AP PSYCH: CH 8 LEARNING
What is shaping?
Shaping: A technique where new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery - reappearance of a CR after a time Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response, and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery. Spontaneous Recovery: The response after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response. Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.
unconditioned response
Unconditioned Response (UR) - unlearned, natural instinct UCR: A response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning. In Pavlov's experiment, the UCR was the dog salivating when its tongue touched food.
unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - triggers the UR UCS: A stimulus that automatically-without conditioning or learning- provokes a reflexive response. In Pavlov's experiment, food was used as the UCS because it produced a salivation reflex.
Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
Variable Interval Schedule (VI): A reinforcement system that rewards a correct response after an unpredictable amount of time. Example: A pop-quiz
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. Example: Buying lottery tickets
What is observational learning?
You can think of observational learning as an extension of operant conditioning, in which we observe someone else getting rewarded but act as though we had also received the reward. Observational learning: Learning in which new responses are acquired after other's behavior and the consequences of their behavior are observed. The likelihood of modeling an observed behavior depends most on whether the model was rewarded or punished.
How are superstitions explained in terms of reinforcement?
applications of operant conditioning look at pictures in phone
How is observational learning related to TV and violence?
look at picture in phone
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate two stimuli, allowing us to anticipate events Operant Conditioning: Learning to associate our behavior with a consequence (good or bad) and thus learning to repeat (or not) that behavior
What are cognitive maps?
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of a place.
conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR) - Response to the new stimulus A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it a conditioned response.
conditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - previously irrelevant stimulus that now triggers a response A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response. In Pavlov's experiment, the bell/tone began to produce the same response that the food once did.
What is conditioning?
Conditioning: The practice of learning associations
What is continuous reinforcement?
Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule under which all correct responses are reinforced. This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It also helps when "shaping" new behavior. Continuous Reinforcement: A schedule of reinforcement that rewards every correct response given. Example: A vending machine.
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the first correct response after some defined period of time. Example: B.F. Skinner put rats in a box with a lever connected to a feeder. It only provided a reinforcement after 60 seconds. The rats quickly learned that it didn't matter how early or often it pushed the lever, it had to wait a set amount of time. As the set amount of time came to an end, the rats became more active in hitting the lever.
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after a defined number of correct answers. Example: At 7-11, if you buy 6 coffees you get the 7th one free
Generalization
Generalization - tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS
What is insight learning?
Insight learning is the abrupt realization of a problem's solution. Insight learning is not the result of trial and error, responding to an environmental stimulus, or the result of observing someone else attempting the problem. It is a completely cognitive experience that requires the ability to visualize the problem and the solution internally - in the mind's eye, so to speak - before initiating a behavioral response. Insight learning is considered a type of learning because it results in a long-lasting change. Following the occurrence of insight, the realization of how to solve the problem can be repeated in future similar situations.
What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement: A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement is the most effective way to maintain a desired behavior that has already been learned.
Know the different schedules of partial reinforcement
Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a certain time interval. Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain number of responses. There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement: Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic motivation- the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake extrinsic motivation- the desire to behave in a certain ways to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Which researchers are most associated with classical and operant conditioning, respectively?
Ivan Pavlov (classical) Watson (conditioning)
What is latent learning?
Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.
What is the Law of Effect?
Law of Effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur
What is learning?
Learning: a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the probability of that response happening again. Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a behavior. Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently. Intermittent punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every undesired behavior. Punishment and negative reinforcement are used to produce opposite effects on behavior. Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of reoccurring. Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior's probability of happening in the future (by taking away an unwanted stimuli).
What are reinforcers?
A reinforcer is a condition in which the presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs after a response (behavior), strengthens that response or makes it more likely to happen again in the future.
Discrimination
Discrimination - ability to distinguish between CS and irrelevant stimuli Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two similar signals stimulus.
Extinction
Extinction - diminishing response Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection between the two stimuli. It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete elimination of a response.
Be able to identify types of reinforcement (positive and negative) and types of punishment (positive and negative)
Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again. Ex: Getting paid for good grades Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the probability of that response happening again. Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache. Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop. Positive Punishment: An undesirable event that follows a behavior: getting spanked after telling a lie. Negative Punishment: When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a behavior. Example: getting grounded from your cell phone after failing your progress report. Think of a time-out (taking away time from a fun activity with the hope that it will stop the unwanted behavior in the future.)
Difference between primary and secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally reinforcing: food, warmth, water... Secondary reinforcement: something you have learned is a reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement in the long run: good grades.
Do most psychologist emphasize reinforcement or punishment when it comes to effective child-rearing?
reinforcement is better....but if punishment is needed....punishment plus reinforcement is better way