2) Romanticism emerged as a challenge to Enlightenment rationality. 3) Consistent with the Romantic Movement, religious revival occurred in Europe and included notable movements such as Methodism, founded by John Wesley. 4) Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism

After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war...

1) Sources of opposition at home: a) Civil Constitution of the Clergy turned devout Roman Catholics against the Revolution. b) Émigrés:Another source of counterrevolution arose from the nobles who fled France during the revolution. •They sought support against the revolution from the courts of other kingdoms in Europe. 2) war. a) Caused by Declaration of Pillnitz; joint declaration issued on August 27, 1791 by monarchs ofAustria and of Prussia, urging European powers to unite to restore the monarchy in France following Flight to Varennes. The French government largely interpreted it as a threat to its sovereignty culminating in France declaring war on Austria. The effect will be an invasion by both monarchies. b) Battle of Valmy: •20 September 1792, highly motivated French citizen army defeated invading Prussians. French motivated since the Revolution for them gave them liberty. This was a temporary victory as the war continued.

Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative.

1) Supply of capital: money to invest which came from success with Agricultural Revolution and with colonialism. 2) Entrepreneurs made inventions: Flying shuttle, Hargreaves' spinning jenny, Samuel Compton's mule, Edmund Cartwright's power looms. 3): Support of Britain's government. Few restrictions. Stable. Protected private property. Britain's parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament. Policy of non-interference.

the events of the French Revolution

1) The first, or liberal, phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary privileges. 2) After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages, and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization.

While many were inspired by the revolution's emphasis on equality and human rights, others condemned its violence and disregard for traditional authority.

1) Thomas Paine & Mary Wollstonecraft initially supported revolt. 2) Criticism of violence and disregard for traditional authority found with Edmund Burke in Reflections on the French Revolution.

Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changes initiated in France to the rest of Europe

1) levée en masse aka nation-at-arms. Because of imminent invasion, in 1793 the Committee of Public Safety ordered nation-wide conscription which resulted in Europe's largest army of 650,000 men that helped save the Revolution. Nationalism had become a weapon. Because they were victorious, France then launched invasions so as to free the rest of Europe from feudalism & absolutism 2) Revolutionary armies invaded kingdoms along France's borders so as to spread the Revolution's values of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, including the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

1) proletariat aka industrial working class. Term devised by Karl Marx. •wage was only income. NO home ownership. •Overall for workers: 12-16 hours a day, six days a week. 30 minutes for lunch and dinner. Class consciousness reinforced through similar experiences such as transition to time work with regimentation, NO "security of employment" and "dead seasons" 2) bourgoisie •a) upper middle class at top. •b) Below were professionals: law, medicine, civil service, managers, architects, engineers. •c) Below them were lower middle class: Aka petit bourgeoisie. Included: small shopkeepers, traders, prosperous peasants. •d)Between lower middle class and lower class were white collar workers. After 1870, growing size of government bureaucracies & factories led to a need for service or white-collar jobs. Low wages. Office workers & nurses. Except for nursing, required few skills. Little advancement.

Conservatives reestablished control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.

1) suppress movements for change a) Carlsbad Decrees were developed against liberal nationalist effort led by Burschenschaften to unify German states. b) Peterloo Massacre in Britain (1819) with resulting suspension of habeas corpus. 2)support organized religion: "crucial to social order". Preached obeying those in charge, enduring difficulties of life on this earth so to achieve heaven, and man not perfect in eyes of religion, only God perfect. •Sign of importance of religion: Holy Alliance of Tsar Alexander I. Rule with Christian principles.

Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance.

1) • Challenged the political AND social order established by conservatism. 2) Characteristics: emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance. •Core belief of 19th century Liberalism: people should be as free from restraint as possible politically and economically. a) Economic liberalism: aka classical economics developed by Adam Smith and is concept of laissez faire: no government interference in economic liberty of individual. b) Political liberalism: Constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with limits on power of government to prevent despotism & written constitutions to protect rights. Protection of civil liberties or basic rights of all people. Ministerial responsibility: check on executive b/c ministers not responsible to king but to legislature. Religious toleration & separation of church & state. Peaceful opposition to government in & out of parliament. Popular sovereignty: right to rule comes from votes of people. Representatives elected by qualified voters: aka limited suffrage. 3) famous liberal theorists: a) John Stuart Mill: most prominent political. Follower of Bentham. On Liberty: classic statement on liberty of individual. b) Thomas Malthus. Essay on Population: Misery and poverty: inevitable results of the law of nature. NO government or individual should interfere with its operation. c) Samuel Smiles' Self Help: no need for government help since individuals should help themselves instead.

After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror...

1) • the Reign of Terror: •So as to quickly fight enemies such as with foreign invasions and counterrevolution, the Jacobin republic made the Terror/ Reign of Terror. a) Put aside constitution of 1793. b) Reduced rights of accused, no trial by jury, set up special courts & had trials of the disloyal. c) To organize the fight against the many threats, the Convention voted executive control to Committee of Public Safety. Instead of 100s of delegates arguing, only dozen. First leader: Danton.Most important member: Robespierre. 50,000 guillotined including Danton, Marie Antoinette, & Olympe de Gouges.

Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism

1) •Emotion also appeared in the lands occupied by French revolutionary and Napoleonic armies as reaction to the invaders. a) In Spain, Francisco de Goya's The Third of May. b) in Germany during the Napoleonic wars. 2) •Revolution, war and rebellion are inherently emotional acts. •The French Revolution is littered with examples of nationalism: the Fall of the Bastille, Women's March on Versailles, Marseillaise, and Battle of Valmy. 3) Napoleon utilized nationalism as a weapon.

First, or liberal, phase of French Revolution...increased popular participation

1) •The Constitution made all the French people citizens of France.•However, it also made a further distinction between Active and Passive Citizens. •Active citizens were the only citizens allowed to vote because they payed property taxes. 2) Beginning in first phase of the Revolution, political clubs were legalized. Joining these clubs became very popular. The Jacobin Club was led by Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. It wanted an end to the constitutional monarchy of France by establishing a republican government with universal male suffrage. 3) Sans- Culottes: •Parisian revolutionaries who supported Revolution. Composed of small shopkeepers, laborers, & artisans. Believed popular sovereignty should occur every day with direct democracy. Supported the Jacobins. 4) la Marseillaise: Spirited song composed to motivate France's revolutionary armies. Displays a tremendous groundswell of support for the Revolution. Became the national anthem of France.

Because of the continued existence of more primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages

1845 blight of potato crop in Ireland due to a fungus. 1) million died of starvation. Aka Irish Potato Famine. 2) million emigrated to U.S. •German states also hit. Nearly million Germans died.Times known as the Great Hunger & as Hungry Forties

During the Second Industrial Revolution, how innovations and advances in technology during the Industrial Revolutions led to economic and social change.

1870-1914 1) Mechanization and the factory system became the predominant modes of production by 1914. 2) New technologies and means of communication and transportation—including railroads— resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network. 3) New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations created new industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism, and enhanced quality of life.

Marx's scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution.

Another different intellectual developments that challenged the political and social order• • Karl Marx worked with Friedrich Engels to write Communist Manifesto which "became one of the most influential political treatises in modern European history" •Marx: one class subjugating another. To him, one day a "revolution". No other -ism saw change from revolution. •"The history of all societies...is that of class struggles." Feudal regime of aristocrats & Church ruled until French Revolution. During Revolution, aristocrats fought bourgeoisie. Bourgeoisie won. Bourgeoisie controlled "means of production": capital, raw materials, and equipment needed to produce goods. Next stage will be victory of proletariat over the bourgeoisie followed by the abolition of bourgeois property and a dictatorship of the proletariat both leading to equality. •Once revolution succeeded, a classless society would emerge and the state would "wither away" since it did not represent needs of particular class. This was an international movement that wanted Europeans to see themselves as members of a class, not of an ethnic group or nationality. Hence the last line of the Communist Manifesto: "Workers of the world unite." •Per Marx, religion is the "opiate of the masses"

Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.

Another one of the different intellectual developments that challenged the political and social order. •Marxism not radical enough since still included a state which caused so much oppression. Answer: get rid of state. Abolish and live together. Direct democracy. Resorted to violence. Idea of Mikhail Bakunin. Killed Alexander II, president of France, and President of US (McKinley). Problem: No collapse of states.

Revolution of 1848 in France

Causes: disappointment with Louis Philippe's reign. 1) Government corruption. 2) Not conservative but overly liberal. Analogy of draw bridge: lack of political rights to vote for lower middle class and workers. 3) nationalism: Napoleonic Myth vs. La Poire. •Effects: 1) February barricades by students & workers. 2) Louis Philippe fled. 3) Proclaim SECOND REPUBLIC. Provisional government by republicans. New constituent assembly by universal male suffrage. 4) Revolt occurred so Concert of Europe↓. •Louis Blanc (socialist) in government. To deal w/ unemployment, national workshops formed. Very expensive, so taxes raised. Middle class angry. Split with moderate over workshops (in majority & against) vs radical republicans (pro & only in Paris).Thus elections to National Assembly, few radical republicans win→ Workshops closed. June Days: fighting in streets between radical & moderate republicans over closing of workshops. Revolt squashed. •New constitution ratified of 2nd republic: universal male suffrage unicameral legislature & president (4 year non-repeating terms). •Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won election b/c Napoleonic Myth: last name.

Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions.

Conservative armies put down liberal revolt against legitimate monarch of Spain and nationalist led revolt of Carbonari in Italy.

First, or liberal, phase of French Revolution...abolished hereditary privileges

Decrees of August 4, 1789: • National Assembly ended seigneurial rights & nobles' freedom from taxation, which finally ends French feudalism & marked the death of Old Regime aka Ancien Regime (absolutism prior to French Revolution of 1789)

In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites continued into the 20th century.

Evident in Russia

The first, or liberal, phase of French Revolution established constitutional monarchy

French Constitution of 1791 ended absolute monarchy of France. King only had power of suspending veto. The Constitution enumerated the rights of French citizens. Preamble to the constitution was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The Declaration's basic principle was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights". Contained the following articles: 1) proclaimed the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression 2) All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly. 3) no one was to be arrested without a judicial order. 4) Freedom of religion 5) freedom of speech 6) property was given the status of an inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given. 7) offices and position were opened to all citizens

Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform.

In Britain, Labour Party, Conservative Party, Liberal Party. In Germany, SDP. Mass parties everywhere except in Russia. Features of mass-politics: •1) large in size and participated in by large numbers of individuals of many different social classes. 2) Mass communication: Telegraph, telephones, radios, cheap newspapers. •3) Governments responded to and manipulated public opinion. •4) Literate and educated citizens expected governments to reflect national interests. •5) Increase in conflict: Public opinion sharpened ethnic and class conflict. Outsiders (women, workers, and ethnic/religious minorities) demanded inclusion in political process. Demagogues (those who appeal to prejudice and fear) fanned popular hatreds like anti-Semitism and extreme nationalism.

Maximilien Robespierre

Infamous leader of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror who, amidst mounting paranoia in Paris, set aside the Constitution to defend the Revolution with swift judiciary actions such as the Law of Suspect and the Law of Prairial. Law of Suspects: guilty unless proven innocent. Law of Prairial: no self defense if accused of a crime; sentence was either acquittal or death.Thousands were executed by the guillotine. His subsequent execution will finally end the Reign of Terror.

Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization.

John Stuart Mill encouraged retreat from pure economic liberalism in defense of individual freedom. His work reflected evolution of liberalism away from laissez faire to a theory concerned with economic, social, and political justice. Slow shift toward justice for poor & working class so similar to liberalism today. Mill also supported feminism.

First, or liberal, phase of French Revolution...nationalized Catholic Church

July, 1790 National Convention passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy •All clergy must swear oath to the Constitution. Clergy paid by state. Bishops and priests elected locally. The State was over the church.

Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

Slogan of the Revolution aka motto of the French Revolution

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible.

Major reason for why the political order was maintained in the first half of the 19th century. It was the dominant ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. First theorist: Edmund Burke, against radical republican & democratic ideas. •Another theorist: Frenchman Joseph de Maistre, spokesman for counterrevolutionary & authoritarian conservatism and pro-divine right monarchy •Characteristics of conservatism: a) obey political authority: nobles and monarchs b) support organized religion: •c) against liberalism's civil liberties & representative government. •d) against nationalism. e) against social & political reform. Reform = revolution. f) Synonym: reactionary.

nationalist responses to Napoleon's rule in Europe.

Napoleon's expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe. •Napoleon really out to strengthen France and hence his own power, not to help Europeans. . Napoleon's expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe.These appeared in Spain, German states, and Russia. Thus, "nationalism as a double-edged sword". Napoleon used it to motivate troops to victory, but nationalism of conquered peoples awakened and used against Napoleon. •Second reason for Napoleon's downfall. Examples: 1) Peninsular War: aka Spanish ulcer. Nationalism Awakened in Spain against French occupation forces. Guerrilla warfare. 2) German states:German nationalism awoke as a reaction to French rationalism. Prussians learned to harness nationalism to their own benefit. 3) Russia:Invasion of Russia by Napoleon's Grand Army of 600,000 men. Russian nationalism awoke: Russians used scorched earth tactics. Napoleon's long lines of supply. Great retreat with horrible winter. Only 40,000 troops returned.

Concordat of 1801:

Napoleon's peace with Catholic Church after twelve years of divisiveness since Civil Constitution of the Clergy. •Church did not get much: •Napoleon got •a) Catholic Church on his side: not his enemy. •b) Napoleon still controlled clergy by paying them. •c) No returning of church property seized during Revolution. Bourgeoisie loved this!

Second Industrial Revolution's impact on New technologies and means of communication & transportation

New technologies and means of communication & transportation—including railroads— resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, & truly global economic network. A) Fully integrated national economies: all areas of country working together. B) New transportation resulted in urbanization increasing because of electric trolleys which resulted in growth of suburbs. •C) Steam & rail travel resulted in travel & communication worldwide, aka global economic network. World economy. Foreign countries as markets for surplus. Europe dominated world economy by end of 19th c

Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women.

One of the different intellectual developments that challenged the political and social order after 1815. Example: Chartist Movement in Britain and the ideas of Flora Tristan.

Britain's parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament.

Reform Bill of 1832: number of voters doubled. Property qualification still in place so only one in every thirty people had representation. Benefitted upper middle class. Lower middle class, artisans, and workers still no vote. Nonetheless, industrial middle class joined landed gentry and aristocracy in ruling Britain

Economic & political consequences of rivalry between Britain & France from 1648 to 1815.

Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power Seven Years' War (French and Indian War, and Great War for Empire in India). Britain #1 at cost to France of Canada and Louisiana.

Napoleon's new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent...

Tactics: •Pre-1812: Napoleon wins every battle . His tactics: •1) Use of French citizen-soldiers vs the professional armies composed of mercenaries. Nationalism as a weapon for French. •2) Napoleon as great organizer •3) mixed order stretched across battlefield •4) canons more mobile •5) lived off the land •6) devotion of Napoleon's soldiers to him. Vive l'Empereur! Example of charisma of Napoleon that lead to his troops' devotion to him. Continental System (economic warfare): • To weaken Britain, Napoleon turned to prevent British goods from reaching European continent. Britain would be weakened economically and thus could not wage war. •Failed because European states needed British trade. •Failure of the Continental System was one of the two reasons for the collapse of Napoleon's empire.

Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes.

Trade Unions: One of the social effects of industrialization. Helped to reinforce and develop class identity among working classes. Began because of abuses of industrialization. Goals: 1) Preserve position of skilled workers by limiting access to professions. 2) Gain benefits for members from employers.

A combination of factors, including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship, accounted for eastern and southern Europe's lag in industrial development

Why Russia lagged behind in industrialization? 1) tiny middle class. 2)serfs reduced ability of entrepreneurs to create stable labor force. 3) rudimentary transportation. 4) coal and iron deposits lay far from manufacturing centers. 5) hostility to west by Russian Orthodox Church. 6) the dominance of agricultural elites continued into the 20th century.

Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions.

another example of late 19th century social reform. •1) John Stuart Mill's On the Subjection of Women.. Wrong: legal subordination of one sex to another. Differences not because of different natures but due to social practices. Stressed equal education. Important in 19th century's search for women's rights. •2) Flora Tristan. Call for right to vote for women: Britain. •Participants: suffragists. They used diverse tactics. •1) Moderate tactics: Millicet Fawcett (liberal). Prove to Parliament that women are responsible. •2) Radical tactics: Emmeline Pankhurst & daughters (Sylvia & Christabel). a) Leaders of Women's Political and Social Union (WPSU). Militant organization that used violence. b) Attacked men where matters most: property. Broke store windows and put bombs in post boxes. c) Used media to get public's attention:• prison hunger strikes & forced feedings.• Emily Davison: on camera she martyrs herself. Result: Patriotic efforts during WWI resulted in granting of suffrage for women as a reward.

Economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes.

companionate marriage: love is becoming a more dominant factor for choosing one's spouse

After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by... pursuing a policy of de-Christianization.

radical Jacobin Republic reorganized time (Year I). New calendar no Christian holidays. De-Christianization: non-atheist religion focusing on reason, Cult of Supreme Being.

After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by ...fixing prices and wages.

radical Jacobin republic passed Law of the Maximum. Government involvement in economy that set max price on bread. Loved by sans-culottes.

The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.

sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism. •Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions against legitimate monarchs; and he and other conservative leaders tried to maintain the balance of power in their (Russia, Prussia, Austria and sometimes Britain's) favor. •This was a mechanism or system of enforcement for upholding conservative domination. Maintained the status quo: who is in charge, stays in charge. Concert of Europe's goals seen with priorities of Metternich: principle of legitimacy and maintain the balance of power. a) principle of legitimacy: restore legitimate monarchs. Restore monarchs to their thrones who had held them prior to the French Revolution of 1789. This was done in France, Spain, and the Italian states. Thus, France became a monarchy again under Louis XVIII. b) restore the balance of power: prevent one power from dominating others. 1) Achieved with France by redrawing the map of Europe so that France's borders returned to 1789 position and by giving territory to stronger states along France's borders. 2) Following defeat of Napoleon after his invasion of Russia, Russia was feared to be endangering the balance of power. Austria and Prussia were then given lands to strengthen them and thus form a barrier to Russian growth. • To achieve the above two goals, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to meet periodically with congress sessions to discuss maintenance of peace as they saw it. Example: Congress of Troppau (1820): Established principle of intervention in which the great powers had right to intervene in country where legitimate monarch was threatened by revolt.

In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo.

status quo: the existing social and political systems. Examples included: 1) Greek Revolt (1821-1832): nationalist revolt for independence of Greeks against Ottoman Empire. Greek support & sympathy came from Western European public due to history and awe of Ancient Greece. Also, there were Christian Greeks fighting Muslim Turks. •Romantic poets like Lord Byron fought for Greeks. Eugene Delacroix painted Massacre at Chios. •Effects: public opinion in Western Europe →intervention by fleets of British, French, & Russians against Ottoman Empire. They won leading to Greek independence. NOTE: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire legitimate monarch BUT he was not supported by the Concert of Europe. 2) Decembrist Revolt (1825) A failed liberal revolt that occurred in Russia in December 1825. This will lead the next tsar, Nicholas I, to be reactionary against any liberal and/or nationalist efforts in Russia and abroad. His nickname was the Policeman of Europe. 3) Revolution of 1830, a successful liberal revolt. •France July 1830: Charles X institutes July Ordinances which allowed censorship, dissolved Legislative Assembly, and reduced the electorate. Effect: French liberals and Parisian working class started revolt known as the July Revolution/Revolution of 1830. Charles X abdicates & flees. •Provisional government of moderate, propertied liberals invited Louis Philippe of the Orleanist family to become the constitutional monarch of France. His dynasty also nicknamed July Monarchy. Made constitutional changes that favored the middle class. Reduced financial qualifications for voting which doubled the number of voters but only to 200,000. Only the wealthiest MALES could vote which was very consistent with 19th century liberal ideas. •When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold. Other revolts spread to Poland and Italy, but both failed. Belgium and France were the only successes. •Belgians (French and Dutch speaking) who were Catholic rose up in revolt against their Dutch overlords who were Protestant. Belgium will get a constitutional monarchy.

Education under Napoleon

• a) Higher education became the responsibility of the state. •b)Schools must create patriotic and obedient citizens through teaching secular values linking education to nationalism. •c) State secondary schools called lycées. Only for boys. Napoleon selected their books.

social hierarchy under Napoleon

•"My motto has always been: a career open to all talents." For Napoleon's regime, the importance lay in one's abilities, aka merit, when securing a job in bureaucracy and in the army. Aka Meritocracy. Class not important but abilities were! •At top of hierarchy were notables who displayed exemplary service to Napoleon. The most important were marshals. Napoleon even gave them titles. •"In the backpack of each soldier, there is a marshal's baton." Each soldier knew that ability would lead straight to the top of Napoleon's military. •Highest recognition was Legion of Honor still exists today.

By the end of the century, higher wages, laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and increased access to birth control affected the quality of life for the working class.

•1) Industrial Revolution increased employment and lowered price of consumer goods "thereby improving the way people lived". •2) Also, household income rose since multiple family members could hold wage-paying jobs. •Improvements of material conditions of urban workers after 1871. Rise in real wages with decline in consumer costs. •3)•Strikes and labor unions in late 19th century won reduction in working hours and higher pay. 4) Drop in birthrate also led to improved quality of life for working class. Change in attitude: parents deliberately limit number of children with widespread use of coitus interruptus, abortion, infanticide, and abandonment. •Idea of family planning.

Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women.

•1) Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women: women's place in home. Universally applied gender-defined social roles. B/c of 2nd I.R. wealth ↑, so men need only work & women could stay at home. Seen even among working class, however, some lower-class families had wives doing sweat work. Praised in Tennyson's poem "The Princess". Rebelled against in Ibsen's "A Doll's House" •Effects on the working class family because of reduced hours and higher pay in late 19th century: •a) more leisure time. •b) families could survive on husband & grown kids income. c) Some working-class mothers could afford to stay at home. Cult of domesticity for working class women. •d) Families could limit size of their families.• e) Working class children seen less as wage earners. f) Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations.

•1) Regulating public health: Edwin Chadwick, best known reformer. Sewage vs. cholera. Effect: established right of state to intervene in matters of health. Public health movement. •2) Factory Acts 1802 & 1819. Limited labor: kids 9-16, 12 hours a day. Forbade kids under nine. Education during working hrs. Only cotton mills not factories or mines. No enforcement •3) Factory Act of 1833. 9-13 year-olds, 8 hours a day. 13-18 year-olds, 12 hours a day. •4) 1847 Ten Hours Act: 13-18 ↓10 hrs day. Women 10 hr. •5) 1842 Coal Mines Act. No boys under 10 & women. •6) Public Health Act of 1875. municipal governments' role ↑. Sewage systems. Public parks. •7) Paris: Napoleon III. Urban redesign of cities. museums, department stores, suburbs, streetcars (transportation).

With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities.

•1) Urban problems. With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities. Within cities, problems included social segregation, smoke, soot, fumes, water pollution, human waste, cramped, slums, poor food. 2) workers had to adjust to "time-work" and learn its discipline. 3) number of wage laborers grew in number faster than job possibilities & pay. 1st half 19th century, incomes of wage earners & women workers fell b/c guilds losing power. Wages rose and fell with "numbing suddenness". Gap grew between rich & poor: England middle class made 3-4x more than skilled worker. •4) New technology eliminated jobs. Deskilling reduced income and status of some workers. •5) "Dead seasons" when no work. •6) among workers, most of income for food & clothing. •7) Cities had no community support for poor like villages. •8) Many children died or abandoned at early age. Use of child labor in factories and mines. 9) Women paid less than men. •No gains for industrial workers till 2nd half of 19th century.

A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial revolution.

•18th c. 1st industrial Revolution had consumerism. Example: Porcelain china by Wedgwood. •Definition: buying of goods not necessary to survive. •Late 19th c., 2nd Industrial Revolution, there was a heightened level of consumerism than 18th century. •Causes: •1) mass society. •2) 2nd I.R. →wages↑ & national wealth↑. •3) transportation costs↓ (new inventions) →cost of goods↓. •4) →more Europeans afford more consumer goods.

During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870-1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity.

•1st Industrial Revolution: textiles, railroads, iron,& coal. Found in areas with coal & rivers. •2nd Industrial Revolution: steel, chemicals, electricity, & petroleum. European-wide since electricity was a power source. Six technologies of the 2nd Industrial Revolution: •1) Steel: new methods→ lighter, faster machines & engines in railways, ships, &weapons. Germany over Britain in production. U.S. #1. •2) Chemicals: Germany over Britain. •3) Electricity: new energy. Movable. Generators. Hydroelectric. Electricity→countries without coal supplies can enter industrial age •4) Communications: telephone & radio. •5) Transportation: electric R.R., & streetcars. •6) internal combustion engine. Transportation. Similar effect as electricity. Not widespread transportation till petroleum. Gottlieb Daimler..

Second Industrial Revolution's impact: New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations created new industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism, and enhanced quality of life

•A) Railroads and subways resulted in leisure travel which improved quality of life. Also, there was development of mass tourism with vacations as mass leisure. B) Steamships & refrigerated rail cars, ice boxed helped with food distribution and preservation. •C) an increase in consumerism resulted from transportation, department stores and advertising.

The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and governments and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe

•Causes: 1) Economic hardship: Hungry 40s across Europe leading to famine. 2) Continued growth of liberalism: Workers & lower middle class want to vote but very little change to political status quo after 1830. 3) Continued growth of nationalism: peoples wanted own state. •Revolution of 1848 aka Springtime of the Peoples.

During the Second Industrial Revolution, along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality.

•Causes: •1) Commercialization of agriculture: growing food to sell. Large estates w/ lower labor costs b/c farming technology such as use of fertilizers. •2) Birthrate↑ & later death rate↓. •3) INDUSTRIALIZATION!!!→ medical discoveries. •4) sewage •5) nutrition↑ b/c railroad. •6) refrigeration of foods. Pasteurization. •Thus: Population↑, life expectancy↑, infant mortality↓.

Napoleon's centralized bureaucracy

•Continued like under ancient regime. •However, all positions determined by merit. •New position of prefect established; similar to intendent. Responsible to Napoleon led to the growth of political centralization in the hands of Napoleon. •Service in bureaucracy also led to social advancement.

Napoleon's new military tactics ...spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe.

•Everywhere Napoleon's armies went they pushed for acceptance of Enlightenment and French Revolutionary ideals: legal equality, religious toleration, and economic freedom. This would lead to development of liberal traditions in those countries as enshrined in his Napoleonic Code. Hence historians see him as last of enlightened despots.

Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship.

•Friedrich List pushed for rapid industrial growth as a sign of Prussian strength. Much government involvement in economy/state sponsorship: 1) Tariffs helped protect these nascent industries. Prussia's government created a customs union among 4/5ths of German states to reduce cost of shipping goods within German states. This customs union known as zollverein. 2) Gov't appointed directors to sit on boards of private companies. 3) Technical schools built. 4) Bank of Prussia operated as a joint-stock credit bank to provide capital . •Iron and coal of heavy industry led the way in Prussian industrialization. Half of coal of continent found in Ruhr. •Industrialization in Prussia allowed state to become leader of unified Germany which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under gov't sponsorship. After 1870, Germany #1 organic chemicals, electrical equipment, & share of world trade. Why Germany did well during industrial revolution? 1) Started industrial revolution later than Britain so it had newer factories. 2) Germans were more flexible than other Europeans 3) Germany was pro scientific & technical education.

Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties.

•In 1900, development of new political party which was the Labour Party. Devoted to helping working class. Not Marxist: get elected to Parliament & make change there.

Napoleonic Code

•New law code aka Code Napoleon •Solidified gains of Revolution with equality before the law, right of individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration (Protestants and Jews included) abolition of serfdom and feudalism. •Simply codifying laws was an enlightenment and revolutionary value. •Property rights protected so it was pro-bourgeoisie. Most laws dealt with property. •Protected rights of employers by continuing Le Chapelier Law: no right to strike. Napoleonic Code and Women: •Restored father's control over children. Reversed Revolution's policies. •Divorce made more difficult for women to obtain. •Women less equal to men since their property came under control of their husbands. Their testimony in court less reliable than a man's.

Various nongovernmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery

•Prostitution. Working class girls. Vulnerable. Prostitutes for short time. Late teens to early twenties. Many returned to regular work force or married. Gov't involvement: seen with Britain's Contagious Diseases Act. It resulted in an outcry by Josephine Butler on the grounds that it made prostitution into a permanent label. She led an organized effort that resulted in the law being overturned.

how states responded to Napoleonic rule in Europe and the consequences of the response.

•Quadruple Alliance sought to contain Napoleonic France after the fall of Napoleon...the first time. Done by restoring the old order, meaning those who had held power before 1789. Thus, monarchies such as the Bourbons (Louis XVIII) & others were restored to power. •The Congress of Vienna tried to turn the clock back to Europe BEFORE 1789, before the changes with ideas and power caused by the French Revolution and Napoleon.

Revolution of 1848 in Austrian Empire:

•Revolution of 1848 spreads to Austrian Empire: nationalism awakened! •Hungarians aka Magyars under Louis Kossuth wanted Hungarians aka Magyars own parliament but keep Hapsburg monarchy. Hungarians and Czechs allowed to form own governments. Empire nearly pulled apart because of nationalism in polyglot empire.. •Divisions between radical (workers) and moderate revolutionaries (middle class) over universal suffrage. Divisions among ethnic minorities: Hungarians wanted freedom but refused same to ethnic minorities in Hungary so joined with Hapsburg. Counterrevolutionary army of Austria took advantage of divisions & picked off revolutionaries one by one. New emperor Francis Joseph I (age 18) asked for help from Russians who crushed Hungarian revolt. Tsar Nickolas I, aka Policeman of Europe,.Revolution of 1848 failed in Austrian Empire. Concert of Europe ↓.

Revolution of 1848: Germanic States

•Revolution of 1848 spreads. Sneeze analogy. Effect: Liberal reform in Prussia with calls for end to censorship and a constitution. Also across German states, calls for political unification. Nationalism too. •All Germanic states universal male suffrage to elect representatives for all German parliament in Frankfurt aka Frankfurt Parliament.. Goal: liberal & nationalist dream to prepare constitution for united Germany. Composition: many lawyers & professors so much arguing. •Division over vision of Germany. Grossdeutsch: (Big Germany) all lands of all German states including Austria which had many non-Germans in it. Kleindeutsch: (Small German): only German speaking states so Austria would not be a part. Won so Prussian king would be new emperor of German state. •Prussian King refused to accept "a crown from the gutter" so liberal nationalism failed. Revolution of 1848 failed in Germanic states.

Revolution of 1848 in Italian States

•Risorgimento aka effort to unify Italy into one country, so nationalism. Led by Giuseppe Mazzini. Followers: Young Italy. Wanted republic so liberal. •Rebellion spread from Sicily, Lombardy, and Venetia. •King of Piedmont Charles Albert joined & invaded to push out Austrians. Divisions: monarchy or republic, universal male suffrage or limited, king or Pope. •Counterrevolutionary forces proved too strong and almost all revolutionaries failed. Even French forces under President Bonaparte helped Pope assume control over Rome & crush Roman Republic b/c Bonaparte wanted French Catholic support. •Nonetheless, Piedmont aka Piedmont-Sardinia kept liberal constitution. Revolution of 1848 in Italy failed.

•Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason & emphasized role of emotions in moral improvement of self & society.

•Rousseau's Émile : "education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts." Emotions should be developed before reason. "I cannot go wrong about what I have felt, or what my feeling has led me to do."

During the Second Industrial Revolution, volatile business cycles in the last quarter of the 19th century led corporations and governments to try to manage the market through a variety of methods, including monopolies, banking practices, and tariffs.

•Second Industrial Revolution played role in emergence of basic economic patterns of modern European economy: Depressions & slumps. • Boom-bust cycles 1873-1896. Bust because of overproduction & unpredictable commodity prices. Followed by la belle époque: (golden age of European civilization) boom years 1895 -1914. Results of Busts/downturns in Economy: •1) Governments: recession resulted in increasing fear among governments. Why? •a) fear of unrest among workers. •b) fear of corporate bankruptcies. •Thus, governments turned to more protective tariffs, aka government involvement in the economy. •2) To manage markets, businesses became more organized: formation of modern corporation. Characteristics: complex administrative structure, accounting procedures, stocks. • 3) Cartels: independent companies work together to control prices & fix production quotas. Competition restrained so prices did not drop. Profits stayed high. Strong in Germany.

In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, including the emancipation of the serfs, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Russian Revolution of 1905.

•Social cause for the Revolution of 1905. Sergei Witte: minister of finance who in the 1890s started Russia's massive state-sponsored industrialization. Pitiful working conditions arose especially in cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg. •Other reasons for discontent: 1) middle class wanted liberal reforms. 2) Peasants wanted better land. 3) Workers wanted economic equality. 4)Minorities in Russia wanted their own nation-state. International cause for Revolution of 1905: •Russia's defeat in Russo-Japanese War Effect of Russian Revolution of 1905: •The Revolution began with Bloody Sunday •During the Revolution, there were 1) strikes by workers. 2)ethnic revolts across Russia. The result was Nickolas II issued the October Manifesto which created a national Duma for Russia.• •Pyotr Stolypin became the new chief advisor. 1) He crushed the revolts. 2) he created a new class of farmers called Kulaks who were enterprising peasants that received good land. •Nickolas II made no further reforms.

Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men.

•Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men. •1) Women's March on Versailles. •2) Olympe de Gouges "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen" Guillotined during the Reign of Terror because she was too revolutionary for Robespierre. •3) Women formed Society for Revolutionary Republican Women: political club formed to aid in war effort. Nonetheless, Outlawed. •4) Mary Wollstonecraft enthusiastic initially for Revolution. Angered by Assembly refusing right to education for women. Lead the way in feminism. "A Vindication of the Rights of Women".

As first consul and emperor, Napoleon...often curtail[ed] some rights and manipulat[ed] popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions.

•the facade of representative institutions: •1) Napoleon not king; but was first consul. Consuls existed in the Ancient Roman Republic and had representative institutions. •2) Few men could vote for officeholders. Universal male suffrage only to vote in a plebiscite (yes or no), •3) Senate (Roman republic) but appointed by consul, •4) Tribunate (Roman Republic) chosen by senate from list of 6000 "notables". Tribunate could discuss legislation but not vote on it. •5) Legislative Body could vote on legislation but not discuss it. •6) authoritarian (power concentrated in a leader not constitutionally responsible to people). •Curtailing of rights: 1) No universal male suffrage 2) Reduced newspapers from 73 to 13. Censorship. 3) Secret police 4) Women rights declined.