AP Lang Test

what is a target audience?

A Target Audience is the demographic of people at which your advertisement or campaign is aimed. When it comes to attempting to relate to or engage with the audience, a speaker must take their target Audience into consideration. Speakers usually attempt to appeal to the audience's Ethos, Logos, and/or Pathos.

what is a fact? (as it applies to logos)

A fact is a thing that is known or proved to be true; a piece of information used as evidence or as part of a report or news article. Facts are the statements that are compiled to create evidence. They help to produce strong arguments that appeal to pathos and ethos in the same way that evidence does: stating information without bias.

What is a persona? When is it useful?

A persona is the difference between who the speaker is in real life and the role the speaker plays when delivering their speech. A persona is often used to mask the real character of the speaker from the audience. One might have different personas for different family members, colleagues, or friends. A persona shows how one interacts with the different people in their lives.A persona is useful when the speaker needs to appeal to a certain audience that may reject the real personality or traditional character of the speaker.

why might a politician adopt a persona?

A politician adopts a persona when dealing with different people throughout their campaign. They speak and act differently on a podium before the entire nation than they do at the dinner table with their families. They use words with certain groups of supporters that they don't use in their every day vocabulary or that they wouldn't use around other groups. This persona helps the politician seem likeable and relatable before each of these groups.

what is the example of an invoked audience?

A president talking directly to the victims of a tragedy. He/she talks to them directly while also relating to others who were not directly involved in the tragedy.

What's the Progress Narrative?

A product of the European Enlightenment, assumes that advances in technology, science, and social organization cause improvements to (human) life. Thus, quality of life is a function of time (i.e. things get better and better). Radically optimistic, future-oriented, and confident in the value of human invention, for better or worse.

what is a concession?

A way to appeal to logos by acknowledging a possible counterargument. By agreeing that a counterargument might be true or reasonable, the author shows that he/she understands and has seriously considered other viewpoints, and thus(also by further refuting the counterargument) strengthens the standpoint and credibility of the author while also reduces the potential vulnerability of the argument

What is American Exceptionalism? Example?

Assumes that the United States is unique with respect to its ideas of democracy and personal freedom. Further, the United States holds the privilege and responsibility of leading and even transforming the world in its image. Episodes in the narrative could include the American Revolution, the abolishment of slavery, leadership in World War II and the Cold War, and the War Against Terrorism. It could be argued that slogans such as "Make America Great Again" demonstrate acceptance of/belief in this narrative.

What are some examples of cultural narratives?

American Exceptionalism, The Progress Narrative

How/why is pathos effective?

An ad, piece of writing, or speaker that/who appeals to people's emotions so they will be more likely to support a cause that's advocated for by the certain ad, piece of writing, or speaker.

pathos definition (simple)

An appeal to emotions, values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other. Evokes an emotional and/or physical sensation. brings speaker closer to reader.

what is the use/relevance of beliefs?

An effective argument must appeal to personal values. By bringing up something that is familiar to them, you appear to be more congenial. This would normally make them more receptive to alternative ideas.

Ethos example

An olympic athlete describes the years and years of training that prepared her to win gold. In her memoir, she lays out the moral dilemmas that she had to face in her career while also adding a few relatable stories of family, upbringing, and training regimen that help illustrate her credibility to the reader.

what are some examples of ineffective rhetoric?

Bad humor or inappropriate satire, Turning attention away from the topic, Poor reasoning, Evidence that doesn't match, and Failed to identify a target audience.

what is an example of a refutation

Barbie is Past Saving - In this text, the author refutes the argument that Barbie is now better by not instilling as many insecurities in young girls because she has given many new looks, body types, faces, etc., by saying that it still wasn't good enough because even when taking away the elements that root insecurities in children from a young age, you still have the unrealistic standards of clothing, makeup, and accessories of Barbie. The author uses logic and reasoning to reach her conclusion that Barbie is still not better by pointing out that even by taking out the basic Barbie features, she is still setting unrealistic standards.

what is a belief?

Beliefs are ideas that people adopt into their worldview. Most beliefs and values are fundamental to one's worldview, and they are often impacted by the environment we grow up in. And from those values, we begin to construct our worldview, by interpreting new information in a way that is in accordance with our values. The longer we live, the more reinforced our values may be. As a result, it is difficult for us to abandon our values completely

how are characteristics of ineffective rhetoric relative?

Characteristics of ineffective reasoning is relative in rhetoric because you will be unable to persuade, inform, or motivate if you poorly reason, misjudge your audience, take attention away from the topic you are trying to address or fail to reach your target audience. Your attempts to get any sort of point across will be halted by the confusing and contrasting ideas that are presented.

how do counterarguments affect rhetoric?

Counterarguments are relevant in rhetoric because you are able to add to ethos and logos by coming off as knowledgeable and open. For logos, counterarguments strengthen your own argument by demonstrating a view that is wider than your own because you have looked at other viewpoints and still stood by your own

what is the use/relevance of cultural norms?

Cultural norms, while seeming arbitrary, can be useful in connecting with the speaker's audience and building credibility. The audience appreciates the speaker for following these social "rules"

What is ethos? (three elements, origins, value)

Ethos is greek for character and represents the beliefs and ideas of a community. Ethos is used to establish a speaker's moral character. There are three elements of ethos: Phronesis, Arete, and Eunoia. Ethos is valuable in an argument because is establishes trust between the audience and the speaker and is a starting gauge that represents how much the speaker will have to work in order to convince their audience.

what is the use/relevance of euphemisms?

Euphemism allows the speaker to discuss topics some audiences may not be comfortable with, broadening the range of subjects the audience is willing to hear. It makes people more comfortable.

How does Greta Thunberg use pathos, ethos, and logos

Greta Thunberg uses ethos, pathos, and logos in her arguments. However, many people have been appealing to logos on the topic of climate change for a long time, which has generated minimal action from the general public. Greta Thunberg uses the fact that she's a child being hurt by climate change as pathos to appeal to the general public, in the hopes that climate change will be taken as a more serious issue. Thunberg's cause has succeeded in recruiting more people to help the growing climate crisis because she successfully applies pathos to her argument, something that was lacking in previous arguments regarding climate change.

what is the use/relevance of target audiences?

Identifying a target audience helps one develop effective marketing or communication strategies. These groups are usually the users most likely to buy into your ideas, so it's important to know exactly what it is they identify with.

what are demographics?

It refers to the structure of the population within a society. It is usually categorized by age, gender, race, geographical area and income level. The specific demographic of audiences largely determines their values and living conditions.

why is logos alone insufficent?

Logos alone is insufficient because facts can go over someone's head if they are unable to understand. Authors don't usually rely on one type of appeal because combining multiple is more effective in order to reach your audience. Though logos is crucial for an argument's strength, alone it can be too harsh and lack any emotion.

What is propaganda?

Promotion often associated with ideologies and political situations that attempts to manipulate people's opinion with the appeal to Ethos, Pathos and Logos. (E.g: The Mao propaganda here contains all of the three rhetorical appeals. Mao's large torso and supporters holding his Banners created trust and appealed to ethos; Mao's big smile automatically delighted the starving people at the time and appealed to pathos; and the slogan "If the military and the people stick together, no one can defeat us" was a logical argument, which appealed in logos.)

How do texts and rhetoric complement each other?

Texts are used in rhetoric to persuade/ convince your audience. You can't have rhetoric without texts and texts contain rhetoric in them as well.

what is a refutation?

The action of proving an argument wrong/ineffective by using logic and proof or appealing to logos. If an author wants to refute someone's argument, then they would use a counterargument. When refuting one's argument, you should appeal to logos by using substantial proof, logic, and reasoning to contradict the initial argument made.

What is the importance/relevance of rhetoric?

Rhetoric is used to convince a "reader" of a particular point by appealing to an audience through different methods of persuasion. It makes any argument or "text" stronger

How is this political cartoon an example of rhetoric?

Rhetoric used here, a political figure swinging a golden coin to get the attention of the children. He is persuading them with the coin, potentially for a vote.

what are cultural norms?

Standards of behavior or culture that a society abides by. Guides behavior between social groups. Varies among countries, different cultures, and social groups

what is a cultural narrative and how does it affect societies?

Stories that help a community structure and assign meaning to its experience, history, circumstances, identity, etc. Cultures and individuals form and extend narratives by situating important events and experiences within the logic, assumptions, and pre-existing patterns of cultural narratives

How do audiences affect rheotric?

The audience is a central theme of rhetoric because the audience is how rhetoric is crafted. A speaker crafts their speech or performance around how the primary/intended audience will perceive it. Then the secondary/unintended audience comes into play with another reaction that was either thought of and planned for or one that the speaker is completely unprepared for. Both audiences make the speaker think carefully of the language they use. The speaker may even adopt a persona to fit the audience's.

what is an audience and what are the different kinds of audiences?

The audience refers to the listener, viewer, and or reader of a text, speech, or performance. There are primary and secondary audiences, sometimes referred to as the intended and unintended audiences. The primary/intended audience is who the text, speech, or performance was directed towards. While the secondary audience might be someone in the room or area who you are not specifically addressing. This secondary audience still influences the speaker by making them take into account the reactions of the secondary audience. An unintended audience is the audience who can be the secondary audience or an audience the speaker did not take into account. Therefore the speaker may not always change their rhetoric to take into account the unintended audience

what is the intended audience?

The audience that is consuming the rhetoric directly. They are usually the first people to hear the argument. Intended audiences are usually named by the speaker and explicitly known. The argument is directed towards this audience and this is the audience the speaker expects to have

what is a reputable source? (as it applies to logos)

The definition of a credible source may vary depending on the curriculum, but generally for academic writing a credible source is on that is unbiased and is backed up with evidence. When writing a research paper, always use and properly cite academic sources. Writers and speakers often have to form their ethos by explaining their credentials or background. Audiences are more likely to listen to someone who is qualified to speak on a subject, than someone without credentials

What is Rhetoric?

The different methods of persuasion. The art of effective speaking or writing, especially with figuration, structure, and technique

How is the imagined audience helpful to rhetoric?

The imagined audience is used to build an argument before the speaker knows the intended audience, or cannot identify certain things about their audience. When presenting rhetoric to a large and invisible audience, it is impossible for a speaker to know the entire audience, therefore they have to imagine their audience in order to relate to them.

what is the imagined audience?

The imagined audience is what the speaker assumes about their intended audience. When they don't have concrete information about their audience, speakers have to imagine who their audience is and what they respond to.

What is connotation

The implication of an idea/atmosphere through attributes of a word beyond its basic meaning. Best used in a scenario that suits the word's characteristics and the proper cultural context. (E.g: Although sly and crafty has the same meaning, sly is more suitable in a more negative situation than crafty.)

how is the intended audience useful to the writer?

The intended audience is useful for a speaker to think about when forming their argument: the speakers should know what the audience believes and what will be effective when persuading them. Speakers have to understand the mood of this audience and how informed their intended audience is while making their argument.

What is the invoked audience?

The invoked audience is the audience that is explicitly named. Can be used to directly express an argument to a specific group within an audiencewhat

what is the use/relevance of pathos?

This tool needs to be understood and properly wielded by both the speaker and the audience. With the proper use of pathos, a speaker can appeal to his or her audience so much that she or he can convince them of pretty much anything. When pathos is wielded properly, meaning there isn't too heavy a reliance on it, the audience will typically try to identify emotionally with what you say, and if people identify with you, they are more likely to agree with you

what is cognitive dissonance?

The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions & attitude change (definition) When a speaker/writer provokes cognitive dissonance, it can cause the audience to become aware of their situation. This can cause the audience to change their beliefs, or to double down and reinforce their beliefs even more, or this could have no effect at all as the audience simply ignores the discomfort.

What is a subject?

The subject of a rhetorical argument is the topic. The subject may often be confused with the purpose, which is the goal that the speaker tries to achieve. The subject is important as it is essentially what the entire argument is about. Without a proper subject an argument would fall flat and fail to prove anything.

What is a text?

The written words, any cultural product that can be "read", meaning not just consumed and comprehended but investigated. Includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends and much more

what is the use/relevance of demographics?

Thinking of your audience according to race, gender, class can help tailor your message by connecting certain aspects of their culture and making the message more "relatable."

Why is the rhetorical triange important?

This is important to keep in mind because it can help one better determine what or what not to say in a speech, article, or anything that would be heard or read by an audience. Understanding these relationships is crucial to the speaker by allowing them to be prepared. Offending the audience that you're trying to persuade can severely hurt the speakers' ethos, but by taking note of the relationships in the rhetorical triangle beforehand, this can be avoided.

what is a counter argument and how does it strengthen your argument?

To anticipate objections or opposing views from another argument and address them in your own in order to strengthen it. By including a counterargument, you are able to strengthen your argument by making sure the opposition can't poke holes in it. Without one, your argument is vulnerable to criticism and alternate arguments.

how/why is logos effective?

To use logos would be to cite facts and statistics, historical and literal analogies, and citing certain authorities on a subject. Allows for the development to take part inside the speech

what is a euphemism?

Using more agreeable phrases/words to substitute a possibly offensive or harsh expression.

how do pathos and cognitive dissonance work together?

Using strong Pathos when an audience is feeling powerful cognitive dissonance can be more effective due to the audience being in a state of mental weakness and turmoil. When an audience is doubting the decisions they are making, using pathos can help nudge them in the right direction to potentially change their beliefs to help the author.

What is SOAPS?

When analyzing an argument it is a good idea to first write down the Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Subject (SOAPS). The occasion is generally the year, but could also be a time period, ex. The Great Depression or World War II. SOAPS helps the reader to break down an argument into its main ideas and to more easily examine an argument.

what are some potential problems associated with pathos?

While pathos is a good tool to use in moderation, a heavy reliance on pathos isn't a good approach to make an argument. This is because the audience most likely will pick up the overuse of pathos and see that the argument lacks logical substance. That will most likely make your audience discredit your whole argument. (Example: The SPCA commercial relied too heavily on pathos with the thought that by showing multiple pictures of sad animals, they would reach their target audience of middle aged women to feel bad for the animals and donate. However, many people probably thought the argument was too much and discredited it because it didn't use logos.)

what is a rhetoric situation? How does it work?

a circumstance or context of communication that consists of a subject, an audience, and the speaker. To form an effective argument, the speaker must know the audience: their opinions and how they would react to certain rhetorical tools. If a speaker does not establish the subject of their argument, the audience will not know what the speaker is trying to persuade them of, which will render the argument obsolete. Without a clear purpose, a speaker cannot strategically employ tools to achieve that purpose

What's an analogy for Rhetoric?

a set of tools used to better convince an audience of some subject.

how/why is ethos effective

emphasize shared values between the speaker and the audience, and can establish the writer's credibility. (example: when a history professor says "as experienced scholar, I suggest that this is an evidence of early human civilization")

What are the rhetorical appeals?

ethos, pathos, logos

Arete

general morality of a speaker's argument

logos definition (simple)

logic can persuade people using reasonings

Why is context important to rhetoric?

not understanding or acknowledging recent events could be devastating for the speaker. The audience could take offense at something the speaker says or doesn't say because of what's going on at the time. Knowing and understanding context can also make you sound more intelligent and up to date with social movements and events, which helps build ethos.

What is evidence? (as it applies to logos)

the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid. Evidence from expert sources and authorities, facts, and quantitative data can be very persuasive if selected carefully and presented accurately. In an appeal to logos, evidence provides concrete information without any bias, which also adds to the author's credibility within the appeal to ethos.

What is an example of rhetoric?

the child

What is context?

the circumstances surrounding the situation. These may include things like historical, cultural, or social movements and they have an influence on the speaker and audience. The more recent contextual events are called the occasion and consist of specific circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and other events.

What is purpose and why is it important?

the goal of the speaker and their reason for writing. Often a speakers' purpose is to inform, entertain, explain or persuade, usually involving an audience and a certain topic. As a speaker, knowing your own purpose is clearly important and needed in order for your writing to be persuasive. As an audience member, reader, or viewer, being able to understand and recognize the authors' purpose can be helpful when attempting to analyze their work.

Eunoia

the goodwill that the speaker establishes with the audience

Phronesis

the intelligence and wisdom that a person has as a writer

Authority (as it applies to ethos)

the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. Authority can be seen from appealing to ethos, and it can also help the writer to add credibility. Authority is always assumed. When authority is used, credibility is often already built on.

credibility (as it applies to ethos) (what are the two components, what is it, what happens when there isn't any)

the quality of being trusted and believed. The two components of credibility are trustworthiness and expertise. Trustworthiness is more subjective and refers to the audience's belief in the speaker. Expertise can be somewhat subjective but is more objective and refers to the credentials of the speaker. The speaker's credibility is essential to convincing people to listen and agree with their point. If a speaker is lacking credibility with their audience then they have to work harder to build up what they lack or use outside sources with a higher credibility

What is the rhetorical triangle and what is it also known as?

the relationship between the speaker, audience, and subject. It is also sometimes referred to as the Aristotelian triangle because Aristotle was one of the first people to use a triangle to show the connections between these three elements

Why is occasion important to rhetoic?

the specific circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding the creation of the text. This can also be seen as the "genre" of the argument. The occasion can effectively appeal to a person emotionally and enhance the overall rhetorical situation. Depending on the situation though, the occasion can also play a negative role and fail to persuade the subject. The occasion is very specific and affects the overall rhetoric very easily.

How are cultural narrative useful? What problems does that cause?

they help to weave together isolated examples and expose underlying patterns. That said, narratives are by definition constructed interpretations and are thus not 'objectively true.' Indeed, too great a faith in them often leads people to ignore the specifics of an occurrence and to oversimplify that occurrence based on prejudice. Their usefulness requires a careful balance between understanding the particularity of events and seeing those events as *potentially* symptomatic of larger trends.