AP Psych Multiple Choice
social-responsibility norm
that we should help those who need our help
minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
dehumanization/depersonalization
the process of depriving a person or group of positive human qualities.
race-influenced perceptions
automatic racial bias
implicit racial associations
even people who deny racial prejudice may carry negative associations
outgroup
"Them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
ingroup
"Us" - people with whom we share a common identity
Erich Fromm
5 basic personality orientations: receptive, exploitive, hoarding, marketing, productivity
asch line study
- many other people choose a wrong answer and you begin to doubt yourself - more than one-third of the time, people were willing to change their answers to fit the group
milgram obedience study
- people are teachers who shock the learner if the learner gets the answer wrong - the learner is in pain, but the experimenter tells the teacher to continue to shock the learner - with encouragement, 60 percent of people were fully compliant
mimicry
- the "chameleon effect" - helps us to empathize the act, practice, or art of mimicking
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
8 stages of grief: stability, immobilization/shock, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, testing, acceptance
stereotypes
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
Karen Horney
3 Neurotic Orientations: moving toward (go talk about problems), moving against (aggressive solving of a problem), moving away (withdraw to solve the problem)
Lazarus
Appraisal Theory - emotions are dependent on how we evaluate a situation (cognitive labeling)
Ainsworth
Attachment Theory - secure attachment (healthy), insecure avoidant (independent), insecure anxious (overly dependent)
Wynn
Baby Math - babies can do simple addition and subtraction, they can recognize when something numerically doesn't make sense Baby Morality - babies like nicer characters in films and books, mostly based on emotion
Cover Jones
Behavior/Desensitization Theory - slowly exposing someone to their fears along with things with positive connotations to eventually make the fear go away
ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
Broca
Broca's area - controls speech production and articulation
buffers
Buffers are anything that distances you to the consequences of your actions which result from obedience
Gordon Allport
Cardinal traits - 20 or so people in history have these Central traits - we all have a few that make up the basis of our character Secondary traits - only come out in specific situations
Harlow
Comfort vs. Food Theory - comfort from mother outweighed food she provided
Spence
Discrimination Learning - recognizing similar but different stimuli and responding accordingly
Hull
Drive Reduction Theory - Maintaining homeostasis, behaviors are motivated by biological needs
Linda Bartoshuk
Everyone experiences taste differently, your number of tastebuds is genetically determined, "supertasters"
Max Wertimer
Fei theory- when stationary objects in graphic images appear to be moving Gestalt theory - brain processes information that is similar to each other (grouping, proximity, similarity, ect.) to view objects as a whole
Carol Gilligan (motivation)
Feminine Achievement Motive - women use affiliation and relationships to gain power and work their way up, are less likely to fight hard for something at the expense of someone else (unlike men)
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Flow - state of consciousness in which people are fully immersed in what they are doing; being "in the zone"
Melzack
Gate control theory of pain - how the brain perceives injury and how past experiences can influence this
O'hebb
Hebbian Theory - networks or neurons that work together; neurons that fire together wire together
Gazzaniga
Hemisphere specialization; left - speaking and analyzing, more intellectual; right - visuospatial and creative, more abstract
George VonBeksy
High frequency sounds are picked up in the base of the cochlea, low frequency in the top; more micro-hairs in the cochlea means you can pick up higher frequency sounds
Lorez
Imprinting - critical period right after birth, having a strong bond with the first moving thing you see when born
Alfred Adler
Inferiority complex - devaluing yourself based on the experiences of others Birth order - how certain traits come from when in terms of your family you are born
Weber
Just Noticeable Difference - threshold to notice difference in light, sound, or weight Absolute Threshold - smallest amount of stimulus to notice something different
Seligman
Learned Helplessness - when something is forced to endure an aversive stimulus it will be less likely in the future to take action to escape or avoid that stimulus
Garcia
Learned Taste Aversion - when you eat a food that makes you sick you tend to avoid that food because your brain associates that food with illness (an evolutionary advantage)
Rotter
Locus of control: external - fatalistic; internal - more driven, outcomes are up to you
Bliss and Lomo
Long Term Potentiation - Repetition of a stimulus makes the memory of that situation stronger and more likely to be recalled (in synapses and neurons)
Kandel
Long Term Potentiation - Strengthening of a synapse when it is repeatedly used over time Long Term Depression - Selectively weakens synapses over time when they're used less frequently
Walter Mischel
Marshmallow experiment - kids who waited for delayed gratification were more successful later in life
Lashley
Mass Action Principle - learning is spread over the whole brain; engrams don't exist, learning isn't localized to one specific place
Miller
Miller's magic number - given a list of things to memorize people can memorize 7 plus or minus 2 of these "things" (could be groups or individual things)
Loftus
Misinformation Effect - when people are given wrong information and convinced of its truth (misleading questions) they will incorporate this information into their version of the truth
McClelland
Motives - achievement, affiliation, power
Sharrington
Neurons send signals by chain reactions, they go from across the synapse into the dendrites, there isn't just one path they all must follow
Eckman
Nonverbal Communications - most cultures have facial expressions that are not specific to them and can be more widely recognized
Tortsen Weisel
Ocular Dominance - neuroconnections become inactive when you don't use them for a long time
Ewald Hering
Opponent Processing Theory - there are 3 main pairs, when you see one the other is inhibited from being seen
Baumrind/Maccoby
Parenting Styles: Permissive - lenient, lot of freedom Authoritative - open dialogue with kids about things Authoritarian - Strict rules, make decisions for kids Neglectful - absent
James Gibson
Perception of the visual world; patterns of how sensory inputs form a whole picture
Rescorla
Rescorla-Wagner Model - difference between predictability and surprise; conditioning to anticipate or grow used to something; the more you are exposed to the stimuli the less learning there is
Carl Rogers
Self concept - everyone has the ability to grow and change over time so self esteem changes over time, how much your idea or yourself and the reality of who you are overlaps
sherif-Robber's Cave study
Sherif argued that intergroup conflict (i.e. conflict between groups) occurs when two groups are in competition for limited resources. The field experiment involved two groups of twelve-year-old boys at Robber's Cave State Park, Oklahoma, America. The twenty-two boys in the study were unknown to each other and all from white middle-class backgrounds. They all shared a Protestant, two-parent background. None of the boys knew each other prior to the study. The boys were randomly assigned to one of two groups, although neither was aware of the other's existence. They were then, as individual groups, picked up by bus on successive days in the summer of 1954 and transported to a 200 acre Boy Scouts of America camp in the Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma. During the subsequent two-day cooling off period, the boys listed features of the two groups. The boys tended to characterize their own in-group in very favorable terms, and the other out-group in very unfavorable terms.
Sperry
Split brain theory; left - logical, rational; right - emotion, curiosity
Bower
State Dependent Memory - when something happens when you're in one mood you're more likely to remember it again when you're in that mood again Hierarchical Organization - you remember things better when they're organized in a logical way
Kohlberg
The Hanz Dilemma - obey rules so you can avoid punishment; before adolescence - order because of society; after adolescence - self defined ethics
halo/devil effect
The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character. Essentially, your overall impression of a person ("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of that person's specific traits ("He is also smart!"). the devil effect is the opposite
ingroup bias
a favoring of our own group
social inhibition
The tendency to perform complex or difficult tasks more poorly in the presence of others
Bowlby
Theory of Attachment - cling to main caregiver in times of need or fear; proximity maintenance, safe haven, secure base, separation distress
Herman VonHemholtz
Trichromatic Theory - R, G, B are identified from wavelengths Frequency Theory - the amount of neural impulses we receive is directly related to the sound waves we perceive
Wernicke
Wernicke's area - comprehension of speech
Carol Gilligan (morals)
Women make decisions more to save others, men make decisions for logic/justice; women are more interpersonal
Bluma Zeigarnik
Zeigarnik Effect - we remember better that which is unfinished/incomplete
Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development - the space in which learning occurs; the distance between a students individual ability before learning and with no assistance (low threshold) and the ability level when working with someone who already possesses that knowledge/skill/ability (high threshold)
authoritarian personalities
a state of mind or attitude characterized by belief in absolute obedience or submission to someone else's authority, as well as the administration of that belief through the oppression of one's subordinates.
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
Costa and McCrae
big 5 personality traits: OCEAN/CANOE - openness, conscientiousness, agreeability, extroversion, neuroticism
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
anonymity and arousal
deindividuation increases anonymity and arousal when we believe ourselves to be anonymous, we become more aroused
depersonalization
feelings of detachment from one's mental processes or body
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
unconscious patronization
lower expectations, inflated praise and insufficient criticism for minority student achievement
other-race effect/ cross-race effect/ own-race bias
our greater recognition for faces of our own race emerges during infancy between 3 to 9 months of age
blame the victim phenomenon
people often justify their prejudices by blaming victims
just world phenomenon
people with privilege often develop this tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve
social v. personal control
social control = power of the situation personal control = power of the individual
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
group polarization
the enhancement off a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
groupthink (janus)
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for group overrides a realistic appraisal of themselves
social identity
the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
blind obedience
the unquestioning adherence to inherently imprecise rules, even in the face of silly or adverse consequences. More simply, blind obedience is essentially doing something because you are told, you adhere to the rules because they are the rules.
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
theory of personality (two dimensions of personality): extraversion vs. introversion stability vs. instability
reflexive bodily responses
unconscious, selective responses when looking at faces
norms
understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms practice "proper" behavior.
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
altruism
unselfish concern for the welfare of others
diffusion of responsibility
when more people share responsibility for helping
role model defiance
with a role model defying, people are likely to follow