AP European History Flash Cards

The Protestant Reformation: English Religious Settlement

•"Bloody" Mary I (r. 1553-1558, daughter of Henry VIII and first wife Catherine of Aragon) restored Catholicism, married Philip II of Spain, burned 283 Protestants at the stake, and exile 800 others. •Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603, daughter of Henry VIII and second wife Anne Boleyn) enforced moderate Protestantism with Acts of Supremacy (1558) and Uniformity (1559) in English Religious Settlement. •Calvinist Puritans wished to purify Anglican Church of all Catholic influence. 21,000 migrated to New England in the 1620s-1640s. Middle class Puritans dominated the House of Commons in the 1630s precipitating the English Civil War.

Judaism

•1290-1500s: Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews settled in Poland-Lithuania after expulsions from western Europe. Jewish merchants financed the Polish monarchy and nobility. Jews were able to acquire land. • 1492: Up to 800,000 Sephardic Jews fled to France, Italy, Netherlands, and the Ottoman Empire upon expulsion from Spain. Conversos spread through Spanish and Portuguese empire but faced the Inquisition.

The Military Revolution

•1300s: Infantry routed cavalry in key battles of the Hundred Years' War. Armored knights on horseback gradually became obsolete. •1400s: Gunpowder introduced artillery. Methods of Italian condottieri mercenaries spread to France, Spain, and beyond. •1500s: Well-designed star forts led to lengthy sieges. •c. 1560-c. 1660: Infantry transitioned from using pikes to muskets in linear tactic of volley fire. •Dutch Maurice of Nassau professionalized soldiering with increased training and improved logistics. •Swede Gustavus Adolphus used superior strategy in the Thirty Years' War, particularly at Breitenfeld victory. •Increased investment led to large, permanent standing armies supported by heavier taxation and a larger administrative bureaucracy.

The New Monarchies: France

•1328-1453: French Valois dynasty defeated the English Plantagenet claim to the throne in the Hundred Years' War. •Cunning, humble Louis XI the Spider (r. 1461-1483) squashed rebellious vassals, reformed taxes, encouraged trade, absorbed most of rival Charles the Bold's Duchy of Burgundy (Franche-Comte and modern Belgium passed to the Hapsburgs), and established royal roads and post. •Francis I (r. 1515-1547) rivaled Hapsburg Charles V and English Henry VIII, patronized the French Renaissance, sponsored the exploration of Canada, and established an alliance with the Ottoman Empire that lasted to 1789. Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the king power to appoint clerics granting enormous power over Catholic Church in France.

The Hundred Years' War

•1337-1453: England and France engaged in a series of conflicts for control of the French throne. •These conflicts gave rise to English and French nationalism. •Feudal armies were replaced by professional soldiers. English longbow archers outnumbered and killed 1,500 knights (nearly half of French nobility) at Agincourt (1415). The age of chivalry was drawing to an end. •16-year-old Joan of Arc led victory over English at Orleans (1429) boosting French morale and turning the tide of the war. •England lost all territory in France except the port of Calais. French Valois dynasty retained throne. •English discontent with the loss contributed to the War of the Roses (1455-1487), a civil war for English throne.

Swedish Golden Age: Rise

•1397-1523: Kalmar Union joined Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under a common monarch. Christian II of Denmark massacred separatist Swedish nobles in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520). •Elected-king Gustav I (r. 1523-1560) led Sweden to independence, broke Hanseatic trade power, and laid the foundations of the modern state. •"Lion of the North" Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1611-1632) dominated Baltic and northern Germany making Sweden a Great Power. He was killed leading Protestants in the Thirty Years' War.

The New Monarchies: Spain

•1400s: Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Portugal, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre and the Muslim outpost of Grenada. •1469: Trastamara dynasty- Martial union of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily (the "foremost king in Christendom" wrote Machiavelli) led to politically unified Spain. •1478: Papal bull authorized sovereigns to create the Inquisition to root out heresy and unify Spain religiously. Torture was routine in confession. Up to 8,000 burned at stake in auto-da-fe from 1480 to 1504. •1492: Isabella sponsored Columbus. The capture of Grenada completed the Christian Reconquista. Up to 800,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain. The remaining 200,000 Muslims and 70,000 Jews become conversos monitored by Inquisition. •1512: Navarre was conquered and absorbed into Spain.

Ottoman Expansion

•1453: Mehmed II conquered Constantinople's walls with a massive cannon that was able to fire 600-pound stone balls over a mile. •Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) dominated the eastern Mediterranean, conquered Serbia at Belgrade (1521), formed an anti-Hapsburg alliance with France (1526), slaughtered Hungary at Mohacs (1527), but was repulsed at Vienna (1529). He took much of the Mideast from Persia and captured North Africa west to Algeria. •Spanish Philip II smashed Turks at the Mediterranean naval Battle of Lepanto (1571), a massive blow to Turkish power. •Polish John III Sobieski fended off the major Ottoman advance at siege of Vienna (1683).

Orthodoxy

•1453: Russian Orthodox Church claimed Third Rome after the fall of Constantinople. •The Greek Orthodox Church had limited religious freedom as semiautonomous Rum Millet of Ottoman Empire.

The New Monarchies: England

•1455: English social and financial turmoil after defeat in Hundred Years' War led the House of York (white roses) to battle the House of Lancaster (red roses) for the throne in the War of Roses. •1485: Maligned Yorkist King Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Lancastrian Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII (r. 1485-1509), married Elizabeth of York to unify nation, and established the Tudor dynasty, which lasted to 1603. •Henry VII used Court of the Star Chamber to break influence of landed nobility. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) used it to prosecute opponents of his policies.

The Protestant Reformation: Calvinism

•1522-1531: Influenced by humanism and Erasmus, Swiss Ulrich Zwingli preached reform in Zurich. He disagreed with Luther on the nature of communion and opposed Anabaptists. He was killed battling Catholics. •French John Calvin fled to Switzerland after the Affair of the Placards (1534). He wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) and led Geneva (1541-1564), which enforced morality through theocratic Consistory. •Calvin preached scriptural study, God's earthly guidance through providence, and predestination (salvation of the Elect, damnation for most due to human depravity as legacy of original sin). •He emphasized simplicity, a strong work ethic, self-improvement, and success as sign of being Elect. •Calvinsim spread to France (Huguenot), the Netherlands (Reformed), Scotland (Presbyterian via John Knox), and England (Puritan).

The Wars of Religion: Thirty Years' War: Danish and Swedish Phases:

•1625-1629: Lutheran Christian IV of Denmark intervened on Protestant side. Catholic Hapsburg imperial forces under Albrecht von Wallenstein repulsed Christian IV and looted northern Germany. •1630-1635: Lutheran military genuis Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervened winning major Protestant victories over Count Tilly at Breitenfeld (1631) and Wallenstein at Lutzen (1632). •Gustavus Adolphus's death at Lutzan left Protestant directionless and allowed Catholic imperial forces to recover.

Swedish Golden Age: Decline

•1630s-1660s: Swedish colonies in Delaware and West Africa lost to the Dutch and Danes. •Christina I (r. 1632-1654) defied gender roles; sponsored scientists, artists, and musicians to turn Stockholm into "Athens of the North"; and was tutored by Rene Descartes. She refused marriage and abdicated the throne, whereupon she converted to Catholicism, moved to Italy, was buried at Vatican. •Charles XII (r. 1697-1718) lost the Great Northern War (1700-1721) to Russia ending Sweden's Great Power status.

The Wars of Religion: Thirty Years' War: French Phase

•1631-1635: french Catholic Cardinal Richelieu financially supported Protestant Sweden in order to diminish Hapsburg power. •1635-1648: Bourbon France intervened directly against Hapsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The decisive French victory at Rocroi (1643) weakened Spain and fueled Catalan Revolt. Sweden recaptured northern Germany and took Prague leaving only Austria under Hapsburg control within the empire. •Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended most fighting, but France and Spain clashed until Treaty of Pyrenees (1659).

The Wars of Religion: Wars of the Three Kingdoms

•1639-1651: Interconnected wars between England, Ireland, and Scotland, including the English Civil War, concerned the established religion (Anglican, Presbyterian, Puritan, or Catholic), the proper role of monarchial power, and the national autonomy of Scotland and Ireland from England. •1649-1660: The New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell established military rule. The Church of England, House of Lords, and Irish and Scottish Parliaments were disbanded. Catholic Irish lands were confiscated. •1660: Radicals were punished and Scottish and Irish Parliaments were reinstated after the restoration of Charles II to the throne, but core religious and political issues remained unresolved until the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

Noble Revolts: The Fronde

•1648-1653: French parlements (high appellate courts), nobility, and bougeoisie revolted against the high taxes during the Thirty Years' War and monarchial infringement of local traditions and feudal rights and privileges. •Frondeurs rebelled, seeking to limit the king's power. The Fronde was the final revolt of French nobles against the monarchy. •Victory of the royal army led to increased absolutism under Louis XIV.

The Wars of Religion: Thirty Years' War: Consequences

•25%-40% of German population died due to plunder, starvation, and pestilence. Thousands of towns, villages, and castles were destroyed. •The Peace of Augsburg (1555) principle of cuius regio, eius religio choice of Catholicism or Lutheranism was extended to include the option of Calvinism. •Imperialism authority diminished within the Holy Roman Empire. •Massive devastation led Brandenburg-Prussia to become powerful military state in the late 1600s. •Hapsburg Spain was weakened. •Bourbon France became the dominant power in western Europe. •Sweden became the dominant power in Northern Europe. •The Netherlands and Switzerland gained independence.

Crafting Historical Arguments from Historical Evidence

•Address questions about the past by arguing. Do not report events. Instead, use clues to form theories providing deeper insight. Present a theory in a thesis statement supported by relevant historical evidence. •Analyze evidence from written documents, art, artifacts, maps, and statistics. Consider the source. How does its author, purpose, format, and audience shape made it for whom, and why? Extract useful information, make inferences, and draw conclusions. •Be able to pick apart others' arguments. Describe, analyze, and evaluate a theory's validity in light of available evidence.

Thematic Overview: Poverty and Prosperity

•Agriculture was commercialized. Feudal serfdom grew weaker in western Europe and stronger in central and eastern Europe where traditional peasant rights were limited. •Urban growth fueled social change and new patterns of interaction. Traditional political and social institutions were challenged. •Family remained the primary social and economic institution. •A consumer economy developed. Commercial and professional groups gained in power. •Governments regulated issues of public morality.

Noble Revolts: Catalan Revolt

•Aragon and Castile maintained separate assemblies, languages, and feudal traditions after Spain unified. •Aragonese province of Catalonia was exempt from supporting Spanish imperial wars. Catalans resisted the Union of Arms (1625), which would have imposed war burden sharing. •1639: Catalonia was ravaged in the Spanish war against France during the final phase of the Thirty Years' War. Catalan priests led anti-Castilian peasant revolt and sought French aid Philip IV. •1641: Pau Claris declared Republic under French protection. •1652: Spanish retook Catalan capital of Barcelona, but Philip IV offered rebels amnesty and preserved separate Catalan law.

Italian Renaissance Art: Individualism and Attributes

•Art was commissioned by wealthy merchants, rulers, and popes to project power and prestige. •Architecture imitated Greek and Roman classical styles. •Many Italian paintings are frescoes-tempura on wet plaster. Oil painting spread south from northern Europe in the High Renaissance. •14th-century Giotto's lifelike paintings seeded Renaissance style. •Massaccio was the earliest Renaissance great painter. His frescoes had realistic figures and geometry for linear perspective. •Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa exemplifies techniques of chiaroscuro (light-dark contrast) and sfumato (soft borders).

Traditional Alchemy and Astrology

•As astrologer, Italian Gerolamo Cardano believed nature is composed of matter (earth, water, and air), celestial heat, and souls. AS mathematician/chess player/gambler, he studied probability and binomials. •English John Dee mixed magic with science. He had a large library and was Queen Elizabeth I's astrologer and adviser. He sought communion with angels for help revealing heavenly mysteries through mathematics, optics, and navigation. •French Nostradamus used occult astrology to cast his Prophecies (1555).

The Printing Press

•Before printing, books were hand-copied and rare. Charles V of France was famous for having 910 volumes. Canterbury Cathedral had 2,000 volumes and was probably the largest library in Christendom. •Paper was introduced to Europe via Islamic Spain by 1300s •Johann Gutenburg of Mainz used movable type to print indulgences in 1451 and the Bible in 1456. Printing spread through Germany by 1463 and through Europe by 1490. •The merchant class understood that literacy improved business. •Bibles became common, ending the clerical monopoly on knowledge and laying the groundwork for the Reformation. Widely available texts on religion, history, science, and literature laid seeds of Enlightenment.

Roman Catholic Church Influence

•Catholic and Orthodox Churches split in Great Schism of 1054. •Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV submitted to Pope Gregory VII in Investiture Contest (1077). Church power peaked under Pope Innocent III (1198-1216). •1096-1400s: Crusades brought Christian and Islamic worlds into conflict. Europeans recovered lost ancient knowledge preserved by Muslims. Mediterranean trade revived. Venetians sacked Constantinople during Fourth Crusade (1204). •Inquisition established to root out heresy (1184).

The English Civil War: Conflict

•Charles I called Short Parliament session (1640) to raise funds to suppress Scottish Presbyterian rebellion. MP John Pym led refusal of funds without reform. Parliament dismissed Charles I after three weeks. •Long Parliament session (1640-1660) reconvened to grant war funds when Irish rebelled, too. Parliament instead accused royal allies William Laud and Thomas Wentworth of treason. Charles I failed in attempt to arrest Parliamentary leaders, fled London, and raised army. •1642-1646: Royalist Cavaliers fought Roundheads of Parliament's New Model Army led by Puritan Oliver Cromwell. Charles I was imprisoned by Scottish Presbyterians and turned over to Parliament.

Spanish Hapsburgs

•Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire/ Charles I of Spain (r. 1519-1556), heir to Hapsburg, Trastamara, and Burgundian Valois dynasties, ruled Spain, Austria, Netherlands, and Naples; was elected Holy Roman emperor; reigned over the conquest of the Caribbean, Mexico, and Peru. He abdicated and partitioned holdings between son Philip II and brother Ferdinand I of Austria. •Philip II (r. 1556-1598), forerunner to absolutism and patron to the Catholic Reformation, enjoyed the flow of New World gold and silver, but overspending led to five state bankruptcies preceding Spanish decline. As a staunch anti-Protestant, he fought the Dutch Revolt and sent the doomed Spanish Armada to England. He soundly defeated the Turks at Lepanto (1571) and expelled Moriscos. •Charles II (r. 1665-1700), inbred and disabled, was the last Spanish Hapsburg. His death without an heir led to War pf Spanish Succession.

Christian Humanism

•Christian humanism merged Christian ethics with humanist principles of individual worth, dignity, and materialism. •Northern academics looked to early Christian rather than classical sources of knowledge. Printing led to increased biblical study. •Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam prepared new Greek and Latin translations of the New Testament and critiqued superstitious and corrupt Catholic practices in Praise of Folly (1511). He is regarded as the Father of the Reformation, but he remained loyal to the Church. •Thomas More of England critiqued European society through an imagined, socialistic society in Utopia (1516). He advised Henry VIII but was beheaded for opposing the king's English Reformation. •Luther's and Calvin's theologies were rooted in Christian humanism, but unlike Erasmus and More, Luther and Calvin broke with the Church.

Medieval Economy

•Cities were few and small. Population was primarily rural. •Manorial land ownership by aristocratic nobles was basis of wealth. •Manors were mostly self-sufficient. Trade was limited but reviving by 1200s. •Farming was done for subsistence. Common lands were available to poor. •Energy was supplied by human, animal, wind, and water power. •Culture was shaped by local folk life. People held provincial rather than national self-identities. (They thought of themselves as being from Cornwall rather than England or from Bordeaux rather than France.) •Artisanal production and division of labor were simple and relied on family/clan/village cooperation. •News spread slowly through limited correspondence, limited trade, word of mouth, and the Church.

Late Medieval Demographic Crisis

•Cold summers made shorter growing seasons and periodic famine during the Little Ice Age (c. 1300-c. 1850). Expanding glaciers wiped out Alpine villages, and Norse colonies in Greenland failed. •Millions starved during the Great Famine (1315-1322); 10%-25% of population died. The elderly voluntarily starved to save young family members. Cannibalism was widely reported. •Italian merchants imported Black Death (1346-1353) from Crimea. It spread by 1350 to almost every corner of Europe killing 40%-50% of population. Some Mediterranean areas suffered 75%-80% losses. The bubonic plague ravaged Europe periodically until 1721.

Religious Tolerance

•Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania: Warsaw Confederation Act (1573) was the first European document granting religious tolerance in multiethnic (Poles, Lithuanians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Germans, Jews), multi-faith (~40% Catholic, ~40% Orthodox, ~20% Protestant, Jewish, Muslim) state. Made Commonwealth safe refuge during Thirty Years' War. •France: Edict of Nantes (1598) restored peace after French Civil Wars of Religion. Henry IV offered amnesty and civil rights to Huguenots and allowed them forts and religious freedom in some parts of France. The edict was later revoked by Louis XIV (1685). •Netherlands: Majority of Calvinists tolerated minorities for the sake of commerce. Jews were allowed to worship publicly, Lutherans worshiped with some restrictions, and Catholics worshiped in private.

Comparison and Contextualization

•Comparison: Describe, compare, and evaluate historical developments within a society or between societies separated by time and/ or space. Be able to analyze historical events from multiple perspectives. •Contextualization: Connect historical developments to the specific circumstances of time and place and to broader regional, national, or global processes. How do unique local conditions influence events? How do events fit into the big picture?

States and Other Institutions of Power Since 1815

•Congress of Vienna reestablished ancient regimes and sought to maintain the balance of power. •Political revolutions and industrialization shifted power from monarchies and aristocracies to parliaments. •Expanded suffrage increased citizen participation, and mass political parties developed. •Revolutions, nationalism, industrialization, new alliances, and overseas competition upset the balance of power and led to war. •Political and economic crises gave rise to totalitarian regimes that challenged parliamentary governments. •New organizations like the League of Nations and United Nations developed international law and methods to resolve disputes. Europe moved toward unification in secular European Union.

Historical Interpretation

•Describe, analyze, evaluate, and construct different interpretations of the past. •Be aware that the past is not neutral territory. Historians and historical actors are biased by their own social, political, religious, economic, and cultural circumstances. With all the centuries, lives, and accumulated experiences found in the past, the selection of what we study is a statement of current values. •Interpretation requires analyzing evidence, reasoning, contexts, and points of view found in both primary and secondary sources.

Chronological Reasoning: Periodization

•Describe, analyze, evaluate, and divide history into time periods. •Identify turning points and split the grand historical narrative into manageable chapters. •Recognize that choices of specific dates favor certain narratives, regions, or groups. •Note the divisions of the AP European History curriculum into four periods. Period 1 (c. 1450-c. 1648) ends with the Peace of Westphalia. Period 2 (c. 1648-c. 1815) ends with the Congress of Vienna. Period 3 (c. 1815-c. 1914) ends with the outbreak of the First World War. Consider how each of these events served as watershed moments.

Historical Synthesis

•Develop meaningful and persuasive new understandings of the past by applying all of the other historical thinking skills and creatively combining disparate, relevant, and sometimes contradictory evidence. •Be able to apply insights about the past to other historical times, including today.

Diplomacy

•Diplomacy emerged in Renaissance Italy. Francesco Sforza of Milan established embassies with other Italian city-states and sent a representative to France in 1455. •Diplomacy spread as France and Spain were drawn into Italian politics. Spain sent a permanent representative to England in 1487. Permanent missions were found through western Europe by the late 1500s. •Ambassadors were nobles. Higher ranked nobles were sent to more prestigious countries. Standards were developed for residences, lavish parties, and ambassador's role at host's court. •Universities prepared future professional embassy staff in international law, languages, and history.

Northern Renaissance: Art

•Dutch Jan Van Eyck (Giovanni Arnolfini) pioneered oil paint. •Dutch Pieter Brueghel the Elder depicted everyday life (Peasant Wedding, Peasant Dance, Winter Landscape). •Dutch Hieronymus Bosch painted surreal triptychs (Garden of Earthly Delights) collected by Philip II of Spain. •German Albrecht Durer, known as the Leonardo of the North, corresponded with Italian artists, engraved (Knight, Death, and the Devil), and painted (Self-portrait, Martyrdom of 10,000). •German Hans Holbein the Younger (Henry VIII, Georg Giese, The Ambassadors) was the most famous portrait artist of the age. •Francis I of France brought Leonardo and Italian ideas north during the French occupation of Italy. Italian and Gothic architecture merged to produce French chateaus, especially in Loire Valley.

The Spanish Golden Age (El Siglo de Oro)

•El Escorial palace/monastery was built by Philip II as a Catholic Counter-Reformation center and held a marvelous 40,000 volume library. •Ignatuis de Loyola founded the Jesuit Order. •El Greco, a Greek artist in Spain (View of Toledo), uniquely merged Italian Mannerism with Byzantine style for fantastic color and form. Fifth Seal influenced Picasso's cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. •Diego Velasquez (Las Meninas) was a leading Baroque painter at court of Philip IV. •Miguel de Cervantes satirized chivalry in the first modern novel, Don Quixote (1605-1615). •Lope de Vega wrote around 500 plays for Baroque theater and many other works.

The Scientific Revolution: Scientific Method

•English Francis Bacon (New Atlantis, 1627) developed the scientific method of experimentation and inductive reasoning. •Sure his existence, French Rene Descartes wrote, "I think, therefore I am" (Meditations, 1641). From this, he developed deductive reasoning. Certainty in skeptical human reasoning became the cornerstone of modern Western philosophy. •The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge was chartered 1660. •Robert Boyle (Sceptical Chymist, 1661) founded modern chemistry. Boyle's law was developed with scientific method. •English Margaret Cavendish wrote Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and early sci-fi Blazing World (1666).

The Scientific Revolution: Newtonian Cosmology

•English Isaac Newton established laws of motion and universal gravitation and advanced optics. Principia Mathematica (1687) modeled Newtonian classical mechanics. •The mechanical, predictable Newtonian model was the basis of a scientific understanding of the physical universe until the development of quantum and relativistic physics in 1900s. •Newton and German Gottfried Leibniz simultaneously developed calculus to mathematically describe motion, surface area, and volume. Leibniz also invented the mechanical calculator and binary code, and was later mocked by Voltaire for his optimistic philosophy.

Poverty and Prosperity to 1815

•Europe dominated global commerce and developed a money economy. •New commercial goods and methods provided improved standard of living resulting in population increase. •Commerce transformed preindustrial into market economy justifying mercantilist competition and warfare.

Feudal Society

•European civilization synonymous with borders of •Medieval society was static and concerned with tradition. •Cosmological nature existed in a hierarchical Great Chain of Being descending from God to angels, demons, nobles, commoners, animals, plants, and earthly minerals. Humans bridged spiritual and earthly realms. •Stratified feudal society was divided in three classes/ estates: church clergy, nobles, and commoners (peasants, serfs, townspeople). •Political authority was decentralized and rested on complex feudal relationships and obligations. •Combat was personal and guided by chivalric code.

Sailing Technology

•European mariners began using the compass in 1200s. •Portolan navigational charts were drawn based on compass direction and estimated sea distance. •Quadrants and astrolabes imported from the Muslim world were used to measure the position of the Sun, Moon, and stars for celestial navigation. •Cog, carrack, and caravel type ships allowed rough ocean travel. •Stern-mounted rudders and lateen-rig sails improved ship maneuverability.' •Ship-mounted cannons provided firepower.

Chronological Reasoning: Historical Causation

•Events rarely have a single cause. Identify, analyze, and evaluate short- and long-term historical causes and effects. •Differentiate between coincidence, causation, and correlation.

Interaction of Europe and the World to 1815

•Explorers established global trade affecting prosperity, consumption, commerce, and national rivalries. •Europeans colonized the Americas and imposed their social institutions. •Intellectuals analyzed alien cultures and cataloged flora and fauna. •Race theory justified slavery. Abolitionists objected on humanitarian and religious grounds.

Italian Renaissance Art: Prestige

•Filipo Brunelleschi turned to the Pantheon in Rome for techniques to construct the dome of Florence Cathedral, the first dome since antiquity. •Donatello sculpted nude bronze David for Cosimo Medici's courtyard. Lorenzo Medici was patron to Leonardo, Michelango, and Sandro Botticelli (Birth of Venus, Primavera). •Michelango sculpted marble Pieta, David, Moses; painted the Sistine Chapel's ceiling and altar wall for Pope Julius II and Clement VII; and built the dome of St. Peter's Basilica to restore papal prestige. •Raphael painted Vatican frescos for Pope Julius II and Leo X, including School of Athens. •Andrea Palladio built villas in classical-inspired Palladian style. •"First Lady of the World" Isabella d'Este led Mantua and Italian fashion and was patron to Titian, Raphael, Bellini, and Leonardo.

The New Monarchies: Holy Roman Empire

•Following in Charlemagne's footsteps, Otto I reestablished the Holy Roman Empire in 962. •Decentralized collection of small kingdoms, bishoprics, republics, and Free Imperial Cities. Incorporated most of central Europe. The population was primarily German. •The Imperial Diet, an assembly of princes, burghers, knights, and clergy, convened periodically in different cities for common concerns. •Seven prince-electors (bishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, and rulers of Bohemia, Palatine, Saxony, and Brandenburg) elected the emperor. •The emperor hailed from Austrian Hapsburg family after 1438 (with single exception). He had to negotiate powers with leading princes and was only as strong as his army and alliances.

Religious Challenges to Monarchial Control

•Francis I of France withdrew protection of Huguenots after the Affair of the Placards (1534). Many nobles, including Admiral Gaspard de Coligny and Henry of Navarre, joined the Huguenots in anti-Valois monarchial resistance. •Huguenot population grew quickly under Henry II of France (r. 1546-1559). About 2 million Protestants held 60 fortified cities. •James I of England rejected Puritan reforms at Hampton Court Conference (1604) and persecuted them after. The staunch Anglican policies of Charles I and William Laud forced Puritan emigration and resistance among wealthy Puritans in House of Commons, climaxing in Puritan Victory during English Civil War and rule from 1640-1660.

Northern Renaissance: Writing

•French Christine de Pizan (Cities of Ladies, 1405) explored famous women's worth and promoted female education. •French Francois Rabelais (Gargantua and Pantagruel, 1532-1564) wrote edgy, satirical fantasy capturing Christian humanist philosophy. •French Michel de Montaigne's Essays viewed life with skepticism. •English William Shakespeare (Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo & Juliet, Sonnets) and Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus) explored the human condition and entertained.

Late Medieval Eurasian Trade

•From 1100s: Crusades increased Christian contact with the Muslim world. Merchants from Venice, Genoa, and other Mediterranean city-states traded for Asian spices, incense, and opium. •1200s-1300s: Eurasian trade increased across the Silk Road during Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace). Giovanna di Pian del Carpine visited the court of the Great Khan (1246). Marco Polo described his Travels (1291). •Mid-1300s: Travels of John Manderville told tales of distant lands. •1406: Ptolemy's Geography was translated to Latin. •1453: The bubonic plague, Mongol collapse, and Ottoman conquest of Constantinople disrupted trade between Europe and Asia.

Baroque Art: Music

•German Johann Sebastian Bach (Brandenburg Concertos), English George Frideric Handel (Messiah), and Italian Antonio Vivaldi (Four Seasons) composed masterpieces. •Tonal orchestral cantatas, sonatas, concertos, operas, and musical terminology developed.

Tsardom of Russia

•Grand Prince Ivan III the Great of Moscow (r. 1462-1505) stopped paying Mongol tribute, tripled the size of Muscovy by annexing neighboring principalities, and laid the foundations of centralized, autocratic, orthodox Russian state. •Ivan IV the Terrible (r. 1533-1584) crowned the first tsar. He used Oprichnina to brutally crush boyar nobles and increase absolute power, notably during the sack of Novgorod (1570). He established trade with England via the Arctic route, expanded east into Siberia, and began a rivalry with Ottomans form control of Black Sea region. •The Time of Troubles (1587-1613) saw a power struggle after the end of the Rurik dynasty, a devastating invasion by Poland-Lithuania, and a famine that killed 1/3 of the population. •Troubles ended when Michael Romanov was elected tsar (1613) and established the Romanov dynasty.

The Scientific Revolution: Heliocentric Theory

•Greek Ptolemaic geocentric model put Earth at the center of the universe. •Polish Nicholas Copernicus proposed heliocentric theory in On the Revolution of Celestial Spheres (1543). •Danish Tycho Brahe made precise astronomical observations. His German assistant Johannes Kepler gave the laws of planetary motion. •"Father of Modern Science" Galileo Galilei improved the telescope; saw Moon's craters, Jupiter's moons, Saturn, and Neptune; confirmed the heliocentric theory; and connected tides to Moon's gravity. He was persecuted by the Church in 1633 for promoting Copernican theory.

The Protestant Reformation: Anglicanism

•Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) lacked a male heir, was denied a papal marriage annulment from Catherine of Aragon, separated Anglican Church from Rome, and confiscated Catholic wealth in England. •Canterbury Archbishop Thomas Cranmer and adviser Thomas Cromwell supported the Act of Supremacy (1534), but Thomas More was executed for his opposition. •Cranmer wrote Book of Common Prayer. •Protestant reform intensified under Edward VI (r. 1547-1553, son of Henry VIII and third wife Jane Seymour) during regencies of uncle Edward Seymour and Duke John Dudley.

Italian Humanism: Education

•Humanist liberal arts education included classical poetry, philosophy, history, rhetoric, grammar, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. •Pico della Mirandola's Dignity of Man epitomized humanist pursuit of individual achievement, virtue, and knowledge. •Marsilio Ficino translated Plato and founded Florentine Academy. •Lorenzo Valla savored Epicurean pleasures, restored the use of classical Latin prose, and proved that the Donation of Constantine, in which Constantine transferred authority over the western Roman Empire to the pope, was a fraudulent document. •Well-rounded "Renaissance Men" were multi-talented. Leonardo da Vinci was artist (Mona Lisa, Last Supper), engineer, scientist, and inventor. Leon Battista Alberti imitated Roman architecture; analyzed mathematics, cryptography, cartography, and painting; and was priest and author of diverse subjects.

The Catholic (or Counter) Reformation: Religious Orders

•Ignatius Loyola founded disciplined Society of Jesus (1540). Jesuits fought spread of Protestantism and propagated Catholicism. Jesuit schools educated Catholic elite and Jesuit priests advised monarchs. Francis Xavier and other led evangelical missions to India, Japan, China, Brazil, Canada, and elsewhere. •Teresa of Avila reformed the Carmelite order of nuns and promoted mental prayer to achieve trance-like mystical union with God. •Angela Merici founded the Ursuline order of nuns to provide religious education to girls and serve the sick and needy.

Church Abuses

•Indulgences: Church grants offered absolution of sins and shortening of afterlife in Purgatory. They were granted by Pope Urban II to Crusaders (1095) and issued in the late medieval ear for performing good works. Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521) authorized Johann Tetzel to sell printed indulgences to finance Renaissance beautification of St. Peter's Basilica. •Neopotism: Popes and bishops appointed their nephews to high office. •Simony: Church offices were sold. •Pluralism: Appointment to multiple church offices. •Absenteeism: Clergy lives outside of parish or diocese. •Pope Alexander VI (r. 1493-1503), born Rodrigo Borgia, was reputed to have fathered illegitimate children and accused of buying papacy with bribes and hosting orgies at the Vatican. Son Cesare Borgia was accused of multiple murders.

Individual and Society Since 1815

•Industrial Revolution divided classes by wealth and labor. Middle class men and women operated in separate spheres. Industrialization negatively affected working classes but gradually raised standard of living. •Mass society defined by consumerism, literacy, and leisure. •World War I removed old social and political elites and democratized society. •Soviet communism endorsed economic equality. •Fascist regimes subordinated individuals to states. •Western welfare states supported individuals. •European society emerged as pluralistic. Women gained greater rights and public roles. Immigration by religious and ethnic minorities challenged society.

Interaction of Europe and the World Since 1815

•Industrialization and nationalism expanded control in Asia and Africa beyond periphery. •Cultural exposure influenced art and led to scientific racism. Imperialism contributed to the First World War. •Enlightenment belief in citizenship, popular sovereignty, equality, and liberty influenced opposition to Europe's global domination. •Europe's global role diminished in 1900s. Non-European migration challenged European identity.

Baroque Art: Painting

•Italian Caravaggio (Taking of Christ, Salome with Head of John the Baptist, David with Head of Goliath) dramatically spotlighted violent religious scenes reflecting era's religious turmoil. •Italian Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614-1620) was first woman admitted to the Academy of Fine Arts of Florence. •Flemish Peter Paul Reubens (Marie de' Medici Cycle, 1622-1624) was known for painting plump, sensual nudes. •French Nicolas Poussin (Ashes of Phokion, 1648) was drawn to Classical themes.

Emergence of the Secular State

•Italian Niccolo Machiavelli offered realistic rather than idealistic advice to rulers in The Prince (1513), a work dedicated to Lorenzo Medici the Magnificent. He rejected traditional Christian ethics in pursuit of greater power. The Prince was the first great work of the modern political philosophy. •French Jean Bodin advocated divine right during the French Wars of Religion (1576): "The sovereign Prince is only acceptable to God." •Dutch Hugo Grotius (On the Law of War and Peace, 1625) developed theories of moral government and international order based on natural law during the Wars of Religion. He influenced Hobbes and Locke.

The Development of French Absolutism

•Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643): Advised by Cardinal Richelieu. Ordered all fortified castles razed to deny strongholds to rebellious French nobles, centralized state administration through appointment of intendants, patronized the arts, and founded Academie Francaise. •Louis XIV, the Sun King (r. 1643-1715): Advised by Cardinal Mazarin. Consolidated royal power after the Fronde (1648-1653) by forcing nobles to attend the luxurious Palace of Versailles.

The Wars of Religion: Schmalkaldic War

•Lutheran princes formed defense alliance in Schmalkaldic League (1531) and confiscated Church property in Germany. •After concluding the wars against the French and Ottomans, Charles V launched the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547) to suppress Protestantism. Protestants lost but Lutheranism was too entrenched to destroy. •Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League signed the Peace of Augsburg (1555). The cuius regio, eius religio principle allowed German princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism.

Poverty and Prosperity Since 1815

•Market demands led to mechanized production requiring capital investment. •Industrialization changed social and economic relations, generated material prosperity, and ushered in mass society. •Injustices of capitalism led socialist argument for state ownership and planning. Marxism inspired working class revolt. •World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II increased government economic management. •The Soviet bloc pursued socialism while Western welfare states used Keynesian capitalism. •Consumerism and European economic unity grew in late 1900s.

The Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther

•Martin Luther nailed to the Wittenberg church door 95 Theses (1517) opposing indulgences sold in Germany by Johann Tetzel. •He believed in salvation by faith alone, not good works, and recognized baptism and communion as the only sacraments. He also argued for clerical marriage and family. •Luther was excommunicated because he refused to recant at Diet or Worms (1521) and was condemned by Charles V. •He believed the Bible, not clergy, was the highest authority and translated that Bible into German (1522) while sheltered by Elector of Saxony. •Luther's anti-Semitic treatise On the Jews and Their Lies (1543) called for the burning of Jewish synagogues, schools, homes, and writings; the murder of active rabbis; and the expulsion of all Jews from Germany.

Mongol and Turk Invasions

•Mongols advanced to Hungary (1242) but fell back to Kievan Rus. Golden Horde ruled from Sarai on Volga River. Eastern Slavs semi-isolated from western Europe; culturally oriented eastward for 200+ years. Alexander Nevsky and later princes of Moscow served Mongols turning Muscovy into a powerful state. Grand Prince Ivan III stopped paying Mongols tribute in 1480. •Osman I founded the Ottoman Turk Empire (1299) in Anatolia on Byzantine frontier. Murid I expanded into the Balkans. After the Battle of Kosovo (1389), Serbia was subjugated and Constantinople encircled. The last great crusade failed to stop the Turkish conquest of Bulgaria at Nicopolis (1396).

Thematic Overview: Interaction of Europe and the World

•New technologies allowed Europeans to navigate oceans seeking trade and spreading Christianity. •The Columbian Exchange of people, goods, ideas, and diseases radically reshaped the global community. •Access to gold, spices, and luxury goods fueled the economic growth of European Atlantic states. •New commercial networks and a money economy grew. •The African slave trade was greatly expanded. •Mercantilism developed as a theory for managing far-flung competing global trading empires.

The Wars of Religion: Thirty Years' War: Bohemian Phase

•Peace of Augsburg (1555) divided the Holy Roman Empire between Lutheran and Catholic states, but religious hostilities remained. The spread of Calvinism throughout the empire in the late 1500s intensified friction. •The formation of the defensive Protestant Union (1608) prompted organization of the Catholic League (1609). •1618: Bohemian Protestants ejected Catholic Hapsburg imperial ministers out a third-story window in Defenestration of Prague. •1619: Bohemian Protestant nobles deposed Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, a zealous Catholic, from his role as king of Bohemia. •1620: Catholic League, Hapsburg imperial, and Spanish forces led by Count Tilly crushed Bohemian Protestants at Battle of White Mountain.

Italian Humanism: Secular Politics

•Peace of Lodi (1454) used diplomacy to establish balance of power in northern Italy. Francesco Sforza installed in Milan. •Cosimo Medici use banking wealth to control Republic of Florentine without holding office. Established dynasty and patronized arts. •Niccolo Machiavelli advised rulers to eschew traditional Christian ethics in pursuit of greater power in The Prince (1513). •Francesco Guiccardini used government records and personal experience to analyze political motives in History of Italy. •Baldassare Castiglione described gentlemanly etiquette in The Courtier. Renaissance nobles were to have a liberal education, by martial, be gracerful, and patronize arts. By 1616, 108 printed editions in several languages helped spread Renaissance values.

Roman Catholic Church Decline

•Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314) challenged Pope Boniface VIII and used Church resources to grow French state. •1305-1377: Pope Clement V moved papacy to Avignon, France, during Babylonian Captivity. •1378-1417: Great Western Schism when Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome but French elected second pope. Papal prestige fell. •1300s-1400s: Reform efforts by English John Wycliffe and Czech Jan Hus suppressed.

The Catholic (or Counter) Reformation: Papal Reform

•Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549) convened the Council of Trent (1546-1563) to address corruption, indulgences, clerical misconduct, and financial abuse. The Council rejected compromise with Protestants, reaffirmed papal authority and basic doctrines, and sought to improve education and discipline of priests and the administration of the Church. •Roman Inquisition (est. 1542) rooted out Protestantism, Judaism, sorcery, and witchcraft, immorality, and the distribution of censored works. It tried Galileo for heresy (1633). •Pope Paul IV (r. 1555-1559) issued Index of Forbidden Books and restricted Jews to the ghettos. •c. 1600-c. 1750: Baroque art reenergzied and propagated Catholic faith.

The English Civil War: Consequences

•Pride's Purge (1648) removed Puritan New Model Army opponents in Long Parliament leaving small Rump Parliament. •Charles I tried and beheaded for treason (1649). The Commonwealth of England was established. Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell crushed Scottish and Irish rebellions, fought a trade war with the Dutch, conquered Jamaica, and enforced Puritan beliefs. •Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651) reflected results of English Civil War by opposing divine right but defending absolutism stating the states receives absolute sovereignty from the social contract of individuals surrendering rights in exchange for security. •Charles II (r. 1660-1685) ended Puritan rule upon his Restoration.

The Protestant Reformation: Lutheranism

•Protestant princes supported Luther partly because pf their anti-Hapsburg sentiment. Italian Wars and Ottoman advances diverted Charles V from suppressing the spread of Lutheranism. •Albert, Duke of Prussia of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was the last Grand Master of Teutonic Knights. He dissolved the order and was the first prince to adopt Lutheranism (1525). •Adherence spread throughout northern Germany and Scandinavia. •Philip Melanchthon defended Luther and authored the Augsburg Confession (1530) of Lutheran theology. •Peace of Augsburg (1555) divided the Holy Roman Empire between Lutheran and Catholic states. Calvinists and Anabaptists were unrecognized.

The Wars of Religion: French Civil Wars

•Queen Catherine de'Medici was regent for weak sons Francis II (r. 1559-1560), Charles IX (r. 1560-1574), and Henry III (r. 1574-1589). •1562: Huguenots were massacred at Vassy starting religious civil wars. •1572: Elites gathered in Paris for the wedding of the king's Catholic sister to Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre. The wedding was to bring peace; instead, prominent Huguenots were slaughtered in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. The killings spread throughout France. •1587-1589: War of Three Henrys: 2-4 million people died before Catholic Valois King Henry III and Spanish Hapsburg-supported Catholic Henry of Guise were defeated. •1589: Victorious Henry of Navarre was crowned Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), founded the Bourbon dynasty, converted to Catholicism, and issued the Edict of Nantes (1598) tolerating Huguenots. "Paris is well worth a mass."

Chronological Reasoning: Patterns of Continuity and Change

•Recognize, analyze, and evaluate continuity and change over years, decades, or centuries. •What is the same? What is different? •Be able to relate these same patterns to larger historical processes or themes.

Ottoman Culture

•Results of fall of Constantinople: Byzantine Empire fell 1,000 years after Western Roman Empire. Byzantine scholars fled to Italy fueling Renaissance. Hagia Sophia converted to a mosque. Russia became self-proclaimed Third Rome as new seat of Orthodox Christianity. Trade routes with Asia severed prompting search for new sea routes via Atlantic. •Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) supported the arts and oversaw the Ottoman Golden Age. •The Sultan led the Islamic theocracy and owned all land so there was no hereditary aristocracy. Ethnically and religiously diverse empire ruled through self-governing millets of religious minorities. •Christian boys taken and trained as Janissary slave-soldiers became part of the imperial administration and ruling class.

Thematic Overview: Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions

•Revival of classical texts, Renaissance arts, humanism, new scholarship, religious pluralism, and printing challenged universal Christendom and led to a new scientific cosmology. •Truth shifted from the Church and classical authorities to observation of nature, experimentation, mathematics, and reasoning. •Humanism assessed the role of the individual. New theories offered secular explanations for human political behavior. •Reformations and wars disrupted the power and influence of the Church. A plurality of Christian doctrines and practices pushed religion from the public to the private realm. •Belief in alchemy and astrology persisted along with peasant oral traditions and folk culture. •Contact with Americans, Africans, and Asians expanded cultural horizons.

Italian Humanism: Values

•Rising wealth and classical knowledge recovered from Islamic world and monastic libraries drove secularism and humanism. •Dante Alighieri and Petrarch led early humanist scholarship and wrote vernacular Italian. •Italy seen as cultural heir to ancient Rome. Refugee Byzantine scholars furthered classics after Constantinople fell (1453). •Leonardo Bruni viewed Renaissance as a new age and was the first to divide history into antiquity, medieval, and modern ares. •Civic humanism funded city beautification beyond cathedrals-plazas, fountains, sculptures, parks, and hospitals. Humanists advised princes and popes.

Paganism

•Scandinavia was nominally Christianized by the 1100s, but some pagan practices continued. The Sami people of the far north were not Christianized until 1700s. •1229-1413: Teutonic Knights of Prussia spread Christianity through the Northern Crusades against the Baltic Pagans. Paganism was practiced by Lithuanian peasants into 1600s. •Pagan beliefs later associated with ethnic national origins during the 1800s, particularly in Scandinavian and Germanic lands as reflected in some 19th century Romantic art.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions Since 1815

•Scientific reasoning was applied to political, social, and economic issues producing ideologies. The arts reflected such thinking. •New scientific discoveries and theories challenged ordered reason and objective truth. Quantum mechanics and relativity surpassed Newtonian physics and sowed uncertainty about the physical universe. Freud emphasized irrationality of human mind. •Artists and intellectuals produced subjective interpretations of reality through existential philosophy, modern art, and postmodernism.

Thematic Overview: States and Other Institutions of Power

•Secular political theories explored the role of the state. •The struggle for sovereignty and military revolution centralized state power. Nation-states emerged in England, France, and Spain. •Centralized monarchies led to absolutism. Constitutionalism developed to limit monarchical power. •Political and Church authorities wrestled for control of religion. •Religious pluralism splintered universal Christendom and led to war. •Competition between states extended to colonial empires. •Art served political agendas. Printing increased censorship. •The Peace of Westphalia laid the foundations of the modern international order and balance of power.

The Dutch Golden Age

•Shipbuilding, fishing, trade, finance, and agriculture led to Europe's highest standard of living. •Dutch East India company dominated the spice trade, and the Bank of Amsterdam was early central bank. •The Dutch were primarily Calvinists but tolerated Jews and Catholics. •The Universities of Leiden and Groningen, Hans Lippershey (telescope), Antonie von Leeuwenhoek (microscope), and Christiaan Huygens (Saturn's rings, pendulum clock) advanced science. •The paintings of Rembrandt (Night Watch), Frans Hals (Laughing Cavalier), and Jan Vermeer (Girl with Pearl Earring, Geographer, View of Delft) demonstrated the Protestant work ethic and the understated luxury of the successful Dutch middle class.

The Wars of Religion: The Dutch War of Independence

•Spanish Duke of Alba ran Council of Blood Catholic Inquisition against Dutch Calvinists. •1568: William the Silent of Orange led the Dutch Revolt starting the Eighty Years' War of Independence from Hapsburg Spain. •1579: The Union of Utrecht formed the Calvinist northern United Provinces of Netherlands. Southern Netherlands remained Catholic under Hapsburg Spain. •1588: Protestant Elizabeth I of England's support of the Dutch contributed to the failed Spanish Armada. •1609: The Dutch won de facto independence, but hostilities with Spain continued until Peace of Westphalia (1648).

The English Civil War: Causes

•Stuart King James I (r. 1603-1625) joined England, Scotland, and Ireland in personal union, survived the Gunpowder Plot (1605), and authorized the King James Bible (1611). Belief in divine right and absolutism irked Parliament. •Charles I (r. 1625-1649) believed in divine right, employed excessive royal prerogative, married French Catholic Bourbon, and tried to force Scottish Presbyterians to adopt Anglicanism. •Parliament passed Petition of Right (1628) limiting the king's power to tax. Charles I dismissed and ruled without Parliament (1629-1640) while generating revenue from unpopular Ship Money tax (1643).

The Scientific Revolution: Renaissance Era Medieval Advances

•Swiss German Paracelsus, alchemist/astrologer/physician/student of the occult, rejected ancient Greeks Aristotle and Galen. He founded toxicology and pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. He believed mercury, sulfur, and salt contained deadly poisons that were the source of all diseases. •Flemish Andreas Vesalius conducted dissections to produce well-illustrated anatomy book On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543). Charles V's court physician. •English William Harvey, physician to the Stuart kings James I and Charles I, mapped the circulatory system. •Spanish Juan Luis Vives was forerunner to modern psychology by studying gender role, emotion, memory, learning, and arguing for humane treatment of mentally ill.

The Protestant Reformation: Anabaptist

•The Anabaptists were several groups of Radical Reformers •They practiced baptism of adult believers, separation of church and state, and pacifism. Many emphasized apocalyptic millenialism-preparation for end times and Christ's second coming. •1524-1525: Thomas Muntzer, the leader of the German Peasants' Revolt, was an early opponent of infant baptism. •1533: Austrian Jakob Hutter founded communal-living Hutterites. •1534-1535: German John of Leiden briefly led theocracy in Munster. •1536: Dutch Menno Simons founded Mennonites. Jacob Amman led Amish splinter group (1693). •Anabaptists persecuted by Catholics and more moderate Protestants alike. Many emigrated to North America.

Islam

•The Catholic, Orthodox, and Islamic faiths intersected in the Balkans. •Ottoman Turks did not force Christians to convert to Islam but did impose a heavier tax burden on non-Muslims. •Many Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Albania chose conversion to Islam for religious or socioeconomic reasons.

Renaissance Italy

•The Crusades revived Mediterranean trade: Asian silk, cotton, spices for European wool, metal, and furs. Italian textiles, mining, agriculture, and banking spurred development. •Italy divided by competing commercial city-states: Republics of Genoa and Venice (merchant oligarchies), Milan (Sforza family), Florence (Medici family), Rome (Papal States), and Kingdom of Naples (ruled by Aragon, Spain). •Use of gold florin coin of Florence spread through Europe. •Hired condottieri mercenary captains advanced military science. •Sack of Rome by unpaid Hapsburg mercenaries (1527) ended High Renaissance.

Commercial and Religious Motives for Exploration

•The Fall of Constantinople (1453) fueled the desire for new trade routes to acquire Asian spices-cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cloves, and turmeric. •The European trade deficit with Asia created a gold and silver shortage. Many European gold and silver mines were exhausted. New sources such as the rich silver mine of Potosi in Spanish Boliva were sought. •Crusades and Reconquista of Spain and Portugal fueled the desire to spread Christianity to Islamic and other lands. Jesuits spread Catholicism to India, Japan, China, East Indies, Congo, Brazil, Paraguay, and Canada during the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

The Italian Wars

•The Italian Wars are also known as the Hapsburg-Valois Wars (1494-1559). •Rich, weak Italian city-states fell prey to three invasions by French Valois kings. Unable to field armies equal to feudal monarchies, city-states sided with either Valois or Hapsburgs in shifting alliances. •Francis I took Leonardo da Vinci and Mona Lisa to France. •The sack of Rome by unpaid Catholic Spanish and Protestant Swiss/German Hapsburg mercenaries (1527) ended the High Renaissance. •The use of artillery and early firearms represented a military revolution. •The wars ended in French defeat with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. Italian city-states were reduced to second-rate powers with much of Italy under Spanish control.

The Wars of Religion: German Peasants' Revolt

•Thomas Muntzer radicalized Martin Luther's attack on religious authorities into German Peasants' political-economic revolt (1524-1525) against secular princes. •Up to 300,000 killed in largest peasant uprising before the French Revolution, which Luther condemned in Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants.

Individual and Society to 1815

•Three estates: clergy, nobility, commoners. •Family, religion, and landed wealth shaped social practices, values, and norms. •Protestants clashed with Catholics and each other to established new religious practices and social values. •French Revolution ended feudal estates, and liberalism urged legal equality.

Thematic Overview: Individual and Society

•Traditional agricultural aristocracy's power was challenged by the rise of commercial agriculture, bourgeoisie, and urban expansion. •Religious pluralism challenged universal Christendom. •The Renaissance and Reformation debated the role of women. •Explorations, colonization, printing, and the Reformation transformed social interactions. •Colonial peoples, urban migrants, and religious minorities were often marginalized. Witch hunts and pogroms persecuted victims. •Subsistence agriculture remained the norm for many. Traditions persisted in marriage patterns, gender roles, family economy, folk culture, communal norms, and beliefs in alchemy and astrology.

The Peace of Westphalia

•Treaties between the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic ended the Thirty Years' War and Dutch Revolt. •The treaties established a modern diplomatic structure based on principles of sovereign states, international law, balance of power, and noninterference in domestic affairs. •They extended the Peace of Augsburg (1555) principle of cuius regio, eius religio to choice of Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism. •They recognized independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland. •The Holy Roman Empire and Hapsburg Spain were greatly weakened. Bourbon France and Sweden reached Great Power status. •They set a precedent for diplomatic peace cpngresses (Vienna, 1815; Paris, 1919).

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions to 1815

•Trust in religions authority and ancient texts was challenged by direct philosophical and scientific inquiry. •Natural philosophers based objective scientific theories on observation and experimentation. •Artists, musicians, and writers continued to draw on classical subjects and motifs. •Growing acceptance of rational, mechanistic Newtonian universe governed by natural laws. Systems developed to organize knowledge of plants, animals, and minerals.

Elizabethan England

•Tudor monarch Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) was advised by spymaster Francis Walsingham and Treasurer William Cecil. •The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity established Anglican tenets reaching English Religious Settlements. •Elizabeth I imprisoned and executed her rival, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. •After his circumnavigation (1577-1580) laden with Spanish treasure, pirate Francis Drake was knighted. •Elizabeth supported the Dutch revolt and defended England against the Spanish Armada (1588). •Walter Raleigh sponsored the North Carolina lost colony of Roanoke. •William Shakespeare (Hamlet) and Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus) wrote pensive plays.

States and Other Institutions of Power to 1815

•Unified Christendom shattered as the New Monarchs claimed greater authority over law and social institutions, including religion. •Military revolution required steady revenue increasing state control of economy. •Rise of secular power critical to success of Protestant Reformation. •Peace of Westphalia created international system of independent sovereign states interacting through war and diplomacy. •Absolutism concentrated authority in monarchs who often claimed to rule by divine right. Constitutional governments shared power between monarchs and representative institutions. •Education, publishing, and prosperity generated public opinion on Enlightenment theories of social contract and natural rights.

Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

•Wladyslaw II Jagiello founded the Jagiellonian dynasty (1386), which ruled in Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, and Bohemia until 1572. •Treaty of Lublin (1569) united Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This large, heavily populated multiethnic statehad modest religious toleration for Catholics, Protestants, Othrodox, and Jews. •Monarchial power limited by Sejm (legislature) of Polish szlachta (nobility) who could veto the king. By the 1600s, Sejm voting required unanimous decisions making government weak and ineffective.

Mannerism

•c. 1520-c. 1600: Mannerist art was more stylized and less realistic than High Renaissance art with imbalanced compositions (Pontormo, Descent from the Cross), elongated figures (Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck), and lurid colors (Tintoretto, Last Supper). •The distortion was emblematic of the tumultuous nature of the late 1500s. •Sofonisba Anguissola (Lucia, Minerva, and Europa Playing Chess) was the first serious female artist and court painter to Philip II of Spain.

Baroque Art: Sculpture and Architecture

•c. 1600-c. 1750: Dramatic, extravagant, flamboyant ornamental art, architecture, and music radiated power and inspired awe. Baroque art was entwined with Church and monarchial efforts to re-energize the Catholic faith after the Protestant Reformation. •Gian Bernini (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa) designed interior and piazza of Saint Peter's, Vatican. Passionate spirituality inspired piety. •Church facades (Santiago de Compostela, Spain; St Paul's, by Christopher Wren, London), palaces (Versailles, France; Charlottenburg, Germany), and great buildings (Les Invalides, France) showcase grandiose architecture.