AP Psych Full Topic Study

Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

"Emotions may be similarly arousing, but there are some subtle physiological responses that distinguish them. More meaningful differences have been found in activity in the brain's cortical areas, in use of brain pathways, and in the secretion of hormones associated with different emotions.

​How do culture and values influence the therapist-client relationship?

"T​ herapists​differinthe​values​thati​nfluence​theiraims.Thesedifferencesmaycreate problems when t​ herapists​ work with clients with different c​ ultural​ or religious perspectives. A person seeking ​therapy​ may want ​to​ ask about the ​therapist's​ treatment approach, ​values,​ credentials, and fees.

Hans Selye:

(/ˈsɛljeɪ/; Hungarian: Selye János; January 26, 1907 - October 16, 1982), was a pioneering Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist. He conducted important scientific work on the hypothetical non-specific response of an organism to stressors.

Lev Vygotsky:

1896-1934; Russian developmental psychologist who emphasized the role of the social environment on cognitive development and proposed the idea of zones of proximal development.

Fixation:

(1) the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mindset. (2) according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Dorothea Dix:

(1802-1887) was an advocate for the mentally ill who revolutionarily reformed the way mentally ill patients are treated. She created the first mental hospitals across the US and Europe and changed the perception of the mentally ill.

Hermann Ebbinghaus:

(1850-1909): He was the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically. He used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well.

Sigmund Freud:

(1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a movement that popularized the theory that unconscious motives control much behavior. He became interested in hypnotism and how it could be used to help the mentally ill.

Philip Bard:

(1898-1977) was a doctoral student of Cannon's, and together they developed a model of emotion called the Cannon-Bard Theory. Cannon was an experimenter who relied on studies of animal physiology.

Robert Rosenthal:

(1933- ) is Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Riverside. His interests include self-fulfilling prophecies, which he explored in a well-known study of the Pygmalion Effect: the effect of teachers' expectations on students.

Stanly Schachter:

(April 15, 1922 - June 7, 1997) was an American social psychologist, who is perhaps best known for his development of the two factor theory of emotion in 1962 along with Jerome E. Singer. In his theory he states that emotions have two ingredients: physiological arousal and a cognitive label.

William James:

(January 11, 1842 - August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher and psychologist, and the first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States. ... He also developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism.

Meyer Friedman:

(July 13, 1910 - April 27, 2001) was an American cardiologist who developed, with colleague Ray H. Rosenman, the theory that the "Type A" behavior of chronically angry and impatient people increases their risk of heart failure.

Richard Lazarus:

(March 3, 1922 - November 24, 2002) was a psychologist who began rising to prominence in the 1960s, when behaviorists like B. F. Skinner held sway over psychology and explanations for human behavior were often pared down to rudimentary motives like reward and punishment.

Harry Harlow:

(October 31, 1905 - December 6, 1981) was an American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation, dependency needs, and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which manifested the importance of caregiving and companionship to social and cognitive development.

Psychoneuroimmunology:

(PNI), also referred to as psychoendoneuroimmunology (PENI) or psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology (PNEI), is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body.

Joseph LeDoux:

(born December 7, 1949) is an American neuroscientist whose research is primarily focused on survival circuits, including their impacts on emotions such as fear and anxiety.

Electra Complex:

(in Freudian theory) the complex of emotions aroused in a young child, typically around the age of four, by an unconscious sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and wish to exclude the parent of the same sex. (The term was originally applied to boys, the equivalent in girls being called the Electra complex​ .).

Teratogens:

(literally "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Bipolar Disorder:

-include manic episodes, hypomanic episodes, mixed episodes, depressed episodes, cyclothymic disorder -recurrent -increase in frequency as individual ages.

What causes mood disorders, and what might explain the Western world's rising incidence of depression among youth and young adults?

-stress, genetic factors, neurotransmitters, biochemical factors (serotonin and norepinephrine) -increase of depression may be caused due to the rise of individualism and the decline of commitment to religion and family, but this correlational finding, so this is not very clear.

Anxiety Disorders:

A category of disorders whose hallmark is intense or pervasive anxiety or fear, or extreme attempts to avoid these feelings.

Flashbulb memory:

A clear memory of an emotionally significant event.

How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict?

A conflict is a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Social traps are situations in which people in conflict pursue their own individual self-interest, harming the collective well-being. Individuals and cultures in conflict also tend to form mirror-image perceptions: Each party views the opponent as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned, and itself as an ethical, peaceful victim.

Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD​):

A developmental-behavioral disorder characterized by problems with focus, difficulty maintaining attention, and inability to concentrate, in which symptoms start before age 7.

Dissociative Disorders:​

A form of defense mechanism against trauma that separates emotions from behaviors. --Alterations of consciousness, memory, perception or identity. --Feelings of being unreal, forgetting one's name and past personal hx & splitting into various personalities, are characteristic of this disorders.

How, by caring for their bodies with a healthy life-style might people find some relief from depression?

A healthy mind usually lives in a healthy body. Depressed people who undergo a program of aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social engagement, negative-thought reduction, and better nutrition often gain some relief.

Echoic memory:

A momentary memory of auditory information. Sounds or words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

A person's average traits persist over time and are predictable over many different situations. ... Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations.

Iconic memory:

A photographic or visual memory that lasts no more than a few tenths of a second.

What is prejudice?

A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members.

Hypochondriasis:

A preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness; somatic symptoms are only mild in intensity or may not exist at all.

Stanford-Binet:

AB (in collaboration with Theodore Simon) was instructed by the French government to design a test that would identify children who would have problems with school and or learning the material that was designed for children in their own age range. a widely used intelligence test.

What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work, which Erikson called intimacy and generativity.

Steven Pinker:

Advocacy of ev. Psych and the computational theory of mind specialize in incog and psycholinguistics.

How do memory and intelligence change with age?

Aging affects the speed of information processing. But recognition, the matching of stored information with information in the environment, changes very little over time. Encoding, the process of preparing information for memory, takes more time and effort.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):

Also known as multiple personality disorder. -condition marked by a temporary disruption in one's memory, consciousnes or self-identity. alters. different identities of a person suffering from it.

What is the relationship between language and thinking?

Although Benjamin Lee Whorf's linguistic determinism hypothesis suggested that language determines thought, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. Different languages embody different ways of thinking, and immersion in bilingual education can enhance thinking.

Conflict:

Although it is a very common term, in psychology it refers to any time you have opposing or incompatible actions, objectives, or ideas, you have conflict. these can be between two people, countries, groups, or even within one person (an internal one).

When are we most- and least- likely to help?

Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are less likely to help others or present. This bystander effect is in action.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder:

An anxiety disorder marked by the presence of obsessions, and sometimes compulsions.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:​

An anxiety disorder whose hallmark is excessive anxiety and worry that is not consistently related to a specific object or situation.

Antianxiety drugs:

An anxiolytic (also antipanic or antianxiety agent) is a medication, or other intervention, that inhibits anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents, which increase anxiety. Together these categories of psychoactive compounds or interventions may be referred to as anisotropic compounds or agents.

Psychological Disorder:

An ongoing dysfunction pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that causes significant distress, and that is considered deviant in that person's culture or society.

What are the causes and consequences of anger?

Anger triggers the body's 'fight or flight' response. Other emotions that trigger this response include fear, excitement, and anxiety. The adrenal glands flood the body with stress hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol.

Antisocial Personality Disorder:

Antisocial personality disorder is a mental condition in which a person has a long-term pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others without any remorse. This behavior may cause problems in relationships or at work and is often criminal.

What are anxiety disorders and how do they differ from ordinary worries and fears?

Anxiety is classified as a psychological disorder only when it becomes distressing or persistent, or is characterized by maladaptive behaviors intended to reduce it.

Antidepressant drugs:

Anything, and especially a drug, used to prevent or treat depression. The available these include the SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, tetracyclic antidepressants, and others.

What's the difference between aptitude and achievement tests, and how can we develop and evaluate them?

Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned.

Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood?

Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood? Facial expressions do convey some nonverbal accents that provide clues to one's culture. ... Their shared expressions helped them survive. Although cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions, they differ in how much emotion they express.

Client-centered therapies:

As its name implies, client-centered therapy places significant focus on the client. According to Rogers's view of it, the therapist refrains from asking questions, making diagnoses, providing reassurance, or assigning blame during his or her interactions with the client.

Eclectic Approach:​

As its name indicates, eclectic therapy is a therapeutic approach that incorporates a variety of therapeutic principles and philosophies in order to create the ideal treatment program to meet the specific needs of the patient or client.

What do experiments on conformity and compliance reveal about the power of social influence?

Asch's conformity studies demonstrated that under certain conditions people will conform to a group's judgment even when it is clearly incorrect.

How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Ducks and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, which occurs during a critical period.

What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

At the low extreme are those with unusually low scores. An intelligence test score of or below 70 is one diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability; other criteria are limited conceptual, social, and practical skills.

Richard Atkinson:

Atkinson's most fundamental and far-reaching contribution to cognitive psychology is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (with Richard M. Shiffrin), one of the most significant advances in the study of human memory.

Source amnesia:

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

What characteristics are typical of personality disorders?

Avoidant: Avoidance of interpersonal contact due to rejection sensitivity. Dependent: Submissiveness and a need to be taken care of. Obsessive-compulsive: Perfectionism, rigidity, and obstinacy.

What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. Researchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the novelty-preference procedure, to explore infants' abilities.

​Does psychotherapy work? Who decides?

Because the positive testimonials of clients and therapists cannot prove that therapy is actually effective, psychologists have conducted hundreds of outcome studies of psychotherapy using meta-analyses. Studies of randomized clinical trials indicate that people who remain untreated often improve, but those who receive psychotherapy are more likely to improve, regardless of the kind or duration of therapy. Placebo treatments or the sympathy and friendly counsel of paraprofessionals also tend to produce more improvement than no treatment at all.

What are the assumptions and techniques of behavior therapies?

Behavior therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviors. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviors through counterconditioning—evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.

What are the causes and consequences of happiness?

Being an Optimist, Hardiness: thick-skinned, able to take stress, Self-Regulation: the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards, Eating Wisely, Avoiding sexual risks, and Not Smoking.

Sandra Scarr:​

Believed that parents who were worried about providing special education for their babies were wasting their time.

Charles Spearman:

Believed we have one general intelligence (g-factor); granted that people have special abilities that stand out; helped develop factor analysis; believed in common skill set.

Binge-eating disorder:

Binge eating disorder (BED) is a severe, life-threatening, and treatable eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food (often very quickly and to the point of discomfort); a feeling of a loss of control during the binge; experiencing shame, distress or guilt afterward; and not regularly using unhealthy compensatory measures (e.g., purging) to counter the binge eating.

What has research taught us about sexual orientation?

Biological influences like same-sex behaviors, the straight-gay difference in body and brain characteristics, exposure to hormones during prenatal development. They engage in self-defeating behaviors like performing below their ability or antisocial behaviors.

How do nature and nurture together form our gender?

Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. The mother always contributes an X chromosome; the father gives either an X (producing a female) or a Y chromosome (which triggers additional testosterone release and male sex organs). Gender is the set of biological and social characteristics by which people define male and female. Sex-related genes and hormones interact with developmental experiences to produce gender differences in behavior. Gender roles, expected behaviors for males and females, vary with culture, across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity as we learn other things—through reinforcement, punishment, and observation.

What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another?

Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream).

What are the causes and consequences of personal control?

By studying how people vary in their perceived locus of control (external or internal), researchers have found that a sense of personal control helps people to cope with life. Research on personal control evolved into research on the effects of optimism and pessimism, which led to a broader positive psychology movement.

Conversion Disorder:

Characterized by a significant alteration or loss of one or two areas of functioning that is actually an expression of a psychological conflict or need. ( Formerly known as hysteria).

Do parental neglect, family disruption, or daycare affect children's attachments?

Children are very resilient, but those who are moved repeatedly, severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments by age 2 may be at risk for attachment problems.

What obstacles hinder our problem-solving?

Confirmation bias and Fixation can both discourage us from coming to a solution to the problem.

​How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny?

Controlled research has not supported the claims of eye movement and desensitization (EMDR) therapy. Light exposure therapy does seem to relieve the symptoms of seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

How does life develop before birth?

Developmental psychologists study physical, mental, and social changes throughout the lifespan. The life cycle begins at conception when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. Attached to the uterine wall, the developing embryo's body organs begin to form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placental screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.

DSM-IV-TR:

Diagnostic manual classifies strict symptoms or behaviors. Developed with the medical model.

Richard Shiffrin:

Drew an analogy between information storage in computers and information storage in human memory.

To what extent is our development shaped by early stimulation by parents and by peers?

During maturation, a child's brain changes as neural connections increase in areas associated with stimulating activity, and unused synapses degenerate. parents influence their children in areas like manners and political and religious beliefs, but not in other areas like personality. language and other behaviors are shaped by peer groups, as children adjust to fit in. by choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents can exert some influence over peer group culture.

What physical changes mark adolescence?

During puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop dramatically. Boys seem to benefit from "early" maturation, girls from "late" maturation. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.

What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

Effortful processing (of meaning, imagery, organization) requires conscious attention and deliberate effort. We retain information more easily if we practice it repeatedly (the spacing effect) than if we practice it in one long cram session.

​How effective is electroconvulsive therapy, and what other brain-stimulation options may offer relief from severe depression?

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, is an effective, last-resort treatment for severely depressed people who have not responded to other therapy. Newer alternative treatments for depression include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and, in preliminary clinical experiments, deep-brain stimulation that calms an overactive brain region linked with negative emotions."

Feelings of security:

Emotional insecurity or simply insecurity is a feeling of general unease or nervousness that may be triggered by perceiving of oneself to be vulnerable or inferior in some way, or a sense of vulnerability or instability which threatens one's self-image or ego.

What are the components of an emotion?

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior.

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

Erikson theorized that each life stage has its own psychosocial task and that a chief task of adolescence is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity. This often means "trying on" a number of different roles.

How do internal and external stimuli influence sexual motivation?

Erotic material can stimulate sexual arousal. Men respond to sexual depictions involving their preferred sex. Sexual Coercive Material tends to increase viewers acceptance of rape and violence toward women.

Evidence-based practice:

Evidence-based practice is a conscientious, problem-solving approach to clinical practice that incorporates the best evidence from well-designed studies, patient values and preferences, and a clinician's expertise in making decisions about a patient's care.

What stages mark the human sexual response cycle?

Excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval?

External cues activate associations that help us retrieve memories; this process may occur without our awareness, as it does in priming. Returning to the same physical context or emotional state in which we formed a memory can help us retrieve it.

Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism., and Conscientiousness.

What arguments support intelligence as one general mental ability, and what arguments support the idea of multiple distinct abilities?

Factor analysis is a statistical procedure that has revealed some underlying commonalities in different mental abilities. Spearman named this common factor the g factor. Thurstone argued against defining intelligence so narrowly as just one score. he identified 7 different clusters of mental abilities. yet there remained a tendency for high scorers in one of his clusters to score high in other clusters as well. our g scores seem most predictive in novel situations and do not correlate w skills in evolutionarily familiar situations.

Benjamin Lee Whorf:

Famous for describing the concept of "linguistic determinism" (language molds cognition and perception).

Disorganized:

Features incoherent speech, including made up words (neologisms) or rhyming strings of nonsense words (clang associations), hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behavior. Often evidence inappropriate or flat affect.

What is the function of fear, and how do we learn fears?

Feed has an adaptive value because it helps us avoid threats and when necessary, cope with them. We are predisposed to some fears, and we learn others through conditioning and observation.

Cognitive dissonance theory:

Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance). ... When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.

Wallace Lambert:

Founder of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, social and cross-cultural psych.

What is framing?

Framing is the presentation of something, whether it's an item or concept, and it's used to influence one's perception of the thing.

Psychosexual Stages:

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body.

What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

Gender refers to the characteristics whether biologically or socially influenced by which people define male and female. We are more alike than different thanks to our similar genetic makeup - we see, hear, learn, and remember similarly. Males and females do differ in body fat, muscle, height, age of onset of puberty, and life expectancy; invulnerability to certain disorders; and in aggression, social power, and social connectedness.

William Stern:

German psychologist; derived the famous intelligence quotient (IQ).

Wolfgang Kohler:

Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the problem-solving process wasn't slow but sudden and reflective.

​What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapy?

Group therapy sessions can help more people and cost less per person than individual therapy would. Clients may benefit from knowing others have similar problems and from getting feedback and reassurance. Family therapy views a family as an interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to communicate more openly and directly.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi:

He discovered that people find genuine satisfaction during a state of consciousness called Flow. In this state, they are completely absorbed in an activity, especially an activity which involves their creative abilities.

Simon LeVay:

He is a British-American neuroscientist. He is known for his studies about brain structures and sexual orientation.

Daryl Bem:

He is a social psychologist and professor emeritus at Cornell University. He is the originator of the self-perception theory of attitude formation and change. He has also researched psi phenomena, group decision making, handwriting analysis, sexual orientation, and personality theory and assessment.

Roy Baumeister:

He is a social psychologist who is known for his work on the self, social rejection, belongingness, sexuality and sex differences, self-control, self-esteem, self-defeating behaviors, motivation, aggression, consciousness, and free will.

Albert Bandura:

He is an influential social cognitive psychologist who is perhaps best known for his social learning theory, the concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments. He is a Professor Emeritus at Stanford University and is widely regarded as one of the greatest living psychologists.

Konrad Lorenz:

He is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the field of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his discovery of the principle of attachment, or imprinting, through which in some species a bond is formed between a newborn animal and its caregiver.

Eric Kandel:

He researched the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons by studying a sea slug called Aplysia. He concluded that learning and memory are evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways.

James Schwartz:

He studied whether electrochemical switches in the brain cause shifts in functions of brain circuits, thus leading to different behaviors.

John Bowlby:

He was a British psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory.

Jean Piaget:

He was a Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist. He is most famously known for his theory of cognitive development that looked at how children develop intellectually throughout the course of childhood. Prior to his theory, children were often thought of simply as mini-adults.

William Masters:

He was an American gynecologist, best known as the senior member of the Masters and Johnson sexuality research team.

H.M. Henry Molaison:

He was an American memory disorder patient whose hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and amygdala were surgically removed in an attempt to cure his severe epilepsy. He was widely studied because his loss of these parts of the brain resulted in memory loss.

Walter Cannon:

He was an American physiologist, professor, and chairman of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School. He coined the term fight or flight response, and he expanded on Claude Bernard's concept of homeostasis.

Abraham Maslow:

He was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization.

Charles Darwin:

He, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted and considered a foundational concept in science.

Jonathan Haidt:

His main scientific contributions come from the psychological field of moral foundations theory. The theory attempts to explain the evolutionary origins of human moral reasoning on the basis of innate, gut feelings rather than logical reason.

Daniel Schacter:

His research has focused on psychological and biological aspects of human memory and amnesia, with a particular emphasis on the distinction between conscious and nonconscious forms of memory and, more recently, on brain mechanisms of memory distortion.

Lawrence Kohlberg:

His stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.

What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger?

Hunger reflects our memory of when we last ate and our expectation of when we should eat again. Humans prefer certain tastes (such as sweet and salty), but our individual preferences are also influenced by conditioning, culture, and situation. Some taste preferences, such as the avoidance of new foods, or foods that have made us ill, have survival value.

What physiological factors produce hunger?

Hunger's pangs correspond to the stomach's contractions, but hunger also has other causes. Neural areas in the brain, some within the hypothalamus, monitor blood chemistry (including level of glucose) and incoming information about the body's state. Appetite hormones include insulin (controls blood glucose); ghrelin (secreted by an empty stomach); orexin (secreted by the hypothalamus); leptin (secreted by fat cells); and PYY (secreted by the digestive tract).

How does misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false memories?

If we are exposed to misinformation after an event, or if we repeatedly imagine and rehearse an event that never occurred, we may construct a false memory of what actually happened. We experience source amnesia when we attribute a memory to the wrong source.

From the perspective of Piaget and of today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the pre-operational stage (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), they develop a theory of mind, but they are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. At about age 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation. By about age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development more continuous, than he believed. Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.

G. Stanley Hall:

In his theory, he describes the age of adolescence is the time period of "Sturm und Drang" meaning "storm and stress". "Sturm und Drang" is the psychological theory that the age of adolescence is a time for idealism, ambitiousness, rebellion, passion, suffering as well as expressing feelings.

Repression:

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Carl Lange:

In psychology, He is better known for his theory about emotion. His theory was that emotions are influenced by physiological reactions to stimuli. His work was later paired with that of American psychologist William James.

Attitude:

In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over behavior.

Stress:

In psychology, is a feeling of strain and pressure. is a type of psychological pain. Small amounts of stress may be desired, beneficial, and even healthy. Positive stress helps improve athletic performance. It also plays a factor in motivation, adaptation, and reaction to the environment.

GRIT:

In psychology, it is a positive, non-cognitive trait based on an individual's perseverance of effort combined with the passion for a particular long-term goal or end state (a powerful motivation to achieve an objective).

Self-disclosure:

In self-psychology, the effort is made to understand individuals from within their subjective experience via vicarious introspection, basing interpretations on the understanding of the self as the central agency of the human psyche.

Stereotype:​

In social psychology, it is an over-generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group.

Group polarization:​

In social psychology, it refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

How does anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiologically motivated behaviors?

In these eating disorders, psychological factors may overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state.

Misinformation effect:

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Mark Rosenzweig:

Investigated how early experiences leave their mark on the brain; did an experiment where they raised several young rats in solitary confinement and others in a communal playground; found that the rats who grew up in the interactive background developed better cognitive skills.

Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease?

It is linked with the reactive, anger prone Type A personality. Type A people secrete more hormones that accelerate the buildup of plaque on the heart's artery walls.

Outgroup:

I​ngroups and it. In sociology and social psychology, an ingroup is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, it is a social group to which an individual does not identify.

Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?

Labels can create preconceptions that unfairly stigmatize people and can bias our perceptions of their past and present behavior. One label, "insanity" - used in some legal defenses - raises moral and ethical questions about how a society should treat people who have disorders and have committed crimes.

How do we learn language?

Linguist Noam Chomsky has proposed that all human languages share a universal grammar—the basic building blocks of language—and that humans are born with a predisposition to learn a language. We acquire specific language through learning as our biology and experience interact. Childhood is a critical period for learning to speak and/or sign fluently.

How does the brain store our memories?

Long-term memories are stored throughout the brain as groups of neurons that are primed to fire together in the same pattern that created the original experience, and each component of a memory is stored in the brain area that initiated it.

How and why do gender and racial groups differ in mental ability scores?

Males and females avg the same in overall intelligence. there are, however, some small but intriguing gender differences in specific abilities. girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. boys outperform girls at the spatial ability and related math, though girls outperform boys in math computation, boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. psychologists debate evolutionary, brain-based, and cultural explanations of such gender differences. as a group, Whites score higher than their Hispanic and black counterparts, though the gap is not as great as it was half a century and more ago. the evidence suggests that environmental differences are largely, perhaps entirely, responsible for these group differences.

Martin Seligman:

Martin Seligman. ... Seligman's conclusion is that happiness has three dimensions that can be cultivated: the Pleasant Life, the Good Life, and the Meaningful Life. The Pleasant Life is realised if we learn to savour and appreciate such basic pleasures as companionship, the natural environment and our bodily needs.

Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Feelings of mastery and control:

Mastery, defined as a sense of having control over the forces that affect one's life, is an important component of psychological health and well-being across the life-span (e.g., Mirowsky and Ross 1999; Pearlin et al.

How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

Memory research-based strategies include studying repeatedly, making material personally meaningful, activating retrieval cues, using mnemonic devices, minimizing interference, getting adequate sleep, and self-testing.

What is the controversy related to claims of repressed and recovered memories?

Memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists have debated whether people repress memories of early childhood abuse and can recover them by means of leading questions and/or hypnosis during therapy.

How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder?

Mental health surveys in many countries provide varying estimates of the rates of psychological disorders. Poverty is a predictor of mental illness. Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of mental disorders, but some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty. Among Americans who have ever experienced a psychological disorder, the three most common are phobias, alcohol dependency, and mood disorder.

Lewis Terman:

Modified Binet's intelligence test; found that Binet's French scoring and questions didn't work with California children; extended the upper end of the test's range from teenagers to "superior adults"; called it Stanford-Binet.

What are mood disorders, and what forms do they take?

Mood disorders are characterized by emotional extremes. A person with major depressive disorder experiences two or more weeks of seriously depressed moods and feelings of worthlessness, takes little interest in most activities and derives little pleasure from them. these feelings are not caused by drugs or a medical condition. People with the less common condition of bipolar disorder experience not only depression but also mania, episodes of hyperactive and wildly optimistic impulse behavior.

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood (roughly age 40 to 65) and late adulthood (the years after 65).

Do our facial expressions influence our feelings?

New research suggests facial expressions do more than inform others of what kind of mood you are in, or what you are thinking or feeling. Amazingly, scientists have discovered facial expressions also affect your ability to understand written language related to emotions.

How do we communicate nonverbally?

Nonverbal communication refers to gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, eye contact (or lack thereof), body language, posture, and other ways people can communicate without using language.

Normal Curve:

Normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution, is a probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean. In graph form, normal distribution will appear as a bell curve.

Rajan Mahadevan:

On repeated visits to the psychology building at the University of Minnesota this man had trouble recalling the location of the nearest restroom. Yet he once set a world's record by reciting from memory the first 31,811 places of pi He is a numerically gifted memoirist, which he discovered at the tender age of 4.

L.L. Thurstone:

One of Spearman's early opponents; identified 7 clusters of abilities when he administered 56 different tests; results showed that if a student scored well on one cluster they usually did well on the others; evidence of a g-factor.

Endel Tulving:

One of his most influential contributions to modern psychology was to differentiate episodic memory from other kinds of learning and memory systems in the brain.

What evidence points to our human need to belong?

Our need to affiliate or belong—to feel connected and identified with others—had survival value for our ancestors' chances, which may explain why humans in every society live in groups. Societies everywhere control behavior with the threat of ostracism—excluding or shunning others. When socially excluded, people may engage in self-defeating behaviors (performing below their ability) or in antisocial behaviors.

Type A:

People who are classified as having this personality have characteristisc like: they have a sense of time urgency, find it difficult to relax, and often become impatient and angry when they get delayed (or if they are going to be late) or are around other people whom they view as incompetent.

To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy and neural processing speed?

People who score high on intelligence tests tend also to have agile brains that score high in the speed of perception and speed of neural processing. the direction of correlation has not been determined, and some third factor may influence both intelligence and processing speed.

Chronic insomnia:

Periodically having trouble sleeping, also known as acute insomnia, is common. Acute insomnia lasts for a few days or weeks and often occurs during times of stress or life changes. Have trouble getting to sleep or staying asleep more than three nights a week for three months or more is considered this.

Explanatory Style:

Person's habitual way of interpreting events in life.

Personality Disorders:

Personality disorders are a group of mental illnesses. They involve long-term patterns of thoughts and behaviors that are unhealthy and inflexible. The behaviors cause serious problems with relationships and work. ... The symptoms of each personality disorder are different. They can mild or severe.

What are the structural components of a language?

Phonemes are a language's basic units of sound. Morphemes are the elementary units of meaning. Grammar—the system of rules that enables us to communicate—includes semantics (rules for deriving meaning) and syntax (rules for ordering words into sentences).

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a preconventional morality of self-interest to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a post-conventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Some critics argue that Kohlberg's post-conventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist, middle-class males.

What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs?

Preventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent , nurturing environments that foster individual growth and self-confidence and build resilience.

​What are projective Tests, and how are they used?

Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people vague stimuli with many possible interpretations; answers reveal unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity.

Fergus Craik:

Proposed the concept of having levels of processing model of memory. He also proved that attention is necessary for effective encoding.

Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not with others?

Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking, in part because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. ... Passionate love is an aroused state that we cognitively label as love.

Mood Disorders:

Psychological disorders characterized by a disturbance in mood.

Passionate love:

Psychologist Elaine Hatfield has described two different types of romantic love: compassionate (also known as companionate) and it. Compassionate love involves feelings of mutual respect, trust, and affection while it involves intense feelings and sexual attraction.

How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing models involve three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What factors influence teen sexuality, teen pregnancy, and the risk of sexually transmitted infections?

Rates of teen intercourse vary from culture to culture and era to era. Factors contributing to teen pregnancy include ignorance; minimal communication about contraception with parents, partners, and peers; guilt related to sexual activity; alcohol use; and mass media norms of unprotected and impulsive sexuality. STIs—sexually transmitted infections—have spread rapidly.

What are the milestones in language development?

Receptive language (the ability to understand what is said to or about you) develops before productive language (the ability to produce words). At about 4 months of age, infants babble, making sounds found in languages from all over the world. By about 10 months, their babbling contains only the sounds found in their household language. Around 12 months of age, children begin to speak in single words. This one-word stage evolves into two-word (telegraphic) utterances before their second birthday, after which they begin speaking in full sentences.

Resilient coping with stress and adversity:

Resilience does mean avoided stress and adversity; it means have the ability to persevere and continue to function effectively despite failures, setbacks, and losses. This requires developing effective coping skills.

Oliver Sacks:

Sacks is the author of several bestselling books, including several collections of informal case studies of people with neurological disorders.

Shelley Taylor:

Scientist that argued the "fight or flight" response with the idea that women "tend and befriend." Women will join forces and protect the offspring. Release oxytocin.

How do children's self-concepts develop, and how are children's traits related to parenting styles?

Self-concept, an understanding, and evaluation of who we are emerges gradually. At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by age 8 to 10 their self-image is stable. Parenting styles—authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative—reflect varying degrees of control. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear.

Do hormones influence human sexual motivation?

Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability to engage in sexual behaviors. However, sex hormones do not directly regulate the ability to copulate in primates (including humans).

Elizabeth Loftus:

She is best known for her ground-breaking work on the misinformation effect and the creation and nature of false memories, including recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.

Mary Cover Jones:

She treated Peter's fear of a white rabbit by "direct conditioning", in which a pleasant stimulus (food) was associated with the rabbit. she began her experiment with the goal of finding the most effective way to eliminate irrational fears in children.

Judith Harris:

She was an American psychology researcher and the author of The Nurture Assumption, a book criticizing the belief that parents are the most important factor in child development, and presenting evidence that contradicts that belief. She was a resident of Middletown Township, New Jersey.

Virginia Johnson:

She was born Mary Virginia Eshelman, was an American sexologist, best known as a member of the Masters and Johnson sexuality research team.

How do smart thinkers use intuition?

Smart thinkers welcome their intuitions (which are usually adaptive), but when making complex decisions they gather as much information as possible and then take time to let their two-track mind process all available information. As people gain expertise, they grow adept at making quick, shrewd judgments.

What are the social and emotional roots of prejudice?

Social and economic inequalities may trigger prejudice as people in power attempt to justify the status quo or develop an in-group bias. Fear and anger feed prejudice, and, when frustrated, we may focus our anger on a scapegoat.

How is our behavior affected by the presence of others or by being part of a group?

Social facilitation experiments reveal that the presence of either observers or co-actors can arouse individuals, boosting their performance on easy tasks but hindering it on difficult ones.

​How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?

Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.

What is creativity, and what fosters it?

Sternberg has proposed that creativity has five components: expertise; imaginative thinking skills; a venturesome personality; intrinsic motivation; and a creative environment that sparks, supports and refines creative ideas.

What does the evidence reveal about hereditary and environmental influences on intelligence?

Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees indicate a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Intelligence seems to be polygenetic, and researchers are searching for genes that exert influence. Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.

A. L. Washburn:

Swallows a balloon and intentionally inflated it and recorded his feelings of hunger. This bizarre experiment concluded that the stomach does contract when hungry.

How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders?

The DSM-IV-TR provides diagnostic labels and descriptions that aid mental health professionals by providing a common language and shared concepts for communications and research.

To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?

The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory holds that our emotions have two ingredients, physical arousal, and a cognitive label, and the cognitive labels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredient of emotion. Lazarus agreed that many important emotions arise from our interpretations or inferences. Zajonc and LeDoux, however, believe that some simple emotional responses occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our dual-track mind.

What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system?

The autonomic nervous system, together with the hypothalamus, regulates pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and arousal in response to emotional cues. When activated, the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for emergency actions by controlling the glands of the endocrine system.

During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. Their interconnections multiply rapidly after birth, a process that continues until puberty when a pruning process begins shutting down unused connections. Complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking—develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3-1/2, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

Central Route Persuasion:​

The central route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by the content of the message. The peripheral route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by something other than the message's content.

What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?

The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.

Rehearsal:

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

Other-race effect:

The cross-race effect (sometimes called cross-race bias, this or own-race bias) is the tendency to more easily recognize faces that are most familiar. A study was made which examined 271 real court cases.

Reliability:

The degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification can be depended on to be accurate.

Mary Ainsworth:

The development of infant-mother attachment. The Strange situation experiment.

Retroactive interference:

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Proactive interference:

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Door-in-the-face phenomenon:​

The door-in-the-face (DITF) technique is a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face.

What are the duration and capacity of short-term and long-term memory?

The duration of short term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and the capacity is around 7(+-2) items, while the capacity of long-term memory could be unlimited, the main constraint on recall being accessibility rather than availability. Duration might be a few minutes or a lifetime.

Carol Gilligan:

The field of moral development encompasses prosocial behavior, such as altruism, caring and helping, along with traits such as honesty, fairness, and respect. ... She was a student of Developmental Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, who introduced the theory of stages of moral development.

What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy, such as Rogers' client-centered approach?

The focus of Roger's client-centered approach is to help the patient discovered self-awareness, self-acceptance, and responsibility. The techniques ofRoger's client-centered approach acts as a psychological mirror that actively listens and provide unconditional positive regards.

​How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization. ... Humanistic psychology helped renew interest in the concept of self.

Type B:

The hypothesis describes this individuals as a contrast to those of Type A. this personality, by definition, are noted to live at lower stress levels. They typically work steadily, and may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when they do not achieve.

From what perspective do psychologists view motivated behavior?

The instinct/evolutionary perspective explores genetic influences on complex behaviors. Drive-reduction theory explores how physiological needs create aroused tension states (drives) that direct us to satisfy those needs.

Semantic encoding:

The internalization and memory of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Visual encoding:

The internalization and memory of pictures or images.

Acoustic encoding:

The internalization and memory of sound, especially the sound of words.

What factors predispose some people to become and remain obese?

The lack of exercise combined with the abundance of high-calorie food has led to increased rates of obesity, showing the influence of the environment.

Medical Model:

The medical model views mental health disorders as a biological malfunction or disruption. It suggests that mental health disorders can be understood and treated similarly to physical illnesses.

How do we get information out of memory?

The memories are encoded, stored, and when we need to recall a long term memory, there are four basic ways in which information can be pulled from long-term memory: recall, recollection, recognition, and relearning.

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon:

The phenomenon is the tendency for people to comply with some large request after first agreeing to a small request.

Post-Traumatic Growth:

The positive psychological change experienced as a result of the struggle with highly challenging life circumstances.

How much power do we have as individuals? Can minority sway a majority?

The power of the group is great, but even a small minority expresses its views consistently.

Grammar:

The set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expressions.

Personal Space:

The space within social distance and out of personal distance is called social space. ... it is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. Most people value it and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when it encroaches.

Long-term potentiation (LTP):

The strengthening of a synapse's firing potential, caused by rapid stimulation.

How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

The strong affection of companionate love which often emerges as passionate love subsides, is enhanced by an equitable relationship and by intimate self-disclosure.

The spacing effect:

The tendency for the distributed study of practice to yield long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

Major Depressive Disorder:

There has only been 1 depressive episode- can't have any other episode. An episode lasts at least 2 weeks. Symptoms may develop over days to weeks. May have prodromal period of foreboding for months in advance. Twice as often in women than men. Can last years.

Psychophysiological illness:

These disorders are psychological disorders that involve mental stress causing or exacerbating physical issues. There are two types of these disorders. ... There are many diseases that can be made worse by psychological problems, including heart and blood pressure issues and asthma.

Somatoform Disorder:

These present a somatic (bodily) symptoms-​​some physiologically unexplained but genuinely felt ailment. With conversion disorder, anxiety appears converted to a physical symptom that has no reasonable physiological basis. Hypochondriasis is the more common interpretation of normal sensations as a dreaded disorder.

Caring for chronically ill or patients with dementia:

They cannot recognize symptoms that their condition may be getting out of control. Thus, self- management - a key concept of ​care​ for persons with ​chronic illness​ - cannot work for a person with dementia​. ... These caregivers are consumed with the emotional and physical challenges of 24-hour ​care​ and supervision.

How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned about the effects of temperament and parenting?

They have been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely or insecurely attached. Sensitive responsive parents, tend to have securely attached children.

How do cultural norms affect our behavior?

They provide us with an expected idea of how to behave in a particular social group or culture. ... The idea of norms provides a key to understanding social influence in general and conformity in particular. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of social groups.

What are the aims and methods of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy?

Through psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud and his students aimed to help people gain insight into the unconscious origins of their disorders, to work through the accompanying feelings, and to take responsibility for their own growth. Techniques included free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of resistances and transference to the therapist of long-repressed feelings. Contemporary psychodynamic therapy has been influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but is briefer and less expensive. It focuses on a patient's current conflicts and defenses by searching for themes common to many past and present important relationships. Interpersonal therapy (a brief 12- to 16-session form of psycho-dynamic therapy) deals primarily with current symptoms (such as depression) rather than the origins of unconscious conflicts.

George Sperling:

Through several experiments, he showed support for his hypothesis that human beings store a perfect image of the visual world for a brief moment before it is discarded from memory.

How do psychologist use traits to describe personality?

Trait theorists see personality as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together.

Ray Rosenman:

Type A personality behavior was first described as a potential risk factor for heart disease in the 1950s by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and him.

What strategies assist our problem-solving?

Using an algorithm can make sure a definitive solution is created. Using a heuristic solution is simpler, but is more error-prone. Insight is a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem, but this is never reliable.

Karl Lashley:

Using rats as subjects, he was able to prove that the idea of an engram (a memory repository within the brain) was false.

How do heuristics, overconfidence, and belief perseverance influence our decisions and judgments?

Using the available heuristic solution, we judge the likelihood of things based on how readily they come to mind, which often leads us to fear the wrong things. Overconfidence can lead us to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs. When a belief we have formed and explained has been discredited, belief perseverance may cause us to cling to that belief.

How do we tend to explain others' behavior and our own?

We generally explain people's behavior by attributing it to internal dispositions and/or to external situations. In committing the fundamental attribution error, we underestimate the influence of the situation on others' actions.

Why do we forget?

We may fail to encode information for entry into our memory system. Memories may fade after storage-rapidly at first, and then leveling off, a trend known as the forgetting curve. We may experience retrieval failure, when old and new material competes, when we don't have adequate retrieval cues, or possibly, in rare instances, because of motivated forgetting, or repression.

What are the functions of concepts?

We use concepts, mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people, to simplify and order the world around us. We form most concepts around prototypes or best examples of a category.

What are group polarization and groupthink?

When a desire for conformity results in irrational, dysfunctional decision making. Group Polarization; When you have a bunch of people with similar ideas talk and after everyone talks, they all have stronger views than before.

Family disorganization or conflict:

When person fails to maintain his role as per the status then there is a begging of social problems. Dispute between husband and wife is called as a family disorganization or separation. Family disorganization includes weakness, maladjustment and failing healthy relationship with members of this group together.

How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?

When the behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional.

Paranoid:​

When the client believes that others are persecuting them, having delusional ideation about themselves as the centre of the scenario and a decreased reality base.

How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease?

When we're stressed, the immune system's ability to fight off antigens is reduced. That is why we are more susceptible to infections. The stress hormone corticosteroid can suppress the effectiveness of the immune system (e.g. lowers the number of lymphocytes).

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

How do individualist and collectivist cultural influences affect people?

Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony, and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments, and belonging to one's group.

Theodore Simon:

Worked with Alfred Binet in trying to measure a child's mental age as well as believing some children developed faster than others (brain development).

Claude Steele:

Worked with Joshua Aronson in developing the idea of a stereotype threat; concluded that telling students they probably won't succeed is also a stereotype threat.

Dean Keith Simonton:

You cannot be creative unless you come up with something that has not been done before. Historiometry

Alan Baddeley:

a British psychology and memory researcher. He made a working memory model that had three components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Paul Baltes

a German psychologist whose broad scientific agenda was devoted to establishing and promoting the life-span orientation of human development.

Phoneme:

a basic unit of sound; roughly corresponds to single letters of the alphabet

Amos Tversky:

a cognitive psychologist who studied availability and representative HEURISTICS; Studied systematic human bias and handling of risk; worked to develop "prospective theory" which explains irrational human economic choices.

Language:

a communication system in which a limited number of signals (sounds or letters) can be combined to agreed-upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages

Instinct:

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Schema:

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Down Syndrome:

a congenital disorder arising from a chromosome defect, causing intellectual impairment and physical abnormalities including short stature and a broad facial profile. It arises from a defect involving chromosome 21, usually an extra copy (trisomy-21).

Autism:

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

What is emerging adulthood?

a distinct period of development. -between 18-25 years old. -independent role. exploration and frequent change.

Polygraph:

a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

Recall:

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned.

Recognition:

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items.

Relearning:

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

Concept:

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype:

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

Priming:

a method used to measure unconscious cognitive processes, such as implicit memory, in which a person is exposed to info. and is later tested to see whether the info affects behavior or performance on another task or in another situation.

Algorithm:

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees to solve a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

Motivation:

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Hippocampus:

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

a number representing a person's reasoning ability (measured using problem-solving tests) as compared to the statistical norm or average for their age, taken as 100.

Emerging adulthood:

a period from about age 18 to mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

Temperament:

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Mental Age:

a person's mental ability expressed as the age at which an average person reaches the same ability.

Sexual Orientation:

a person's sexual identity in relation to the gender to which they are attracted; the fact of being heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.

Incentive:

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Factor Analysis:

a process in which the values of observed data are expressed as functions of a number of possible causes in order to find which are the most important.

Daniel Kahneman:

a psychologist who, along with Amos Tversky, conducted research to discover factors that influence human judgment and decision making; he won the Nobel Prize for this work in 2002.

Emotion:

a response of the whole organism involving: Physiological arousal. Expressive behaviors, and Conscious experience.

Role:

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Gender role:

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

Heuristic:

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

Erik Erikson:

a stage theorist who took Freud's controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. He emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development.

Insight:

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Lobotomy:

a surgical operation involving incision into the prefrontal lobe of the brain, formerly used to treat mental illness.

Working memory:

a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.

Psycholanalysis:

a system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.

Mental set:

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Homeostasis:

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose around a particular level.

Confirmation bias:

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Empirically Derived Test:

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups. social-cognitive perspective. views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Attribution theory:​

a theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.

Coronary Heart disease:

a very common chronic disease of the cardiovascular system. ... CHD can cause unstable angina (a form of chest pain or pressure that occurs when the heart isn't getting enough oxygen) and can lead to a heart attack or sudden heart failure.

Basic trust:

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Regression:

according to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, is a defense mechanism leading to the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adaptive way ...

Ed Diener:

aka "Dr. Happiness", is a leading researcher in positive psychology who coined the expression "subjective well-being" or SWB as the aspect of happiness that can be empirically measured.

Self-concept:

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Cognition:

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

General Intelligence (g):

also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Charles Spearman first described the existence of general intelligence in 1904.

Antipsychotic drugs:

also known as neuroleptics or major tranquilizers, are a class of medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), principally in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Anorexia Nervosa:

an eating disorder manifested when a person refuses to eat an adequate amount of food or is unable to maintain minimal weight for a person's body mass index.

Intuition:

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Bulimia:

an emotional disorder involving distortion of body image and an obsessive desire to lose weight, in which bouts of extreme overeating are followed by depression and self-induced vomiting, purging, or fasting.

Attachment:

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation.

The Humanistic perspective​:

an innate drive toward growth affects motivation and shapes personality. This is based on uniqueness, self-awareness, creativity, independent decision making, and self-responsibility. A person's unique perceptions of the world and points of interest and importance guide personality development.

Critical period:

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Aggression:

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Norm:

are unwritten but understood rules of a society or culture for the behaviors that are considered acceptable and expected. For example, in some countries, it is the norm to put large piercings through the face as decoration or indication of belonging to a particular group.

Social Cognitive perspective:

based on personality being the result of thinking and behavior that is molded over time and through different social experiences. Personality development comes from interaction among people and the experiences of different social situations.

Two-word stage:

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly statements made up of only a couple of words.

Babbling stage:

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

Sandra Scarr:

believed that parents who were worried about providing special education for their babies were wasting their time.

Maturation:

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

What is psychosurgery?

brain surgery, such as lobotomy, used to treat mental disorders.

What events provoke stress responses?

called stressors, and they cover a whole range of situations - everything from outright physical danger to making a class presentation or taking a semester's worth of your toughest classes. The human body responds to stressors by activating the nervous system and specific hormones.

Social facilitation:

can be best understood as the tendency of people to perform better when they are being watched or when they are competing with others doing the same task. This is called Social Facilitation.

Belief perseverance:

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Jeffery Karpicke:

conducted a research experiment that lent support to the idea that practicing information retrieval is integral to learning.

Self-esteem:

confidence in one's own worth or abilities; self-respect.

Déjà vu:

cues from the present overlap those from the past; eerie experience of having been there before.

Literacy:​

c​ompetence or knowledge in a specified area.

Habituation:

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Social loafing:

describes the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group. Because all members of the group are pooling their effort to achieve a common goal, each member of the group contributes less than they would if they were individually responsible.

Robert Sternberg:

devised the Triarchic theory of intelligence: 1. academic problem-solving intelligence, 2. practical intelligence and 3. creative intelligence.

Telegraphic speech:

early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs such as "go car".

Availability heuristic:

estimating the likelihood of events based on their presence in our memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Aerobic Exercise:

exercise that requires pumping of oxygenated blood by the heart to deliver oxygen to working muscles.

Peter Wason:

gave university students wrong formulas to work with and found that the students tended to research examples to defend these theories revealed that we tend to find examples that credit their statements rather than finding examples that may refute it confirmation bias.

Carl Jung:​

he (born July 26, 1875, Kesswil, Switzerland—died June 6, 1961, Küsnacht), Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist who founded analytic psychology, in some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.

Benjamin Rush:

he advocated strongly for education, temperance, and the abolition of slavery, and he helped establish two colleges in Pennsylvania. he believed that mental diseases were caused by irritation of the blood vessels in the brain.

Carl Rogers:

he believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence. This means that self-actualization occurs when a person's "ideal self" (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).

Aaron Beck:​

he believed that when someone was allowing their thoughts to be negative, it led to depression. He believed that thoughts, feelings, and behavior were all linked together. When someone thought negatively, they then felt bad, which causes them to behave poorly. Then, it becomes a cycle.

Albert Ellis:

he developed an ABCDE format to teach people how their beliefs cause their emotional and behavioral responses: 'A' stands for activating event or adversity. 'B' refers to one's irrational belief about 'A. ' That belief then leads to 'C,' the emotional and behavioral consequences.

James Flynn:​

he has written a variety of books. His research interests include humane ideals and ideological debate, classics of political philosophy, and race, class and IQ (see race and intelligence).

David Caruso:

he is a management psychologist who develops and conducts emotional intelligence training around the world. He is the special assistant to the dean of Yale College.

Ellen Langer:​

he is a professor of psychology at Harvard University; in 1981, she became the first woman ever to be tenured in psychology at Harvard. he studies the illusion of control, decision-making, aging, and mindfulness theory.

Roy Baumiester:​

he is a social psychologist who is known for his work on the self, social rejection, belongingness, sexuality and sex differences, self-control, self-esteem, self-defeating behaviors, motivation, aggression, consciousness, and free will.

John Mayer:

he is an American psychologist at the University of New Hampshire. He is a personality psychologist. He co-developed a popular model of emotional intelligence with Peter Salovey.

Martin Seligman:​

he is an American psychologist, educator, and author of self-help books. he is a strong promoter within the scientific community of his theories of positive psychology and of well-being. His theory of learned helplessness is popular among scientific and clinical psychologists.

Barry Schwartz:​

he is an American psychologist. he is the Dorwin Cartwright Professor of Social Theory and Social Action at Swarthmore College. He frequently publishes editorials in The New York Times applying his research in psychology to current events.

Joseph Wolpe:

he revolutionized the field of psychology by developing a way to treat anxiety and phobias. his technique is called systematic desensitization, and it has helped many people recover from fear and panic.

Alfred Binet:

he was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet-Simon test.

Hermann Rorschach:

he was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. His education in art helped to spur the development of a set of inkblots that were used experimentally to measure various unconscious parts of the subject's personality.

Henry Murray:

he was an American psychologist at Harvard University, where he conducted a 3-year long series of psychologically-damaging experiments on undergraduate students, one of whom was Ted Kaczynski - later known as the Unabomber.

Gordon Allport:

he was an American psychologist. he was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology.

Alfred Adler:

he was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority, the inferiority complex, is recognized as an isolating element which plays a key role in personality development.

Francis Galton:

he was an English explorer, anthropologist, eugenicist, geographer and meteorologist. He is noted for his pioneering research on human intelligence and for introducing the statistical concepts of correlation and regression. He is often called the "father of eugenics".

Howard Gardner:

he ​has written hundreds of research articles and thirty books that have been translated into more than thirty languages. He is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, as outlined in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Julian Rotter:​

he(October 22, 1916 - January 6, 2014) was an American psychologist known for developing influential theories, including social learning theory and locus of control. He was a faculty member at The Ohio State University and then the University of Connecticut.

Intimacy:

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships a primary development task in young adulthood.

Egocentrism:

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Preoperational stage:

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Sensorimotor stage:

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Concrete operational stage:

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Formal operational stage:

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

What information do we encode automatically?

in automatic processing, we unconsciously absorb information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned material.

Accommodation:

in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Refractory Period:

in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.

Projective Test:

in psychology, an examination that commonly employs ambiguous stimuli, notably inkblots (Rorschach Test) and enigmatic pictures (Thematic Apperception Test), to evoke responses that may reveal facets of the subject's personality by the projection of internal attitudes, traits, and behavior patterns.

Trait:

in psychology, refer to the ways in which we generally describe a person. ...they can be defined as a stable characteristic that causes a person to depict a response to any situations in certain ways. their theories indicate that the traits are always constant regardless of the situations.

Discrimination:

in psychology, the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli. It is considered a more advanced form of learning than generalization (q.v.), the ability to perceive similarities, although animals can be trained to discriminate as well as to generalize.

Catharsis:

in psychology, the idea that "releasing aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

Gender:

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

Assimilation:

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

Deindividuation:

is a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self-awareness in groups, although this is a matter of contention (resistance) (see below). Sociologists also study the phenomenon of deindividuation, but the level of analysis is somewhat different.

Paul Ekman:

is a contemporary psychologist who studies the relationship between emotions and facial expressions. He is well known for his ability to detect lies.

Jerome Singer:

is a specialist in research on the psychology of imagination and daydreaming. Dr. Singer has authored articles on thought processes, imagery, personality, and psychotherapy as well as on children's play and the effects of television.

Health psychology:

is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior, and social factors influence health and illness.

Insight Therapy:​

is a type of psychotherapy in which the therapist helps their patient understand how their feelings, beliefs, actions, and events from the past are influencing their current mindset.

Prejudice:​

is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold views towards a certain race or gender etc.

Behavioral Medicine:

is the interdisciplinary field concerned with the development and integration of behavioral, psychosocial, and biomedical science knowledge and techniques relevant to the understanding of health and illness, and the application of this knowledge and these techniques to prevention, diagnosis.

Culture:

is the set of ideas, behaviors, attitudes, and traditions that exist within large groups of people (usually of a common religion, family, or something similar). These ideas, behaviors, traditions, etc. are passed on from one generation to the next and are typically resistant to change over time.

General Adaptation Syndrome

is the three-stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. Hans Selye , a medical doctor and researcher, came up with the theory. ... Selye identified these stages as alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Terror-management Theory:

it attempts to explain a type of defensive human thinking and behavior that stems from awareness and fear of death. ... In this way, people confirm their self-importance and insulate themselves from their deep fear of merely living an insignificant life permanently eradicated by death.

Social-responsibility norm:

it describes a concept in which some individuals have a moral motivation to help and assist others. ... These standards or norms are things like helping another person who needs help.

Transference:

it describes a situation where the feelings, desires, and expectations of one person are redirected and applied to another person. Most commonly, transference​ refers to a therapeutic setting, where a person in therapy may apply certain feelings or emotions toward the therapist.

Biomedical therapy:

it focuses on treating and reworking the brain. It falls under the branch of mental health, which is an often stigmatized topic. they are meant to help patients with physiological symptoms and psychological disorders by using drugs, electroconvulsive treatment, and psychosurgery.

Unconditional positive regard:

it is a concept developed by the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers, is the basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does, especially in the context of client-centred therapy.

Collective Unconscious:

it is a concept originally defined by psychoanalyst Carl Jung and is sometimes called the objective psyche. It refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically inherited and is not shaped by personal experience.

Savant Syndrome:

it is a condition in which someone with significant mental disabilities demonstrates certain abilities far in excess of average. The skills at which savants excel are generally related to memory. ... About half of the cases are associated with autism and may be known as "autistic savants".

Intellectual Disability:

it is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation:

it is a form of brain stimulation therapy used to treat depression and anxiety. It has been in use since 1985. The therapy involves using a magnet to target and stimulate certain areas of the brain.

Self-Concept:

it is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves. ... Baumeister (1999) provides the following definition: "The individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and who and what the self is".

Electroconvulsive therapy:

it is a medical treatment most commonly used in patients with severe major depression or bipolar disorder that has not responded to other treatments. ECT involves a brief electrical stimulation of the brain while the patient is under anesthesia.

Identification:

it is a psychological process whereby the individual assimilates an aspect, property, or attribute of the other and is transformed wholly or partially by the model that others provide. It is by means of a series of identifications that the personality is constituted and specified.

Rorschach inkblot test:

it is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory:

it is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical issues.

Personality Inventory:

it is a self-report questionnaire (a survey filled out by the client) that asks a series of questions about thoughts, interests, feelings, and behaviors that is aimed at developing a general profile about a person's personality and lifestyle.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy:

it is a short-term, goal-oriented psychotherapy treatment that takes a hands-on, practical approach to problem-solving. Its goal is to change patterns of thinking or behavior that are behind people's difficulties, and so change the way they feel.

Tardive dyskinesia:

it is a side effect of antipsychotic medications. These drugs are used to treat schizophrenia and other mental health disorders. TD causes stiff, jerky movements of your face and body that you can't control. You might blink your eyes, stick out your tongue, or wave your arms without meaning to do so.

Individualism:

it is a social psychological term that refers to the ways in which people identify themselves and focus their goals. it, which is the opposite of collectivism, gives priority to personal goals (as opposed to the goals of a group or society).

Scapegoat theory:

it is a social psychological term that relates to prejudice. According to this theory, people may be prejudice toward a group in order to vent their anger. In essence, they use the group they dislike as their target for all of their anger...as a vent.

Collectivism:

it is a social psychological term that relates to the manner in which humans identify themselves and prioritize their goals. it, which is the opposite of individualism, focuses on the priorities of the group and not the individual.

Token economy:​

it is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers.

Counterconditioning:

it is a technique developed by psychologists that is intended to change how we perceive certain stimuli. The goal of it is to change our response to a given stimulus. ... This technique is intended to turn a positive or pleasurable response to a stimulus into a more negative response.

Exposure therapies:

it is a technique in behavior therapy to treat anxiety disorders. it involves exposing the target patient to the anxiety source or its context without the intention to cause any danger. Doing so is thought to help them overcome their anxiety or distress.

Active listening:

it is a technique that is used in counseling, training, and solving disputes or conflicts. It requires that the listener fully concentrate, understand, respond and then remember what is being said.

Unconditional Positive Regard:

it is a term credited to humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers and is used in client-centered therapy. Practicing it means accepting and respecting others as they are without judgment or evaluation.

Low birth weight:

it is a term used to describe babies who are born weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces (2,500 grams). Babies weighing less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams) at birth are considered very this. it is most often caused by premature birth.

Thematic Apperception Test:

it is a type of projective test that involves describing ambiguous scenes. It was developed by psychologist Henry A. Murray and artist and lay psychoanalyst Christina D. Morgan during the 1930s. 1​ The test is one of the most widely researched and utilized psychological tests in use today.

Family therapy:

it is a type of psychological counseling (psychotherapy) that can help family​ members improve communication and resolve conflicts. it​ is usually provided by a psychologist, clinical social worker or licensed therapist​.

Psychosurgery:

it is a type of surgical ablation or disconnection of brain tissue with the intent to alter affective or cognitive states caused by mental illness.

Mere-exposure effect:

it is a ​psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely​ because they are familiar with them. In social psychology,​ this ​effect​ is sometimes called the familiarity principle.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS):

it is an I​ Q test​ designed to measure intelligence​and cognitive ability in a​dults​ and older adolescents. ... It is currently in its fourth edition (WAIS-IV) released in 2008 by Pearson, and is the most widely used ​IQ test,​ for both adults​ and older adolescents, in the world.

Content Validity:

it is an important research methodology term that refers to how well a test measures the behavior for which it is intended.

Personal Control:

it is an individual's belief about the degree that he or she can bring about good events and avoid bad events.

Stereotype Threat:

it is defined as a "socially premised psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype about one's group applies" (Steele & Aronson, 1995).

Chronic Pain:

it is defined as pain that lasts at least 12 weeks. The pain may feel sharp or dull, causing a burning or aching sensation in the affected areas. It may be steady or intermittent, coming and going without any apparent reason. it can occur in nearly any part of your body.

Mirror-image perception:

it is the human tendency to see oneself (especially while in the throes of conflict) as the opposite of the person with whom they are having a conflict. They are mutual and reciprocal views of others.

Spotlight Effect:

it is the phenomenon in which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are. Being that one is constantly in the center of one's own world, an accurate evaluation of how much one is noticed by others is uncommon.

Interpretation:

it is the process through which we represent and understand stimuli. Once information is organized into categories, we superimpose it onto our lives to give them meaning. this of stimuli is subjective, which means that individuals can come to different conclusions about the exact same stimuli.

Repression (Personality):

it is the psychological attempt to direct one's own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding them from one's consciousness and holding or subduing them in the unconscious.

Positive Psychology:

it is the scientific study of human flourishing, and an applied approach to optimal functioning. It has also been defined as the study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals, communities, and organizations to thrive."

Psychopharmacology:

it is the study of drug-induced changes in mood, thinking, and behavior. These drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical syntheses in the laboratory.

Regression toward the mean:

it is the tendency for scores to average out. In this case extreme scores tend to happen rarely and seem to fall back toward the average (the mean). For example, a golfer with a handicap of 2 averages a score of 73 (for example).

Reciprocal Determinism: ​

it is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behavior may be conditioned through the use of consequences.

Aversive conditioning:

it is the use of something unpleasant, or a punishment, to stop an unwanted behavior. If a dog is learning to walk on a leash alongside his owner, an undesired behavior would be when the dog pulls on the leash.

Self-fulfilling prophecy:

it is when a person unknowingly causes a prediction to come true, due to the simple fact that he or she expects it to come true. In other words, an expectation about a subject, such as a person or an event, can affect our behavior towards that subject, which causes the expectation to be realized.

Academic Failures:

it means lack of success in education and leads to the loss of higher education costs and social and economic losses. In this study, the viewpoints of students on the factors which affect it were studied.

Bystander effect:

it occurs when the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening in an emergency situation. ... Social psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley popularized the concept of it following the infamous murder of Kitty Genovese in New York City in 1964.

Social exchange theory:

it proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. According to this theory, developed by sociologist George Homans, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships.

Meta-analysis:

it refers to a research strategy where instead of conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several previous studies.

Companionate love:

it refers to a variety of love that is durable, fairly slow to develop, and characterized by interdependence and feelings of affection, intimacy, and commitment. it is also known as affectionate love, friendship-based love, or attachment.

Reciprocity norm:

it refers to how positive actions bring about more positive actions while negative actions bring about more negative actions. For example, if a person receives a gift for their birthday, they are more likely to give a gift back to that person on their birthday.

Ingroup:

it refers to the group you belong to and identify with when your group is interacting with another group. ... it's identity also factors into interactions between different races, nationalities, social classes, and so on. Attitudes and behaviors toward it tend to be more positive than toward the outgroup.

Self-Actualization:

it refers to the need for personal growth and development throughout one's life. It is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which was developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow.

Virtual reality exposure therapy:

it uses specially programmed computers, visual immersion devices and artificially created environments to give the patient a simulated experience that can be used to diagnose and treat psychological conditions that cause difficulties for patients.

Equity:

its Theory states that humans have a natural tendency to maintain it in their social relationships. it is a sense of fairness in the exchange of goods, services, time, and effort.

Resistance:

it​ is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly exhibit paradoxical opposing behaviors in presumably a clinically initiated push and pull of a change process.

Representative Heuristic:

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Effortful processing:

just as the name implies; learning or storing (encoding) that requires attention and effort.

Storage:

keeping information in the brain over time.

Noam Chomsky:

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language.

George Miller:

made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory.

Undifferentiated:

many and varied symptoms.

Mnemonics:

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Explicit memory:

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

Imagery:

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with encoding.

Defense Mechanisms:

mental process (e.g., repression or projection) initiated, typically unconsciously, to avoid conscious conflict or anxiety.

Secondary sex characteristics:

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Chunking:

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Fluid intelligence:

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

Crystallized intelligence:

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tend to increase with age.

Gender identity:

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.

Identity:

our sense of self, according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Adaptation-level phenomenon:

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

Theory of mind:

people's ideas about their own and the others' mental states--about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors this might predict.

Feel-good, do-good Phenomenon:

people's tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.

Trait perspective:

personality is a combination of traits that people display consistently and through various situations. Traits are helpful for predicting certain behaviors that describe personality.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS):

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

B.F. Skinner:

pioneer of operant conditioning; believed everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning apparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats.

Altruism:

psychological it means acting out of concern for the well-being of others, without regard to your own self-interest. Biological it refers to behavior that helps the survival of a species without benefiting the particular individual who's being this.

Cross-sectional study:

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Longitudinal study:

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

Implicit memory:

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

syntax error

rules for word order for arranging words into sentences and phrases

Estrogens:

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen level peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity.

Judith Rodin:

she is a philanthropist with a long history in U.S. higher education. She was the president of the Rockefeller Foundation from 2005 until 2017.

Hazel Markus:

she is a social psychologist and a pioneer in the field of cultural psychology. She is the Davis-Brack Professor in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University in Stanford, California.

Karen Horney:

she was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis.

automatic processing:

sort of like muscle memory. When you start to do something that you have done many times, and you can complete it successfully without giving it any thought.

Henry Roediger:

studied memory illusions and false memories (remembering events differently from the way they happened or remembering events that never happened at all), implicit memory (when past events affect ongoing behavior without one's awareness) and applied findings from cognitive psychology to improve learning in educational situations.

Mood congruent memory:

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.

Social identity:

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

Two-factor Theory:

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must Be physically aroused and Cognitively label the arousal.

Parallel processing:

the ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli of differing quality.

Creativity:

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

What is sensory memory?

the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.

Retrieval sensory memory:

the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, which are retained accurately, but very briefly.

Gender typing:

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Fixation (Personality):

the arresting of part of the libido at an immature stage, causing an obsessive attachment.

Object permanence:

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Primary sex characteristics:

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

What is stress?

the body's reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response. The body reacts to these changes with physical, mental, and emotional responses.

Basal metabolic rate:

the body's resting rate of energy output.

Emotional Intelligence:

the capacity to be aware of, control, and express one's emotions, and to handle interpersonal relationships judiciously and empathetically.

Social clock:

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Fetus:

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Embryo:

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Memory:

the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information.

Stranger anxiety:

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Zygote:

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period rapid cell division into an embryo.

Menarche:

the first menstrual period.

Glucose:

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Sexual Response Cycle:

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson -- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Drive-reduction theory:

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Amnesia:

the loss of memory.

Free Association:

the mental process by which one word or image may spontaneously suggest another without any apparent connection.

Testosterone:

the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Short-term memory:

the part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds.

Ego:

the part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and the unconscious and is responsible for reality testing and a sense of personal identity.

Relative deprivation:

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Puberty:

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Setpoint:

the point at which your "weight thermostat" may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.

Conservation:

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Imprinting:

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Encoding:

the process of getting into the memory system for storage and later retrieval.

X Chromosome:

the sex chromosome typically found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome:

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Morpheme:

the smallest unit of language that carries meaning; UN DESIRE ABLE S

One-word stage:

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Well-being:

the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy.

Long-term memory:

the supposedly unlimited capacity memory store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time.

Facial feedback:

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

Overconfidence:

the tendency to be more certain than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Functional fixedness:

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual uses or purposes; an impediment to problem-solving.

Cannon-Bard Theory:

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers Physiological responses and The subjective experience of emotion.

James-Lange Theory:

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion - arousing stimulus: stimulus -- arousal -- emotion.

Social learning theory:

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Menopause:

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Adolescence:

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Framing:

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Groupthink:

theory and its implications for group decision-making methods. it is the name given to a theory or model that was extensively developed by Irving Janis (1972) to describe faulty decision making that can occur in groups as a result of forces that bring a group together (group cohesion).

Low socioeconomic status:

these households have little income or wealth to buffer against the negative impacts of an adverse health event (health shock) among adult household members.

Achievement Tests:

they may be of different types on the basis of the purpose for which it is administered. They are diagnostic tests, prognostic tests, accuracy tests, power tests, split tests, etc. Achievement tests can be administered in different periods of time.

Hans & Sybil Eysenck:

they​ were personality theorists ([link]) who focused on temperament, the inborn, genetically based personality differences that you studied earlier in the chapter. They believed personality is largely governed by biology.

Positive parent-child relationships:

this relationship is one that nurtures the physical, emotional and social development of the child. ... Promotes the child's mental, linguistic and emotional development. Helps the child exhibit optimistic and confident social behaviours.

Semantics:

to signify meaning; the relationship between words and things; interpreting sentences, paragraphs, etc.

Isabel Briggs Myers:

wanted to describe important personality differences; developed test based off of Carl Jung's personality types.

Katharine Briggs:

wanted to describe important personality differences; developed test based off of Carl Jung's personality types.

Robert Zajonc:

was a Polish-born psychologist and a pioneer in the field of social psychology. He completed his doctorate in psychology at the University of Michigan and became famous for his theory of social facilitation.

What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

we process information by encoding its meaning and by encoding imagery, as when using some mnemonic devices.

Lymphocytes:

white blood cells that travel in the blood stream and defend the body from abnormal cells, disease-causing bacteria and viruses.

Residual:

withdrawal after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared.

Oedipus Complex:

​(in Freudian theory) the complex of emotions aroused in a young child, typically around the age of four, by an unconscious sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and wish to exclude the parent of the same sex. (The term was originally applied to boys, the equivalent in girls being called the Electra complex​.).

How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?

​- helped to renew psychology's interest in the concept of self - critics complained the concepts were vague and subjective

Mania:

​-abnormal persistently elevated, expansive or irritable mood lasting at least one week. -often become irritable if someone or something gets in the way they get irritable.

How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace?

​-enemies sometimes become friends, especially when the circumstances favor cooperation to achieve superordinate goals, understanding through communication, and reciprocated conciliatory gestures.

Neurochemical imbalance:

​A chemical imbalance in the brain is said to occur when there's either too much or too little of certain chemicals, called neurotransmitters, in the brain. Neurotransmitters are natural chemicals that help facilitate communication between your nerve cells.

Delusions:

​A fixed, false belief that is held with absolute certainty, even where there strong factual evidence that does not support it. Involves a misinterpretation of actual information/experience.

Medical illness:​

​A medical condition is a broad term that includes all diseases, lesions, disorders, or nonpathologic condition that normally receives medical treatment, such as pregnancy or childbirth. ... Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses.

David Wechsler:

​A psychologist who created the most widely​ ​used intelligence test, WAIS; test yields overall intelligence score and separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed.

Schizophrenia:

​A psychotic disorder characterised by disturbances of thinking, delusions, hallucinations and disorganised behaviour; hear/see things that are not there, hold beliefs that are odd or not true, speak/behave in a disorganised way that is often hard for others to understand.

Cognitive therapy:

​A relatively short-term form of psychotherapy based on the concept that the way we think about things affects how we feel emotionally. it focuses on present thinking, behavior, and communication rather than on past experiences and is oriented toward problem solving.

Denial:

​According to Merriam-Webster, it is a "defense mechanism in which confrontation with a personal problem or with reality is avoided by denying the existence of the problem or reality."

Problem solving skills:

​Active listening. Analysis. Research. Creativity. Communication. Dependability. Decision making. Team-building.

​What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?

​All psychotherapies offering new hope for the demoralizing; a fresh perspective; and an empathetic, trusting, and caring relationship.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder:

​An anxiety disorder experienced by some people after a traumatic event and whose symptoms include persistent re-experiencing of the trauma, avoidance of anything associated with the trauma, and heightened arousal.

Panic Disorder:

​An anxiety disorder whose hallmark is panic attacks or fear and avoidance of such attacks.

Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect what we think?

​Attitudes are feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Peripheral route persuasion uses incidental cues (such as celebrity endorsement) to try to produce fast but relatively thoughtless changes in attitudes. Central route persuasion offers evidence and arguments to trigger thoughtful responses. When other influences are minimal, attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions. Actions can modify attitudes, as in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role-playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

Positive attachment and early bonding:

​Bonding is the intense attachment that develops between parents and their baby. ... They know that the strong ties between parents and their child provide the baby's first model for intimate relationships and foster a sense of security and positive self-esteem.

Christopher Peterson:

​Christopher Peterson​ (February 18, 1950 - October 9, 2012) was the Arthur F. Thurnau professor of psychology at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan and the former chair of the clinical psychology area.

What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?

​Conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts and feelings. Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, commonly known as Multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century, that is is rarely found outside North America and that it may reflect role-playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by reductions in feelings of anxiety.

Conformity:

​Conformity is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. It is informally defined as the tendency to act or think like members of a group. In psychology, conformity is defined as the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

David Rosenhan:

​David​ L. R​ osenhan (/ˈroʊznən/; November 22, 1929 - February 6, 2012) was an American psychologist. He is best known for the ​Rosenhan​ experiment, a study challenging the validity of psychiatry diagnoses. Subsequent research has cast doubt on the experiment's veracity and outcomes.

What are the drug therapies? What criticisms have been leveled against drug therapies?

​Drug therapy is the most widely used biomedical therapy. The antipsychotic drugs, used in treating schizophrenia, block dopamine activity. Some can have serious side effects, including tardive dyskinesia (with involuntary movements of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs) or increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Antianxiety drugs, which depress central nervous system activity, are used to treat anxiety disorders. These drugs can be physically and psychologically addictive. Antidepressant drugs, which increase the availability of serotonin and nor-epinephrine, are used for depression, with modest effectiveness beyond that of placebo drugs. Lithium and Depakote are mood stabilizers prescribed for those with bipolar disorder.

Child abuse and neglect:​

​Emotional abuse​ refers to behaviors that harm a ​child's self-worth or emotional well-being. Examples include name calling, shaming, rejection, withholding love, and threatening. ​Neglect​ is the failure to meet a ​child's​ basic physical and emotional needs.

What makes up emotional intelligence?

​Emotional intelligence is generally said to include at least three skills: emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one's own emotions; the ability to harness those emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problem solving; and the ability to manage emotions, which includes both regulating one's own emotions when necessary and helping others to do the same.

How did Freud Think people defended themselves against anxiety?

​For Freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and superego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repression, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.

What produces the thoughts and feelings that mark anxiety disorders?

​Freud viewed anxiety disorders as the manifestation of mental energy associated with the discharge of repressed impulses. Psychologists working from the learning perspective view anxiety disorders as a product of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, reinforcement of fearful behaviors, and observational learning of others' fear. Those working from the biological perspective consider the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; the genetic inheritance of a high level of emotional reactivity; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.

Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?

​Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sex or aggression. Conteporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's exphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from modern research findings, the view that much of our mental life is unconsciousism and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns.

What psychological factors may trigger aggressive behavior?

​Frustration and other aversive events (such as heat, crowding, and provocation) can evoke hostility, especially in those rewarded for aggression, those who have learned aggression from role models, and those who have been influenced by media violence.

How do Gardner's and Sternberg's theories of multiple intelligences differ?

​Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences contrasts with Sternberg's because Gardner believes that the 8 types of intelligences he defined were different enough to be classified as their own types of intelligences. Sternberg argues that one capacity for intelligence exists, but it is made up of three distinct elements.

​What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?

​Humanistic psychology helped to renew psychology's interest in the concept of self. Nevertheless, humanistic psychology's critics complained that its concepts were vague and subjective, its values Western and self-centered, and its assumption naively optimistic.

Frustration-aggression principle:​

​If a goal is being blocked, people often become frustrated. ... it states that frustration often leads to aggressive behavior. This theory was proposed by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mower, and Sears in 1939.

​Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?

​In contemporary psychology, the SELF is assumed to be the centre of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.- research confirms the benefits of high SELF-ESTEEM, but also warns of the dangers of unrealistically high self-esteem.The SELF-SERVING BIAS leads us to perceive ourselves favourably, often causing us to overestimate our abilities and underestimate our faults.

Displacement:

​In psychology, it (German: Verschiebung, "shift, move") is an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind substitutes either a new aim or a new object for goals felt in their original form to be dangerous or unacceptable.

Reaction formation:

​In psychology, it is a behavior in which a person will attempt to hide his true feelings or desires by demonstrating or adopting the exact opposite feelings. ... it is a type of psychological defense mechanism used to overcome the anxiety and stress caused by negative feelings.

Sublimation:

​In psychology, it is a mature type of defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.

Social Trap:

​In psychology, it is a situation in which a group of people acts to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.

Self:

​In psychology, the sense of this is defined as the way a person thinks about and views his or her traits, beliefs, and purpose within the world. It's a truly dynamic and complicated concept because it covers both the 'inner' and 'outer' self.

Psychodynamic Theory:

​In psychology, this is a view that explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs. ... these commonly hold that childhood experiences shape personality.3

Predictive Validity:

​In psychometrics, it is the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure. For example, the ​validity​ of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings.

Fundamental attribution error:

​In social psychology, fundamental attribution​ error (FAE), also known as correspondence bias ... Several ​theories​ predict the fundamental attribution​ error, and thus both compete to explain it and can be falsified if it does not occur.

Superordinate goals:

​In social psychology, they are goals that are worth completing but require two or more social groups to cooperatively achieve.

Community offering empowerment, opportunity and security:

​Increases focus on cooperation and networking with local and international organizations. Promotes social justice, participation and ownership. Promotes peer education and community involvement. Empowers marginalized groups to take positive control of their own lives.

Informational social influence:

​Informational Social Influence is where a person conforms to gain knowledge, or because they believe that someone else is 'right'.

Normative social influence:​

​It is defined in social psychology as "...the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them." The power of normative social influence stems from human identity as a social being, with a need for companionship and association.

Birth Complications:

​Labor that does not progress. ... Perineal tears. ... Problems with the umbilical cord. ... Abnormal heart rate of the baby. ... Water breaking early. ... Perinatal asphyxia. ... Shoulder dystocia. ... Excessive bleeding.

Internal Locus of Control:

​Locus of control refers to the extent to which people feel that they have control over the events that influence their lives. ... If you believe that you have control over what happens, then you have what psychologists refer to as it.

What perspectives can help us understand psychological disorders?

​Medical Model - mental illnesses that can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy. The biopsychosocial perspective assumes that disordered behavior arises from genetic predispositions and physiological states, inner psychological dynamics, and social-cultural circumstances.

Are some therapies more effective than others?

​No one type of psychotherapy is generally superior to all others. ... Some therapies—such as behavior conditioning for treating phobias and compulsions—are more effective for specific disorders.

Peripheral Route Persuasion:

​Peripheral Route Processing (also known as Peripheral Route To Persuasion) occurs when someone evaluates a message, such as an advertisement, on the basis of physical attractiveness, background music, or other surface-level characteristics rather than the actual content of the message.

​What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

​Personality inventories (such as the MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

Philippe Pinel:

​Philippe Pinel​ (French: [pinɛl]; 20 April 1745 - 25 October 1826) was a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological approach to the custody and care of psychiatric patients, referred to today as moral therapy.

Projection:

​Psychological it is a defense mechanism people subconsciously employ in order to cope with difficult feelings or emotions. Psychological it involves projecting undesirable feelings or emotions onto someone else, rather than admitting to or dealing with unwanted feelings.

Resilience:​

​Psychologists define resilience as the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress — such as family and relationship problems, serious health problems, or workplace and financial stressors.

​What was Freud's view of personality and its development?

​Sigmund Freud's treatment of emotional disorders led him to believe that they spring from unconscious dynamics, which he sought to analyze through free association and dreams. He referred to his theory and techniques as psychoanalysis.

What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologist in their assessment of people's behavior and beliefs?

​Social-cognitive researchers study how people interact with their SITUATIONS- tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behaviors in a given situation is to observe that person's behavior in similar situations.

External Locus of Control:

​Students with it generally believe that their successes or failures result from external factors beyond their control, such as luck, fate, circumstance, injustice, bias, or teachers who are unfair, prejudiced, or unskilled.

What patterns of thinking, perceiving, feeling, and behaving characterize schizophrenia?

​Symptoms of schizophrenia are disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.

What causes schizophrenia?

​The exact causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Research suggests a combination of physical, genetic, psychological and environmental factors can make a person more likely to develop the condition. Some people may be prone to schizophrenia, and a stressful or emotional life event might trigger a psychotic episode.

When and why were intelligence tests created?

​The first modern intelligence test in IQ history was developed in 1904, by Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Theodore Simon (1873-1961). The French Ministry of Education asked these researchers to develop a test that would allow for distinguishing mentally retarded children from normally intelligent, but lazy children.

Validity:

​The quality of being logically or factually sound; soundness or cogency.

Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?

​The scientific meaning of bias hinges on a test's validity--on whether it predicts future behavior only for some groups of test-takers. STEREOTYPE THREAT-a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. the test isn't biased in the scientific sense, of failing to make statistical predictions for different groups. but they are biased on sensitivity to performance differences caused by cultural experience.

​In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual's personality?

​The social-cognitive perspective applies principles of learning, cognition, and social behavior to personality, with particular emphasis on the ways in which our personality influences and is influenced by our interaction with the environment. It assumes reciprocal determinism- that personal- cognitive factors interact with the environment to influence people's behavior.

What are somatoform disorders?

​The somatoform disorders are a group of psychological disorders in which a patient experiences physical symptoms that are inconsistent with or cannot be fully explained by any underlying general medical or neurologic condition. ... The somatoform disorders represent the severe end of a continuum of somatic symptoms.

How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?

​The stability of intelligence test scores increases wages. by age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. at about age 7, scores become fairly stable and consistent.

How do contemporary psychologists view Freud and the unconscious?

​They give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the stuggle to cope with our sexuality, to the conflict between biological impuleses and social restraints, and for some forms of defense mechanisms, and unconscious terror-management defenses. But his concept of repressions, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, have not survived scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explantations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research foes not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood.

Joshua Aronson:

​We have found that being targeted by well-known cultural stereotypes ("blacks are unintelligent", "girls can't do math", and so on) can be threatening, a predicament my mentor and I called "Stereotype Threat." Stereotype threat (AKA identity threat) engenders a number of interesting psychological and physiological responses, many of which interfere with intellectual performance and academic motivation. My lab has conducted numerous studies showing how stereotype threat depresses the standardized test performance of black, Latino, and female college students. These same studies showed how changing the testing situation (even subtly) to reduce stereotype threat, can improve standardized test scores. This work offers a more optimistic view of race and gender gaps than the older theories that focused on poverty, culture, or genetic factors.

Peter Salovey:​

​Worked with Mayer in emotional intelligence; argued that people have wide-ranging abilities pertaining to emotional control, reasoning, and perceptivity.

Psychoanalysis:

​a system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.

Intelligence Test:

​a test designed to measure the ability to think and reason rather than acquired knowledge.

Systematic desensitization:

​a treatment for phobias in which the patient is exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli and taught relaxation techniques.

Catatonic:

​excitement. manifested by a state of extreme. psychomotor agitation. movements are. frenzied and purposeless and are usually accompanied by continuous incoherent verbalizations and shouting.

Phobia:

​is a persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular object, activity, or situation.

Effective parenting:

​is defined as the ability to interact and engage with children in such a way that they learn and grow into remarkable adults. takes daily effort to connect with children on a meaningful and personal level.

Self-serving bias:

​it is defined as people's tendency to attribute positive events to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors. It's a common type of cognitive bias that has been extensively studied in social psychology.

Economic independence:

​it is the control of the wealth of a nation by a majority of its citizens. Thus, in any context, Economic Independence means local ownership of resources and the means of production for the utilization of natural wealth (aka our natural resources)"

Just-world phenomenon:

​it is the tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve. Because people want to believe that the world is fair, they will look for ways to explain or rationalize away injustice, often blaming the person in a situation who is actually the victim.

Substance abuse:

​overindulgence in or dependence on an addictive substance, especially alcohol or drugs.

Intelligence:

​the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.

Personality:​

​the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character.

Super Ego:

​the part of a person's mind that acts as a self-critical conscience, reflecting social standards learned from parents and teachers.

Id:

​the part of the mind in which innate instinctive impulses and primary processes are manifest.

Unconscious:

​the part of the mind which is inaccessible to the conscious mind but which affects behavior and emotions.

Standardization:

​the process of making something conform to a standard.

​What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapies?

​the promotion of self-awareness and emotional intelligence by teaching clients to "read" their emotions and distinguish healthy from unhealthy feelings. Helping clients understand how distorted perceptions and thoughts contribute to painful feelings.

Psychotherapy:​

​the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means.

Behavior therapy:

​the treatment of neurotic symptoms by training the patient's reactions to stimuli.