AP Lang Ch 1-3 Test

hortative sentence

-pleading/asking versus imperative sentence which is commanding sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action ex: Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. -JFK

Analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way ex: life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're gonna get!

rhetorical triangle

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence ex: Smoking isn't bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90

Bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable. ex: In Animal Farm, Orwell uses bandwagon in this line: "If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must be right

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. "Oh, Starbucks, how I love you! Your medium dark roast allowed me to survive that meeting!"

symbol

A thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract.

Red Herring

A type of logical fallacy wherein the speaker relies on distraction to derail an argument, usually by skipping to a new or irrelevant topic. ex: When your mom gets your phone bill and you have gone over the limit, you begin talking to her about how hard your math class is and how well you did on a test today.

Speech to the Troops at Tilbury- Queen Elizabeth

Central Argument: Queen Elizabeth reassures her soldiers she will be with them every step of the way and encourages them to defeat Spain Speaker: Queen Elizabeth, since she never married there was no king, so she was in charge Audience: the troops Subject: Queen Elizabeth's support for her troops Purpose: To give courage to her troops and stand behind them Rhetorical Strategies: ethos- established as she is the queen of england pathos: characterizes herself as a "weak and feeble woman" but reassures her audience she is as strong as a kind use of "we": unites her with her audience and gives them a common purpose

Not by Math Alone- O'Connor

Central Argument: though other things are important such as math and science, we need to teach kids more about civics and humanity in order to create responsible participatory citizens Rhetorical Stratefies Counterargument: math and stem are also important BUT civics is just as important because it will affect the future of democracy ethos: Bill Gates, a leader in technology supports the idea- he thinks civics should be taught in school repetition/anaphora: end- "only then" "only then"

Do you care more about a dog than a refugee? Kristof

Central argument: Although global situations may seem distant, it doesn't mean we shouldn't try to help. Humanity extends globally. We need to help immigrants and we should have boundaries on how we help. Key Rhetorical Strategies Rhetorical Questions: stirring up idea that you have to think about humanity on a global scale Counterargument/Concessions: Yes, some past interventions haven't worked BUT we have a long list of many successful interventions that saved the lives of thousands if not millions compare/contrast: Yes Iraq war was a disaster BUT the no fly zone was a success Pathos: humanity doesn't stop at a border. Ties in idea with dogs- if Syria was filled with dogs would people be more willing to help?

2016 Concession Speech- Clinton

Central argument: Clinton expresses gratitude to all her supporters after losing the 2016 election and stresses the importance of their continued political activism to break barriers in politics and society. Although this setback is heartbreaking to Clinton and her supporters, she urges them not to give up and to continue fighting for their beliefs because one day they will shatter glass ceilings. Finally, she asks her supporters to have an open mind about President Trump in order to keep the country from diving any further. Rhetorical strategies pathos

imagery

Description that appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste) ex: The candy melted in her mouth and swirls of bittersweet chocolate and slightly sweet but salty caramel blended together on her tongue.

polemic

Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. Polemics generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit. ex: "Broccoli is a disgusting vegetable whose existence is the bane of all children's lives. Those who believe it is a delicious and healthy food are wrong. It is a foul, appalling thing that should be banned from being sold or grown under any circumstances. Only when we rid the world of broccoli will we truly remove the threat of repulsive dinners."

connotation

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Connotations are often positive or negative, and they often greatly affect the author's tone. ex: There's no place like home in Wizard of Oz: connotation is warmth, love, family, security. If you switched out home for house and said there is no place like my house, the meaning is totally different

Checkers Speech- Nixon

Nixon distracts audience from allegations of inappropriate use of campaign funds by telling a story about his puppy Uses Pathos: brings in his kids and the story of how someone sent them a puppy named Checkers. Makes audience feel guilty because how can you criticize Nixon for taking the puppy. It would be cruel to take away the puppy from the loving family also an example of red herring- distracting the audience from the bigger allegations at hand

Juxtaposition

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize comparisons or contrasts ex: "All's fair in love and war" ex: "A butler spends his days in a beautiful mansion dressed in a tuxedo, but returns home to a closet-sized apartment in a rundown part of town."

Lou Gehrig Speech

SOAPS: Speaker- Lou Gehrig- ALS victim and baseball star Occasion: Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day Audience: his teammates, fans, opponents, people listening on the radio, etc Purpose: To thank his fans and teammates and show his positivity Subject: ALS diagnosis central argument: thanking everyone who's been there for him and says everyone is dealt a hand but you have to live with it. Gehrig is optimistic for thinks he's lucky to have lived the life he has Rhetoric used: repetition: uses the word lucky 7 times to emphasize all the good things in his life logos: gives evidence of all the reasons he's lucky- played for 17 years, he has great teammates, great fans, support from opponents, great family pathos: reassuring audience he will be okay

imperative sentence

Sentence used to command or enjoin. ex: My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. ex: Shut the door! Pass the salt. Clean your room!

deductive reasoning

a logical process wherein you reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). EX: Celebrities are role modeles Kim Kardashian is a celebrity Kim Kardashian is a role model EX: Exercise contributes to better health Yoga is a type of exercise Yoga contributes to better health

rhetorical question

a question not meant to be answered but to make a point ex: How could I be so stupid?

Simple Sentence

a sentence that contains only one independent clause and no dependent clause ex: We choose to go to the moon- JFK draws attention to the sentence. Has a stronger impact on those listening and makes the statement stand out

complex sentence

a sentence that has at least 1 independent clause and at least 1 dependent clause ex: Even though Billy took Earth Science, he found Earth Science to be very boring.

declarative sentence

a sentence that simply states a fact or an argument, simply states a thought or fact. ex: London is the capital of England ex: AP Lang is the best class at LR -rather than asking what class is best (question) or telling someone which is the best (command) or exclaiming none of the classes at LR are the best (exclamation), the sentence simply states a thought

irony

a technique of stating something but indicating the opposite of its literal meaning, an outcome of events that is unexpected ex: A person who claims to be a vegetarian avoids eating meat but will eat a slice of pepperoni pizza if they are hungry enough

colloquialism

a word or phrase that is not formal or literary, typically one used in ordinary or familiar conversation ex: You're nuts, I'm gonna go to the movies, I gotta get an A, I ain't got time for this

subordinate clause

also called a dependent clause; a clause that cannot stand alone because it is an incomplete thought; begins with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and verb; this combination of words will not form a complete sentence ex: I fished [UNTIL THE SUN WENT DOWN.] [subordinate clause]- cannot stand by itself because it doesn't complete the thought

concession

an acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation, challenging the validity of the opposing argument ex: "A businessman making a proposal for a new skin product makes the following concession: This is a tough market, with many skin care products already out there. However, this product is different-it provides the same level of advanced skin care for a fraction of the cost."

syllogism

an argument in which there is a major term, middle term, and minor term in order to prove the argument if a=c and b=a then a=c 1. All mammals are warm blooded animals 2. No lizards are warm blooded animals 3. Therefore no lizards are mammals

fragment

an incomplete sentence with the punctuation of a complete sentence; it cannot stand by itself ex: A story with deep thoughts and emotions

straw man

an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument. ex: Person A: The children's winter concert at the school should include non-Christmas songs too. Person B: You won't be happy until Christmas songs are banned from being played on the radio! Person A never said they wanted to ban christmas songs, they only suggested adding other songs. Person B is trying to get the audience to turn on person A by making them seem like they hate Christmas.

counterargument

an opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation ex: "if my argument is that dogs are better pets than cats because they are more social, but you argue that cats are better pets because they are more self-sufficient, your position is a counterargument to my position"

claim of value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong ex: The hunting of animals is a barbaric practice

claim of fact

asserts that something is true or not true ex : The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy

personification

attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or an idea ex: with history the final judge of our deeds- JFK

Letter to Mark Twain- Helen Keller

central argument: This is an important event for the blind and because of Twain's influence, he can get the word out rhetorical strategies: pathos- describes how miserable it would be to be blind: makes audience imagine suddenly going blind and all the things you would lose simile: compares idleness to a canker- the only way to help blind is by teaching them to get out of this sadness logos: Twain has a big influence and can spread the message. New York is a big city- when New York says something the world listens repetition: satisfaction is the right of every human being- emphasizes that the blind deserve an opportunity to work and figurative language: darkness/night describing what it's like to be blind ethos: who better to speak on the issue than Keller

hyperbole

deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or to produce a comic or ironic effect; an overstatement to make a point ex: It's raining cats and dogs!

Metaphor

figure of speech that compares 2 things without using like or as ex: The snow is a white blanket

zeugma

figure of speech that uses a verb or descriptor to apply to more than one term ex: The man's dream and boat sank. ex: We are having the neighbors and steak for dinner ex: My uncle grows wheat, soy, and bored

premise major, minor

in a syllogism, both major and minor premises must have one factor in common with the conclusion; the major term serves as the major premise and predicate of the conclusion, while the minor term serves as the minor premise and subject of the conclusion ex: Reptiles do not have fur. A crocodile is a reptile. Crocodiles do not have fur. The overall statement of the syllogism starts with a generalization stating a well-known fact about reptiles. This is the major term, as it is the overall subject of the comparison. After, the type of reptile specifically focuses on crocodiles, known as the minor term. Because it is known by the major term that reptiles do not have fur, and by the minor term that crocodiles are reptiles, it can be concluded that it is impossible for a crocodile to have fur.

either/or fallacy

logical fallacy where speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices ex: Either we agree to higher taxes or our grandchildren will be mired in debt

equivocation

logical fallacy where the author intentionally misleads the audience by using words with double or ambiguous meaning ex: We will bring our enemies to justice, or we will bring justice to them

inductive reasoning

logical process wherein you reason from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization EX: Regular exercise promotes weight loss Exercise lowers stress levels Exercise improves mood and outlook

archaic diction

old-fashioned or outdated choice of words ex: Jack, come hither

asyndeton

omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence ex: He eats, sleeps, drinks. Omitting and in the sentence emphasizes the actions themselves

Antithesis

opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction ex: We shall.... support any friend, oppose any foe- JFK

Logical Fallacies

potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it ex: If you don't want to get beaten up, you will agree with what I say -This reason would have little relevance to whatever the argument is about. By taking the focus away from what is actually true or false, good or bad, important or unimportant, and instead relying on force, the person's claim is weakened. Logical fallacies are errors in an argument that do not logically string together facts to the main statement.

bias

prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another. Usually in a way considered to be unfair ex: I believe bichon frise is the best dog breed. This is a biased statement because Pierre is the only dog I have ever had and so bichon frise is the only breed I've had. I'm using my individual experience to make a statement about all dogs

subordination

process of linking two clauses in a sentence so one clause is dependent on (or subordinate to) the other ex: Since the students performed poorly on the test, the teacher assigned extra credit work. Now, the first clause cannot stand alone. Linking the two sentences together allows the sentence to become stronger

claim of policy

proposes a change, something should or should not be done Ex: The age at which people can get a driver's license should be raised to 18

For Teenager, Hijab a sign of freedom, not structure: Shahinfar

purpose: Hijab frees her because it allows her to express herself and forces people to focus on who she really is. Hijab is actually a feminist statement. Rhetorical Questions: starts off with a bunch of rhetorical questions that address the many questions this girl gets about her hijab. Ends with a rhetorical question: "What could possibly be more feminist?" to get reader to understand that the hijab is a feminist statement for her concessions: yes in parts of the Islamic world women are treated badly refutation: the religion and the culture are not the same ethos: she knows what she's talking about because she's muslim and has the first hand experience of wearing a hijab. logos: by wearing the hijab, it's an act of feminism because people don't focus on her appearance but rather listen to her thoughts and ideas

elegiac

refers to something that is full of mourning and sorrow ex: a poem about the loss of a loved one

antimetabole

repeating a phrase in an ordering, then proceeding to reverse that order ex: "You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you" Obama

cumulative sentence

sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on ex: "Florida is a great vacation spot for families, with Disney World, Universal Studios, and Sea World."

periodic sentence

sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end ex: "In spite of heavy snow and cold temperatures, the game continued."

Parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair of series of related words, phrases, or clauses ex: She likes cooking, jogging, and reading (parallelism) versus she likes to cook, jogging, and to read

aphorism

statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner ex: If it ain't broke, don't fix it" -sensible short phrase offering wise life advice. If something is in perfectly good condition, don't go searching for problems or errors to fix it: that's a waste of time

paradox

statement that is self contradictory because it contains two statements that are both true, but, cannot both be true at the same ex: If you don't get this message, call me ex: Nobody goes there anymore, it's too crowded

Ad Homenim

switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. ex: You argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute

Purpose

the goal the speaker wants to achieve ex: Gehrig ALS speech purpose: Is to thank his fans and teammates and demonstrate that he remains positive by emphasizing his past luck and present optimism and downplaying the severity of his illness

Coordination

the joining go words phrases or clauses of the same type, using conjunctions or punctuation, to give them all equal emphasis and importance ex: His back itched, so he leaned against the fence and rubbed against the branch

audience

the listener, viewer, or reader of a text -there can be multiple audience -most of time there is a primary or intended audience but there can be secondary and unintended audiences ex: if a speaker gives a speech in an auditorium and that speech somehow ends up on instagram, the primary audience was the people in the auditorium, and the secondary audience was everyone who saw it on social media

speaker

the person or group who creates the text. Who the speaker is in the context of the text ex: Lou Gerhrig is the speaker but it is also important to know that he is a baseball hero and has ALS- all of those things make up the speaker -sometimes speaker plays a role in the speech and that is different than them in real life- that is known as persona

nominalization

the process of changing a verb into a noun, nouning something ex: interference- interfere

anaphora

the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses ex: Song Every breath you take- starts with "Every" in a ton of the lines of the song

Occasion

the specific circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding the creation of the text ex: Gehrig speech: occasion was Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day

Propaganda

the spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, propaganda is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause ex: The picture of "Feeding Kids Meat is Child Abuse" by PETA, is a form of propaganda in which PETA is claiming something that is not necescarily true. This picture helps support PETA by making assumptions that are not true. It is advocating for their view that eating meat is animal cruelty and anyone by looking at this photo would get a strong bias from it. PETA's propaganda ad campaign is effective because it is direct and states something that is not proven to be true but makes people question feeding kids meat.

metonymy

the substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant; figure of speech that consists of the use of the name of one object or concept for that of another to which it is related ex: The pen is mightier than the sword. A sword is used for military aggression and therefore is associated with conquering; and a pen is just an everyday object. However, in this case the pen refers to the written word and the effects of the written word which triumphs over military force.

subject

topic of the speech

satire

use of irony or sarcasm to critique society or an individual ex: A Modest Proposal- proposes Ireland fix poverty by eating the children of the poor

ethos

CREDIBILITY!!! the speaker's expertise, knowledge, experience, sincerity that gives the audience a reason for listening to this person on this subject -Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic. -Established by WHO you are and WHAT you say

Blood, Toil, Tears, and Sweat- Churchill

Speaker: Churchill, a leader preparing for war Audience: House of Commons, Parliament, and government- explaining what they need to do. People of Great Britain Subject: bring country together during time of war major appeals pathos: I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears- Churchill is going to give his all to the war, he's not going to stop until they win. England pathos: Churchill asks for forgiveness for things he might not get done- people criticizing him would look like jerks because he already apologized pathos: at end that England has to win or else the British empire is lost and all of their ideals are lost as well Rhetorical Questions: helps make case- trying to get in head of the audience. Explains what their policy is, what their aim is, etc. diction: language in the beginning- words with positive connotations to say England will be united and victoroius logos: explaining the logistical struggles they will go through, what needs to be done to prepare, and what has been done repetition of words/ideas such as united show people Churchill cares and wants to keep country together at a time of uncertainty. England is strong and together. England is strong and TOGETHER they will win

logos

Speakers appeal to logos or reason by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up ex: Gehrig starts with the thesis that he is "the luckiest man on the face of the earth" and supports it with 1. the love and kindness he's received in his 17 years playing baseball 2. A list of great people who have been his friends, family, and teammates

pathos

Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience's values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices on the other

SOAPS

Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker

visual rhetoric

The use of images as an integrated element in the total communication effort a speaker makes to achieve the speaking goal -composition: arrangement on the page -background -lines -focus -shape -framing -foreground- what's in the center

sentence variety

Usage of assorted sentence patterns, lengths, and rhythms. Mixing up sentence style in a work of writing

epigram

a clever or witty saying meant to convey a message ex: A word to the wise ain't necessary; it's the stupid ones who need all the advice. This is effective because the audience will remember this humorous statement. It also serves to reveal the underlying message of the speaker.

refutation

a denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, a refutation often follows a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. One of the stages in classical oration, usually following the confirmation or proof and preceding the conclusion or peroration ex: "For example, in the O.J. Simpson murder trial, the prosecutor tried to argue that the bloody gloves found were Simpson's. His attorney refuted this claim by showing that the gloves were not big enough for Simpson's hand."

circular reasoning

a fallacy in which the argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence ex: You can't give me a C; I'm an A student

faulty analogy

a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable ex: we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people -asking the reader to ignore the profound differences between animals and people

understatement

a figure of speech in which the writer or speaker deliberately makes the situation seem less important or serious than is. It is the opposite of a hyperbole. ex: After losing his leg, an army officer is asked how much it hurts. He responds with "Stings a bit"

simile

a figure of speech used to explain or clarify an idea by comparing it explicitly to something else using the words like, as, or as though ex: You were AS brave as a lion

polysyndeton

a literary technique in which conjunctions are used repeatedly in quick succession, often with no commas, even when the conjunction could be removed. ex: I love to spend my time with my mother and father and brother and sister.

inversion

a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter ex: An excellent decision she made there -emphasizes excellent decision