AP Psych Units 1-10
origins of sexual orientation
- not associated with childhood experiences/environment - homosexuals do appear more often in certain populations (poets, fiction writers, artists, musicians) - men who have older brothers are more likely to be gay - brain anatomy influences sexual orientation (LeVay studied hypothalamus)
HARRY BAHRICK
- memory researcher - noted that the longer the time between study sessions, the better the long-term retention - over the course of long term- you forget
teen pregnancy causes
- minimal communication about birth control - guilt related to sexual activities - alcohol use - mass media norms of unprotected sex
Hans & Sybil Eysenck
- narrowed traits to two basic dimensions: extroverted v. introverted & stable v. unstable - connected traits to genetics
social aspects of belonging cont.
- need to belong transcends any other want/need - behaviors driven by need to conform to group standards --> can be negative (fanatic nationalism, ethnic rivalries, etc.)
stereotypes of obese people
- negative connotations - lazy, ugly, non motivated
social scripts
culturally modeled guide for how we act in various situations - downloaded from media as a "file" or "program" in the mind - aggression portrayed in media follows & teaches a script - exposure to aggressive media increases other forms of aggressive behavior
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wares and they look away sooner. (with repetition, response weakens)
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. - being able to COMPARE among huge populations - SAT, ACT, GRE
delay gratification
delaying small gratifications now to enable bigger rewards later
NREM - 3
delta waves, deep sleep, minimal awareness, night terrors
dissociative disorders
disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. - multiple personality disorder - separation of conscious awareness from thoughts, memory, feelings & identity - dysfunction & distress caused by chronic and severe dissociation
Humanism
emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one's full human potential, free will
situational attribution
factors outside the person doing the action, such as peer pressure - Milgrim Obedience (peer pressure) - Ash conformity (peer pressure)
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders. - grandeur = grand delusions - paranoid = dying; murder
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
Watson & Skinner
famous behaviorists
Maslow & Rogers
famous humanists; emphasized feelings, optimism
Wilhelm Wundt
father of psychology, made psychology a science through observations, experiments, math and science
myelin
fatty tissue that forms around axon and speeds neurotransmitters, enables better communication with other brain regions
Alzheimer's disease
feared brain ailment; first memory deteriorates then reasoning; person becomes emotionally flat, disoriented, incontinent & mentally vacant; loss of brain cells & deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine neurotransmitter (vital to memory)
Right Hemisphere
feelings & intuition, big picture, language (tone, inflection, context), inferences & associations, perception, wholes (including the self)
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events - affect our actions & vise versa
multiple bystander effect
fewer people help when others are available
preconventional
first basic level of moral thinking; obey rules to avoid punishment (up to 9 years old)
arousal theory
focuses on finding the right level of stimulation - humans seek optimum levels of arousal --> curiosity & interest for exploration in animals and toddlers - humans seek optimum levels of arousal even if they have basic needs or comfort
positive support
for an enduring relation ship, positive interaction outnumber negative interactions - offering sympathy, concern, laughs, hugs
emerging adulthood
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and all independence and responsible adulthood. - added years of education & later marriage --> delayed full adult independence
infantile amnesia
forgetting memories before age 3 - brain areas with memory = hippocampus & frontal lobes
B lymphocytes
form in the bone marrow & release antibodies that fight bacterial infections
T lymphocytes
form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissues and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances
terminal branches
forms junctions with other cells
John B. Watson
founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes
Sigmund Freud
founder of psychoanalysis; focused on unconscious drives and emphasized importance of childhood experiences
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
Macrophage (big eater)
identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn out cells
strength based selection system
identify a group of most effective people and compare their strengths with those of a group of least effective people - matching people's strengths with work enables them to flourish = prosperity & profit
AIDS
immune disorder, caused by human immunodeficiency virus (stress negatively effects it by predicting a faster decline or speeding the infection)
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
Biological perspective
concerned with the links between biology and behavior. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and evolutionary psychology. The researchers may call themselves behavioral neuropsychologists, behavior genetics, physiological psychologists, or bio psychologists
CR
conditioned response
CS
conditioned stimulus
projection
disguising one's own threatening impulse by attributing them to others - putting your own feelings on someone else
motivation & success correlation
most successful people are more ambitious, energetic & persistent - Angela Duckworth study = self discipline was a better predictor of success than intelligence
mirror image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. - both sides assuming the worst in the other person
drive-reduction theory diagram
need (food/water) --> drive (hunger/thirst) --> drive-reducing behaviors (eating/drinking - fulfilling the need)
esteem needs
need for self esteem achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others
safety needs
need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe
self transcendence needs
need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
self actualization
need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
belongingness and love needs
need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation
physiological needs
needs to satisfy hunger and thirst
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
insula
neural center in the brain, activated when we experience emotions
limbic system
neural system (including hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with EMOTIONS & DRIVES (fear, aggression, hunger & sex drive)
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord, CNS (allows us to get outside information)
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands (allows limbs to move)
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs (between sensory and motor neurons)
secondary sex characteristics
non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice and body hair
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances; makes conclusive results more powerful
unconscious "low" track
our minds perform automatic actions, often without being aware of them (walking, acquiring phobias, processing sensory details into perceptions and memories)
conscious "high" track
our minds take deliberate actions we know we are doing (problem solving, naming an object, defining a word)
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology
scientific method
process of testing our ideas about the world by setting up situations that test our ideas, making observations, and analyzing whether the data fits our ideas
compulsion
repeatedly strong feeling of needing to carry out an ACTION or BEHAVIOR - excessive hand washing, bathing, grooming - repeating rituals - checking doors, locks, appliances
cognitional studies
research in which the same people are rested and rested over a long period
cognitive perspective
THINKING: how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information (cognitive, clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational)
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
systematic desensitization
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforced or diminished if followed by a punisher. - reinforcement & punishment - response + consequence --> behavior strengthened
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events (when two stimuli are ASSOCIATED)
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (looking at brain) - injected with GLUCOSE to see brain activity (color picture)
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. - meets basic needs (food, attention, fun, power)
Biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis.
subjective well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being to evaluate people's quality of life e.x: physical & economic indicators
autonomy
sense of personal control & control over your own life
states of consciousness - psychologically induced
sensory deprivation, hypnosis, meditation
nociceptors
sensory receptors whose signals are interpreted by the brain as pain - receptors for feeling pain
dimentia
series of stroke, brain tumor or alcohol dependence can progressively damage the brain, causing mental erosion
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. - what you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience - individual performance is intensified when you are observed by others - being watched increases one's autonomic arousal & increases motivation & anxiety
vicarious punishment
tendency to engage in behavior which is weakened after having observed the negative consequences
other race effect
tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races - cross-race effect & own-race bias - we tend to see uniformity in the appearance of other groups, and may assume other similarities such as traits - these presumed similarities form stereotypes
vicarious reinforcement
tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviors for which others are being rewarded
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
learned helplessness
the hoplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events - when we stop trying to fight bad things from happening
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations) - society's rules and constraints - knowing right from wrong - "morality" - learn as kids
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (heart). It's sympathetic division arouses & parasympathetic calms
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli - arousal comes FIRST & emotion comes SECOND event --> arousal --> interpretation --> emotion - "we feel sorry because we cry"
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume and numbers remain the same despite changes in the form of objects
frustration-aggression principle
the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression. - frustration can cause anger which can lead to aggression - e.x = violence increases during hot days, pain, crowding & foul odors
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life (children do NOT imprint) to the first moving object they see
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment - BOTTOM - UP PROCESSING
accomodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.
learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior; an example of how to respond to a situation
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events - TOP - DOWN PROCESSING
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
normal curve
the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts ("movement feeling")
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase the following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (opposite of massed practice --> cramming information all at once) - first noted by Hermann Ebbinghaus
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition - OVEREMPHASIZE dispositional attribution - UNDEREMPHASIZE situational attribution - we tend to be too nice or too harsh on a person's behavior
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable - people in a group feel less accountable * therefore worry less about what others think - people end up slacking off because they don't think they will be held individually accountable
just world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get - good is rewarded & evil is punished - leads to blaming the victim - feeds on hindsight bias
foot-in-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request - people adjust their attitudes along with their actions - common in brain-washing & charitable contributions - Stanford Prison experiment --> guards started out doing small thing and ended up much harsher
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness - smiling makes one feel happier
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to over estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments - being overconfident --> inaccurate level of our success but generally benefits our species - overestimate the accuracy of our estimates, predictions and knowledge
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ("I knew it all along phenomenon)
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
fixation
the tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking; an inability to see a problem from a new perspective - refusing to try another way - "my way or the highway" - stuck in the old way of thinking
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experience that are consistent with one's current good/bad mood or drunk/sober mood. - context/state dependent memory --> we retrieve memory more easily when in the same context as when the memory was formed
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence - you take what you agree with and ignore disagreeing events - NOT BOTHERING to seek out information that contradicts your ideas
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. - SPREADING your reaction & response - CR is triggered by similar stimuli
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion - arousal & emotions AT THE SAME TIME
psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight.
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.
lateralization
"going to one side", how some neural functions, or cognitive processes tend to be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other
Ledoux
"low road" neural shortcut to bypass the cortex causing emotional response before intellect intervenes
teratogens
"monster maker" agents, such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development & cause harm. (drugs, alcohol)
endorphins
"morphine within" - natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
resting potential
"neuron at rest", refractory period, positive sodium ions and negative potassium ions are on either side of the axon (not moving)
action potential
"neuron at work", depolarization produces another action potential farther along the axon, while gates open and positive sodium ions come in and negative potassium ions leave through a selectively permeable membrane. (left - right)
extrasensory perception (ESP)
"perception without sensation". However, this definition would also include dreams and hallucinations
moral intuition
"quick gut feeling, or effectively full intuition"
dissociative fugue
"running away" state; wandering away from one's life, memory, and identity, with no memory of these
outgroup
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
in group
"us" - people with whom we share a common identity
normal curve graph
Standard deviation = 15 middle = 100
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
fovea
- #6 - the central focus point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster - BEST FOCUS AREA
optic nerve
- #7 - the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain - BRAIN'S VISUAL CORTEX
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
state theory
hypnosis meets some parts of the definition for an altered state of consciousness
tutored human enrichment
- large impact on compensating for deprivation than on boosting intelligence under normal conditions - abuse, poverty, neglect = IQ drops
people who get PTSD
- less control of their situation - traumatized more frequently - brain differences - less resiliency - those who get re-traumatized - opposite of PTSD = PTSG
introverts
- like shyness, they have high autonomic system reactivity - an easily triggered alarm system - high levels of brain activity
blind spot
- #8 - the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there - area of missing information in our field of vision
ROBERT STERNBERG
- 3 intelligences - areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative & practical - said that creativity can be measured in 5 areas
sleep deprivation effects
- lose brain power - gain weight - get sick - be irritable - feel old - more accidents (impaired attention)
arousal theory diagram
- low arousal = low performance - high arousal = low performance - medium arousal = high performance
extroverts
- low levels of brain activity - hard to suppress impulses leading them to seek stimulation
memory storage
- memories are in overlapping neural networks - brain's long term memory NEVER gets full - parts of each memory can be distributed throughout the brain
LOUIS THURSTONE
- 7 linked clusters of abilities - word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning & memory - showed that people who were strong in one cluster tended to be strong in other clusters (underlying "g" similar to Spearman)
lens
- #4 - the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina - PROJECTOR
interview prediction
- interviewers are WEAK predictors - informal interviews = not useful
retina
- #5 - the light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information - "IMAX THEATER" - photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells (create optic nerve)
anger
- "fight" in fight-or-flight response - short term madness - expressing anger only makes one angrier - response to someone's perceived misdeeds
dealing with anger
- "venting" - expressing anger can be temporarily calming - catharsis
iris
- #2 - a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening - MUSCLE that lets you see more/less of pupil depending on light
pupil
- #3 - the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
HOWARD GARDNER
- 8 independent intelligences - broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts - showed that people have intelligence/ability in different areas - naturalist, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily, intrapersonal, interpersonal
psychodynamic - personality theory
- Adler, Horney, Jung - unconscious & conscious minds interact, childhood experiences & defense mechanisms are important - assessment methods: projective tests, therapy sessions
trait - personality theory
- Allport, Eysenck - certain stable & enduring characteristics, influenced by genetics - Big Five traits (stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness & conscientiousness) assessment methods: personality inventories
social-cognitive - personality theory
- Bandura - Our traits and social context interact to produce our behaviors - assessment methods: considering our past behavior in similar situations
Piaget
- COGNITIVE development - studied the errors in cognition made by children in order to understand the ways they think differently than adults - conducted a case study on his daughter from birth - conducted a 4 stage theory
descriptive research
- Case study --> observing & gathering info. - Naturalistic observation --> watching but not intervening - Surveys & Interviews --> having people report on their own behavior
psychoanalytic - personality theory
- Freud - unconscious dynamics (unresolved sexual & childhood conflicts), fixation at developmental stages & defense mechanisms - id, ego, superego - assessment methods: free association, projective tests, dream analysis
person-centered perspective
- Rogers' idea that these 3 conditions facilitate growth to become healthy & move towards self-actualization 1. genuineness 2. acceptance (unconditional positive regard) 3. empathy
humanistic - personality theory
- Rogers, Maslow - better to focus on healthy people strive for self-realization - positive self-concept assessment methods: questionnaires, therapy sessions
course of schizophrenia
- acute/reactive = reaction to stress - chronic/process = developing slowly
genetic/neural/biochemistry influences on aggression
- aggression can be selectively bred in animals - identical twins are more similar in their levels of aggression than fraternal twins or siblings - males are more prone to aggression and differ by the Y chromosome - amygdala = aggression - testosterone levels are correlated with aggression - alcohol may facilitate aggression
ATKINSON - SHIFFRIN
- birth of cognitive psychology Atkinson Shiffrin Model (1968) - stimuli is recorded and held in our sensory memory (what we hear, see, smell, taste, touch) - some information is processed into short term memory (lasts a couple of min/hours/days = working memory) & encoded through rehearsal (information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it - information then moves into long term memory (information that can be retrieved later)
hypothalamus
- blood vessels connect the hypothalamus to the rest of the body so it can respond to our current blood chemistry & other incoming information - one of its tasks is to monitor levels of appetite hormones
why we forget
- brain damage --> anterograde & retrograde amnesia - encoding failure --> did not pay attention of sensory memory to hold in working memory/ didn't rehearse it and encode it into long term memory - storage decay --> material in long-term memory will decay if memory is never used, recalled, or restored (LTP in reverse --> unused connections & networks decay) - retrieval failure --> the associations and links that help us find our way to the stored memory decay ("tip of the tongue") - interference --> proactive (old memory interferes) & retroactive (new memory interferes) interference - motivated forgetting --> choosing to forget or change our memories
correlations with "genius"
- brain size - size of some brain regions (parietal lobe) - frontal & parietal lobe activity
ways cognition can worsen anxiety
- cognitive errors - irrational beliefs - mistaken appraisals - misinterpretations
immune system
- complex surveillance system - keeps you healthy by isolating & destroying viruses & bacteria
components of creativity (sternberg)
- creative environment - intrinsic motivation - imaginative thinking - expertise - venturesome personality
social networking (NEGATIVE)
- decreases neighborliness - decreases face-to-face communication (which comes with more natural rewards than electronic communication) - lack of inhibition can go to extremes (cyber bullying, sexting) - a platform for narcissists
responses to ostracism
- depressed moods - initial efforts to restore their acceptance - withdrawal from society - turn to violence - causes increased activity in ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX = part of the brain associeted with physical pain
ways to increase creativity
- develop expertise - incubation ("sleeping on it") - mental wandering - experiencing other cultures and ways of thinking
GEORGE SPERLING
- discovered iconic (visual) memory - created an experiment of 9 letters and tested their iconic memory with or without a tone - showed that we have a very brief iconic (seeing) memory
culture-bound syndromes
- disorders which only seem to exist within certain cultures; they demonstrate how culture can play a role in both causing and defining a disorder - genetic influence are lower in culture-bound disorders
social networking (POSITIVE)
- diversifies our social networks - strengthens bonds with people we already know - electronic communication eliminates shyness - sharing feelings is easier
maternal virus
- during the second trimester, if the mother has had the flu then the baby has a chance of developing schizophrenia in the womb. - maternal virus during mid-pregnancy impairs brain development - schizophrenia is more likely to develop after and during flu epidemics
separating the brain hemispheres
- each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body AND is aware of the visual field on that opposite side - without the corpus callosum --> halves of the body and the halves of the visual field don't work together - only the left half of the brain has enough verbal ability to express its thoughts out loud
HENRY MOLAISON
- endured experimentally drastic surgery --> removed hippocampus to get rid of his seizures effect: - couldn't make new explicit memories - experienced anterograde amnesia - ended seizures - retained memories from before the surgery
social aspects of belonging
- evolution: survival is enhanced by cooperation - people in close relationships are healthier & at a lower risk of psychological disorders - there is a natural desire to be in a group with others - people value close relationships with family & friends
SIGMUND FREUD
- explored the unconscious - psychoanalysis - practiced free association - more fictional than scientific
insulin
- function: controls blood sugar - produced: pancreas - response: increases hunger by diminishing glucose & partly converting it into fat
leptin
- function: increases metabolism, reduces appetite - produced: fat cells - response: decreases hunger
glucose
- function: major source of energy for body tissue - produced: blood stream - response: if your blood glucose level drops it triggers hunger
ghrelin
- function: tells the brain "I'm hungry" - produced: stomach - response: increases hunger
PYY
- function: tells the brain "I'm not hungry: - produced: digestive track - response: decreases hunger
orexin
- function: triggers hunger - produced: hypothalamus - response: increases hunger
ALFRED BINET
- gave the first IQ test - devised the test to see which kids needed help NOT to compare and sort people by intelligence
biology & anxiety
- genes regulate levels of neurotransmitters - people with anxiety have problems with a gene associated with levels of serotonin (regulating sleep & mood) & glutamate (involved in brain's alarm centers)
distinguishing emotions
- hard to distinguish between anger, fear & excitement - anger pops out more than happiness
discrimination towards obese people
- harder times finding jobs - social negative connotations - smaller paychecks
how to be happy
- have control in your life - act happy - exercise - sleep - have close relationships - help others - be grateful/spiritual
factors that prevent teen sex
- high intelligence tests - religious engagement - father presence - participation in community programs
happiness effects
- higher confidence - feeling of safety - easier to make decisions - satisfaction - healthier life
racial gap
- higher race gap in High School than college
sexual orientation statistics
- homosexuality is not associated with mental disorders or emotional/social problems - homosexuals are not aware of same-sex attraction until around the time of puberty - women's sexual drive & interests are more flexible and varying than men
twin & adoption studies
- identical twins raised together = highest similarity - fraternal twins raised together is higher similarity than siblings raised together - adopted kids raised together = lowest similarity (nature plays a bigger role in adoption studies) - intelligence scores of adoptees looks more and more like their biological parents
Piaget's Theory
- identified significant COGNITIVE milestones
ostracism punishment
- imprisonment - solitary confinement - time outs
instinct theory
- influenced by Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory - genes predispose species-typical behavior (basic coding when you are born)
obsession
- intense unwanted worries/ideas in your MIND - you have more obsessions than compulsions in OCD - concern with dirt, germs - something terrible happening - symmetry, order, exactness
interviewer illusion
- interviewer's overrating their judgement
subtypes of schizophrenia
- paranoid = hallucinations, delusions - disorganized = flat affect, random behavior - catatonic = immobalized - undifferentiated = varied symptoms - residual = withdrawal continues after positive symptoms have disappeared
CHARLES SPEARMAN
- performed a factor analysis of different skills & believed that if people did well in one area they also did well in another. - thought that those people had a high "g" (general intelligence)
physical attractiveness
- physical attractiveness affects behavior - physical attraction = emotional attraction - tend to be more successful in jobs if you are well-dressed & attractive
MARTIN SELIGMAN
- positive psychology - developed learned helplessness
Karen Horney
- psychodynamics - criticized Freudian portrayal of women
Alfred Adler
- psychodynamics - focused on the fight against feelings of inferiority - "inferiority complex"
Carl Jung
- psychodynamics - unconscious as a source of creativity & insight - collective unconscious
KARL LASHLEY
- removed parts of rats brain to see if they could still remember the maize they learned (they could) - showed that whatever part of the brain he removed, memory was still retained - this happened because memory does NOT lie in a specific part of the brain (hippocampus, cerebellum & others)
compulsions
- repetitive behaviors - excessive hand washing, bathing, toothbrushing, or grooming - repeating rituals - checking doors, locks, appliances, car brakes, homework
obsessions
- repetitive thoughts - concern with dirt, germs, or toxins - something terrible happening - symmetry, order, or exactness
political effects of attribution
- republicans = dispositional attribution - democrats = situational attribution
Why do we need memory?
- retain useful skills, knowledge & expertise - recognize familiar people & places - build capacity to use language - enjoy, share, and sustain culture - learn from experience
Individualism values
- self = independent(identity from individual traits) - life task = discover and express one's uniqueness - what matters = me- personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem - coping method = change reality - morality = defined by individuals (self-based) - relationships = many, often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable - attributing behavior = behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes
collectivism values
- self = interdependent (identity from belonging) - life task = maintain connections, fit in, preform role - what matters = us- group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships; family duty - coping method = accommodate to reality - morality = defined by social networks (duty based) - relationships = few, close and enduring; harmony valued - attributing behavior = behavior reflects social norms and roles
physiology behind weight
- set point & metabolism - genetics - sleep loss (leptin levels fall & ghrelin levels rises) - social influence - less activity (more sedentary jobs) & more food (bigger portions)
CLIVE WEARING
- severe memory impairment --> damage to frontal lobes - he only endured "moment-to-moment" consciousness - his long-term memory is retained - unable to form new memories - disease caused brain damage to the hippocampus (short-term memory)
power of individuals
- social control = power of situation - personal control = power of individual - minority influence = power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway a majority
ALBERT BANDURA
- social-cognitive perspective - believed that social context is important - how we think about ourselves and situations - said that how you think and act influences yourself and who you hang out with
sustaining relationships (POSITIVE)
- some of the best things in life arise from close relationships - we resist ending relationships (fear of being alone) - life's happiest moments are formed when you make new relationships
factors that increase obedience
- someone with authority give orders - someone associated with a prestigious institution - someone standing close by - Milgrim Obedience Experiment --> the people complied because of the doctor's orders
sustaining relationships (NEGATIVE)
- sometimes attachments keep people in abusive relationships (fear of being alone) - some of the worst things in life arise from broken relationships - social decline can lead to mental health disorders - fear of being alone develops
PHILIPPE PINEL
- sought to reform brutal treatment by promoting a new understanding of the nature of mental disorders - "moral treatment" involved improving the environment and replacing the asylum beatings with dances
principles of test construction
- standardized - reliable - valid
expressed emotion
- staring into eyes test (easy to tell if there is a connection between two people)
creative intelligence
- sternberg - generating new ideas to help adapt to novel situations
analytical intelligence
- sternberg - solving a well-defined problem with a single answer
practical intelligence
- sternberg - street smarts - talent to complete tasks & manage challenges of everyday life
implicit memory processing
- stored in the CEREBELLUM - how we do things, memories & conditioned associations - BASAL GANGLIA controls movement & stores procedural memory and motor skills (learning to ride a bike)
explicit memory processing
- stored in the HIPPOCAMPUS - explicit memories are held in the hippocampus before consolidating - consolidating = moving to other parts of the brain for long-term storage (encoding)
Hans Selye
- studied animals reactions to various stressors - proposed that body's adaptive response to stress is general - discovered that prolonged stress can damage human body
Lev Vygotsky's Scaffolding
- studied how children think & learn - emphasized how the child's mind grows through interaction with social environment - temporary scaffold = children can step to higher levels of thinking
Ancel Keys experiment
- studied semi-starved people who began to fantasize, obsess, and dream about food - illustrated the power of activated motives to hijack our consciousness - when you are hungry/thirsty little else seems to matter
GEORGE MILLER
- studied short-term memory/working memory - proposed that we can hold SEVEN information bits - discovered that people are better at remembering a greater number of digits than letters or words - working memory (uses rehearsal, focus, analysis, linking) --> greater capacity & more interactive than short term memory
GORDON ALLPORT
- studied traits - Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) = questionnaire categorizing people by traits
touch importance
- temperature - expressing feelings - sharing affection - detecting environment - PRESSURE, WARMTH, COLD & PAIN --> 4 touch sensations
the five "Axes" of Diagnosis
- the DSM suggests describing someone not just with a label, but with a five-part picture
parallel processing
- the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously - the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision - Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving - building perceptions out of sensory details processed in different areas of brain (color, motion, form, depth)
opponent - process theory
- the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision - red vs. green, white vs. black, yellow vs. blue - e.g some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (3 color) theory
- the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, green, and blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color - HOW we see color - red, green & blue --> 3 cones
Substance dependence
- tolerance - withdrawal - taking the substance longer or in greater amounts then intended - failure to regulate use
critiques of DSM
- too many people are "disordered" - diagnostic labels direct how we view and interpret the world
problem solving
- trial and error - algorithms - heuristics - insight
Glutamate
- type of neurotransmitter - function: a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory - problems caused by imbalances: oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (why people avoid MSG in food)
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
- type of neurotransmitter - function: a major inhibitory neurotransmitter - problems caused by imbalances: undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
serotonin *
- type of neurotransmitter - function: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal - problems caused by imbalances: under supply linked to depression; some antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels
Acetylcholine (ACh) *
- type of neurotransmitter - function: enables muscle action, learning, and memory - problems caused by imbalances: ACh - producing neurons deteriorate as Alzheimer's disease progresses
Norepinephrine
- type of neurotransmitter - function: helps control alertness and arousal - problems caused by imbalances: undersupply can depress mood and cause ADHD
dopamine *
- type of neurotransmitter - function: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion - problems caused by imbalances: oversupply linked to schizophrenia; under supply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease & ADHD
cornea
-#1 - PROTECTS the eye - thin coating to protect - prevents serious eye damage
bias
1 - making it easier for one group than another to score high on a test (easier to get rid of by examining questions to make them equally answerable) 2 - easier for one group than for another to have their abilities accurately assessed, and their future performance predicted (harder to remove)
HERMANN EBBINGHAUS
1. - created the spacing effect - you will develop better retention and recall, if you use the same amount of study time spread out over many shorter sessions 2. - studied how much time it takes to relearn and regain mastery of material - discovered that the more times you rehearse something at the beginning, the less time you need to relearn/memorize the same content later - amount of learning required to keep it in short-term memory
Hypnosis Theories
1. Divided consciousness theory --> hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness of our dual-track mind 2. Social Influence theory --> hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative people who go along with the "subject" role they have agreed to play
Why Dream?
1. to satisfy our own wishes 2. to file away memories 3. to develop and preserve neural pathways 4. to make sense of neural static 5. to reflect cognitive development
from sensory organs --> brain
1. RECEPTION = receive smell, taste, sound, light, heat etc. 2. TRANSDUCTION = transform into neural impulses 3. TRANSMISSION = deliver neural information to brain
Working memory/ short-term memory functions
1. auditory rehearsal --> repeating something/ hearing it being repeated so that you learn it (HEARING) 2. visiospatial "sketchpad" --> imagining a space rearranged differently, photographic memory (SEEING) 3. executive functions --> deciding/choosing what to pay attention and respond to
3 main types of stress
1. catastrophes 2. significant life changes 3. daily hassles
appraising performance
1. checklists = check specific behaviors that describe the worker 2. graphic rating scales = check how often a worker is dependable etc. 3. behavior rating scales = checks behaviors that describe a worker's performance 4. 360 degree feedback = knowledge, skills, and behaviors are rated by ourselves and others.
peacemaking
1. contact - exposure & interaction leads to familiarity & acceptance 2. cooperation - finding shared goals; superordinate goals 3. communication - sometimes with mediators 4. conciliation - gestures that reduce tension by showing intension to build alliances rather than winning conflicts; GRIT
hormone functions
1. development of sex characteristics 2. activate sexual behavior
different types of work
1. job = unfulfilling but necessary 2. career = advance from one position to another 3. calling = fulfill socially & useful activity (most satisfied)
10 basic emotion
1. joy 2. interest/excitement 3. surprise 4. sadness 5. anger 6. disgust 7. contempt 8. fear 9. shame 10. guilt
when you're immune system isn't working properly
1. overreacting - attack body's own tissues 2. underreacting - allow dormant viruses to erupt
uses of language
1. phenomes 2. morphemes 3. grammar --> semantics & syntax
Why Sleep?
1. sleep protected our ancestors from predators 2. sleep restores & repairs brain and body 3. sleep builds and strengthens memories 4. sleep facilitates creative problem solving 5. sleep is the time when growth hormones are active
taste functions
1. sweet - energy source 2. salty - sodium essential to physiological processes 3. sour - potentially toxic acid 4. bitter - potential poisons 5. umami - proteins to grow & repair tissue
types of ESP
1. telepathy - reading messages from other minds 2. clairvoyance - seeing remote events 3. precognition - knowing the future
insecure attachment
1. tends to ignore the caregiver (avoidance) 2. clingy and less likely to explore their new environment (anxious)
Psychology Definition Shift
1900's --> Wilhelm Wundt & Titchener only cared about brain & science 1920's --> behaviorism 1960's --> cognitive psychologists, neuroscience & behavior NOW --> science of behavior and mental processes
Kohlberg
3 basic levels of MORAL reasoning
sleep cycle
90 minute cycles through 8 hours of sleep, the length of REM sleep increases the longer you remain asleep (with age = more awakening & less deep sleep)
Ivan P. Pavlov
A Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) and who discovered classical conditioning by; training dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
alcohol dependence
Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal if suspended, and a drive to continue use (alcoholism)
Lazarus
Appraisal ("is it dangerous or not?") sometimes without our awareness, defines motion
vestibular sacs
Awareness of body balance and movement are monitored by the vestibular system.
LITTLE ALBERT experiment
BEFORE conditioning: NS (rat) --> No fear UCS (steel bar hit with hammer) --> UR (fear, crying) DURING conditioning: NS (rat) + UCS (steel bar hit with hammer) --> UR (fear, crying) AFTER conditioning: CS (rat) --> CR (fear, crying)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXAMPLE (1)
BEFORE conditioning: US (food in mouth) --> UR (salivation) NS (bell noise) --> No salivation AFTER conditioning: NS (bell noise) + US (food in mouth) --> UR (salivation) CS (bell noise) --> CR (salivation)
Scientific method tools & goals
Basics: theory, hypothesis, operational definitions, replication Research goals/types: description, correlation, prediction, causation, experiments
Learning
Biological influences: - genetic predispositions - unconditioned responses - adaptive responses Psychological influences: - previous experiences - predictability of associations - generalization - discrimination Social cultural influences: - culturally learned preferences - motivation affected by presence of others
"Big Five" personality factors
C - conscientiousness A - agreeableness N - neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability) O - openness E - extraversion - all have a heritability of .5 --> large portion related to our genes - most famous way to categorize personality
Psychodynamic perspective
CHILDHOOD PERSPECTIVE:how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts (clinical, counseling, personality)
Social-cultural perspective
COMPARING GROUPS OF PEOPLE: how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures (developmental, social, clinical, counseling)
collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Type A
Friedman & Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B
Friedman & Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people
Behavior genetics perspective
HEREDITY, GENES:how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences ( personality, developmental)
IQ equation
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
extremes of intelligence
LOW IQ - intellectual disability - down syndrome HIGH IQ - socially delayed - segregated academic tracks --> widen achievement gaps - correlation between intelligence & $
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active - bottom of the pyramid = most basic needs top of pyramid = complex needs
ear structure
OUTER EAR - ear canal - ear drum MIDDLE EAR - hammer - anvil - stirrup INNER EAR - cochlea
B.F. Skinner
Pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. He is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats.
UNIT 9
Psychological Disorders
behavioral perspective
REACTIONS:how we learn observable responses (clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational)
4 sleep stages
REM NREM - 1 NREM - 2 NREM - 3
neural activation theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
Erikson
SOCIAL development
general adaption syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transference - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
Edward Titchner
Student of Wilhelm Wundt, relied on "self report" data. Engaged people in INTROSPECTION --> reporting on sensations and other elements of experience (use of 5 senses)
Gunter Dorner
Studied the significance of one's prenatal environment on sexual orientation
auditory cortex
TEMPORAL LOBE
Jean Twenge Experiment
Telling someone that they were more likely to be alone caused self-defeating, depressed behaviors
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. - cause & effect relationship - with reinforcement --> behavior is strengthened
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXAMPLE (2)
US (passionate kiss) --> UR (sexual arousal) NS (onion breath) + US (passionate kiss) --> UR (sexual arousal) CS (onion breath) --> CR (sexual arousal)
Washburn Experiment
Washburn swallowed a balloon --> saw that your stomach contracts when you are hungry
linguistic determination
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
halo error
a appraising performance error where one's overall evaluation of an employee, or of a personal trait, biases ratings of their specific-work related behaviors
recency error
a appraising performance error where raters focus only on easily remembered recent behaviors
leniency & severity error
a appraising performance error which reflects evaluator's tendencies to be either too easy or too harsh on everyone
counterconditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance-the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.
therapeutic alliance
a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem.
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatment and psychological therapy.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive & social change throughout the lifespan - focuses on 3 major issues 1. nature & nurture (how does our inheritance interact with our experience to influence our development) 2. continuity & stages (what parts of development are gradual versus abrupt) 3. stability & change (which traits persist & change with age)
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
hierarchies/categories
a branching/nested set of categories and sub-categories which helps us recall a concept
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports - some traits tend to cluster together - tend to stay the same over time (stable) EXCEPT: - more conscientious/agreeable - less extraverted/open
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event - event + emotion = flashbulb memory - AMYGDALA (fear & aggression) is activated during flashbulb memories
cochlea
a coiled bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
flow
a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills - boosts self esteem in work & social aspects - people are happier when doing purposeful work - diminished sense of self & awareness
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information (we built many by adulthood to explain how we use and adjust them)
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing - isolated "islands" with 1 certain genius area
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it - both giving and receiving, sharing responsibilities, with a sense of partnership
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound (referred as mental retardation)
down syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them (corpus callosum)
synaethesia
a condition when perception in one sense is triggered by a sensation in a DIFFERENT sense
social norms
a correct or normal way to behave or think in a group, where it affects our thinking and behavior - Ash Conformity --> conforming to the group & social norms
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (can be destroyed by excessive rewards)
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
autism
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment (3rd variable)
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
recognition
a form of "multiple choice". You identify which stimuli match your stored information (easier to recognize information) - our capacity for recognition is greater than our capacity for recall
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. - used to COMPARE
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
stereotypes
a generalized belief about a group of people
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots which represent the values of two variable. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
cohort
a group of people from a given time period
schizophrenia
a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and behaviors. - mind is SPLIT FROM REALITY = psychosis - mostly auditory; delusional thinking; disturbed perceptions; disorganized/inappropriate emotions & thinking - occurs later for women than men - appears at end of adolescence and early adulthood - dopamine/D4 receptors more active in schizophrenia & general shrinking of many brain areas - high heritability; without some genetic component it is hard to develop schizophrenia (.8-.85)
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. - AKA person-centered therapy
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
convergent thinking
a left-brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer (spearman & "g")
relearning
a measure of how much less work it takes you to learn information you had studied before, even if you don't recall having seen the information before - how much less work it takes you to relearn information - better learning in the beginning process --> shorter learning curve - can highlight that memories are there even if we can't recall forming them
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. - depending on skills
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other * correlation DOES NOT EQUAL causation (just because one thing relates doesn't mean it causes it)
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people - concept = building block of thinking - what pops into your head when you hear a word
prototype
a mental image or best example of a concept. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories - e.x --> comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin - mental image of the best example of a concept
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive on thing and not another (top-down processing)
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone, use of heuristics. - takes LONGER but GUARANTEED a result - step by step strategy for solving a problem - e.x: checking every aisle to look for mustard
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania - AKA manic depressive disorder - the symptoms stay with you for the rest of your life - 2 polar opposite moods (mania & depression) - big genetic role (.8 - .85) - develops in teens and early adulthood - disruptive mood dysregulation disorder = shows that in pre-pubescent brain their mood changes; kid version of bipolar
major depressive disorder
a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods or diminished interest or pleasure in most activities, along with at least four other symptoms. - depressed mood most of the day - diminished interest or pleasure in activities - insomnia - women get more depressed than men - more social-cultural influence - activity diminished in the brain (smaller frontal lobes; more norepinephrine; less serotonin)
mania
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state - exaggerated optimism - delight in everything - impulsivity - little desire for sleep
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
reticular formation
a nerve of network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal (enables alertness from coma to wide awake & filters incoming sensory information)
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to EMOTION & REWARD (where body & mind malfunction --> eating disorders, addictions etc.) "sex, drugs, rock & roll"
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron; recycling neurotransmitters
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, and cortisol --> stress) that help arouse the body in times of stress effects: increased hear rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar; they provide ENERGY for the fight or flight
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas
temperament
a person's characteristic emotion reactivity and intensity
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. - risk factors = low levels of stress hormones, low physiological arousal, substance dependence, reduced prefrontal cortex tissue leading to impulsivity
projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.
physical dependence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is dicontinued
cognitive-behavioral therapy
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
sexual disorder
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning - erectile dysfunction = men - orgasmic dysfunction = women
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. - turns a NS into a CS by associating it with another CS EXAMPLE: an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second-order conditioning)
psychosis
a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
lobotomy
a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
dissociative identity disorder (DID)
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. AKA multiple personality disorder - development of separate personalities
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably - we think that we are above average
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. - deep, dark, unconscious needs/impulses (hypothalamus --> sex, drugs, rock & roll) - biggest section of mind structure - learn as babies - erogenous zones
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - blacks scored higher when tested by blacks rather than whites - blacks did worse on tests when reminded of their racial identification right before the test - women did worse on math tests than men, except when they are told first that women usually do as well as men on the test
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave - when we play a role we eventually tend to adopt the attitudes that go with the role - Stanford Prison Experiment --> the guards and prisoners ended up taking up the roles of the people they were pretending to be
role
a set of expectations(norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
gender role
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms - FASTER but more ERROR-PRONE - short-cut, step-saving strategy which generates a solution quickly - ex: check only aisles related to mustard
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee jerk response (hand jerks away from the flame BEFORE information about the event reaches the brain)
social traps
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. - situations in which pursuing self-interest makes things worse for everyone - e.x = overfishing, arms race, etc.
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified: unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM - 3 sleep, withing two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings - one of the most common sleep disorders
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep often at inopportune times.
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
disacosiation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. (e.x "ADHD symptoms" --> measured through impulsivity, hyperactivity & inattention)
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1 to +1) - positive correlation --> as one variable increases the other increases - negative correlation --> as one variable increases the other decreases example = -0.7 stronger correlation than +0.3 because it is closer to -1/1 (absolute value)
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test: used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. - determines how different variables relate to each other
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer: also known as a secondary reinforcer. - extrinsic reinforces (money)
cross-sectional studies
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
SQ3R
a study method incorporating 5 steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
organizational psychology
a sub field of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change - workers satisfaction, modify jobs to increase productivity
human factors psychology
a sub field of I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use - how to create user-friendly machines
personnel psychology
a sub field of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development - match people with jobs, recruitment, placement
health psychology
a sub field of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions - what happens when someone finds a solution - the "ah - ha" moment - in right temporal lobe
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
normal curve (normal distribution)
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (most scores are in the middle, and fewer near the extremes)
Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self'reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. - = wording effects, lying (self-report bias), randomly sampled may not be reliable
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans (show BRAIN FUNCTION) - X ray of soft tissue WHILE asking you to do activities
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue (show BRAIN ANATOMY) - X ray of soft tissue (large ventricles --> schizophrenia)
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past - the way you always do something - unconscious process
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned - what you learned in the PAST (driver's license exam, final exam)
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. - predicts your FUTURE skills (ACT, SAT, GRE)
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory; prediction based on evidence
terror - management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
absence of healthy behavior - flat affect - social withdrawal - anhedonia (no feeling of enjoyment) - avolition (less motivation) - catatonia (moving less)
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential. - fulfilling one's potential
unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten. - Short-term memory is only remembered for seconds, minutes or hours - AKA working memory Ex. - remembering seven digits of a phone number while dialing - remembering 20 vocabulary words for a quiz
accomodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
positive punishment
add a negative stimulus - spray water on barking dog - give a traffic ticket for speeding - spank your child
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
adding a problematic behavior - hallucinations - delusions - bizarre behavior
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard - more likely to conform if we feel insecure, are in a group, or where everyone else agrees - Ash Conformity Experiment --> people conformed to the group instead of saying the right answer
automatic mimicry
affecting behavior - we mimic what we see - chameleon effect --> mimicking others - mood linkage --> sharing up and down moods (empathetic shifts in moods) - yawning - adopting accents - adopting coping styles
agonist
agonist molecule fills the receptor site and activates it, acting like the neurotransmitter (blocks movement of molecules from 1 molecule to another)
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" - if your ideal self matches your self-concept = happiest, high self esteem, confident
population
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering & communicating
coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
stress reaction
an acute emotional reaction to physical or psychological stress
near-death experience
an altered state oc consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug- induced hallucinations
electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp (not a brain scan --> listening to brain waves)
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. - NOT an anxiety disorder - lasts for 4 weeks to a lifetime - nightmares, flashbacks, social withdrawal, insomnia - can't tell who will get it and who won't after a specific trauma
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) - NOT an anxiety disorder - operant conditioning - shows extra activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG)
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. - chronic version of anxiety - worrying, having anxious feelings & thoughts, worrying about nothing - "free floating" = anxiety with no attachment to any subject - low heritability (environment plays a bigger role) - autonomic arousal, sympathetic nervous symptom
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation. - acute version of anxiety - easier to live with a phobia than GAD - classical conditioning
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. - panic attack = intense dread/terror, chest pains, choking, feeling like a heart attack - can only be diagnosed if it happens more than once
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.
eclectic approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements (MUSCLE MOVEMENTS - FRONTAL LOBE)
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship - emotions --> physical arousal & cognitive appraisal - arousal can enhance emotions - state of strong attraction, interest, excitement
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight. - .6 heritability
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), or fasting. - long term health affects on the stomach, teeth, throat, etc.
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning - emotional decision rather than reasoning - quick-acting, automatic source of ideas - "gut" feeling/decision
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them - encourages generosity - others depend on us to help
reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them - we help those who have helped us
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events; set of principles, built on observations; doesn't include evidence; broad statement (the big picture)
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. - the neural basis for learning and memory - what happens at the synapse level (synapse = junctions between neurons) - how effectively a message travels - propranolol = decreases LTP (memory forgotten) - adrenaline = increases LTP (memory learned faster)
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
social phobia
an intense fear of being watched and judged by others. It is visible as a fear of public appearances in which embarrassment or humiliation is possible, such as public speaking, eating, or performing.
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. + = source of ideas about human nature, doesn't require a lot of tech. - = overgeneralize, assumptions can be made
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes (HOW we interpret the world)
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
norm
an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. - beliefs = stereotypes - emotions = hostility, envy, fear - predisposition to act = to discriminate - emotional roots = scapegoat theory - when bad things happen, prejudice offers an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame - cognitive roots of prejudice = forming categories (other-race effect), power of vivid cases (availability heuristic ignores statistics) & just world belief (people must deserve what they get; fed by hindsight bias
recall
analogues to "fill in the black", you retrieve information previously learned and unconsciously stored (harder to recall information) - our storage and recall capacity = unlimited
bottom - up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory integration
antagonist
antagonist molecule fills the lock so that the neurotransmitter cannot get in and activate the receptor site (different types of drug addiction)
observational learning & anxiety
anxiety can be acquired through observational learning - if you see someone avoiding or fearing some object or creature you might pick up that fear and adopt it - how fear gets passed down in families
placebo effect
any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy - behavior with the intent of harming another person - variation in levels of aggression = genetic factors, neural factors & hormones/alcohol
sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations ( SENSES & RECEIVES INFORMATION - PARIETAL LOBE)
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking (more advanced species have more association areas > motor & sensory area) - memory, language, attention, meditation, spirituality, consciousness
phantom limb sensation
as the brain produces false sounds (ears ringing) and sights (lights with migraines), it can produce pain or other perception of amputated/missing arms or legs
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups (experiment)
person-situation controversy
assume that we have different traits that function in different situations
volley principle
at ultra high frequencies, receptor cells fire in succession, combing signals to reach higher firing rates - activates lots of impulses & explains intermediate pitches
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction.
problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly, by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. - AKA source misattribution - forgetting where the source came from & attributing the source to your own experience
agoraphobia
avoidance of situations in which one will fear having a panic attack, especially a situation in which it is difficult to get help, and from which it difficult to escape.
skills inside the womb
babies begin to learn language through vibrations of mothers voice in the womb
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which child speaks mostly in two-word statements
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters carious sounds at first unrelated to the household language - UNIVERSAL BABBLE = all babies make the same sounds from the broca area (L frontal lobes) which make sounds
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
behavior feedback
behavior, the way one acts, influences emotions
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.
belonging
being connected to others/being a part of a community
ostracism
being cut off from social interaction (being excluded)
Cyberostracism
being excluded online
great person theory of leadership
belief that all great leader share certain traits
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. - orderly sequence of biological growth - development of cerebellum which creates readiness to start walking - nature
why people overeat
biological influences: - appetite hormones - stomach pangs - weight set point - attraction to sweet & salty tastes psychological influences: - sight & smell of food - stress & mood (carbohydrates boost serotonin levels which has calming effects) - serving size social influences: - when you around people you tend to eat more
Biopsychosocial levels of analysis
biology + psychology + environment
oxytocin
bonding hormone
resolution phase
both male and female enter the refractory period
great amplitude
bright colors
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs (bunch of neurons); part of PNS
daily hassles
daily stressors (rush hour traffic, long lines etc.)
sexually transmitted infection
caused by unprotected sex
obesity
causes diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, gallstones, arthritis, alzheimers (women), cancer & shorter life expectancy
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning & thinking
John Garcia
challenged the idea that all associations can be learned equally well & found that it was easier to learn associations that make sense for survival - taste aversion = if sickened after sampling a new food, they avoid it after
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
secure attachment
children who show distress when their caregivers leave
belief perserverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited - holding on to your ideas over time - ACTIVELY REJECTING information that contradicts your ideas
evidence-based practice
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.
FRITZ HEIDER
coined the attribution theory
FESTINGER
coined the cognitive dissonance theory
states of consciousness - occur spontatneously
daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming
"high road"
conscious track --> visual perception track
broca's area
controls language expression, an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech - produces sound - damage to broca area = difficulty in putting words together in sentences or speaking single words
wernicke's area
controls language reception, a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe - catch sound and receive language - damage to wernicke area = difficulty comprehending speech and producing coherent speech
Nature - Nurture issue
controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of traits and behaviors.
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
antisocial behavior
copying aggressive or violent behavior (children who witness violence are more likely to become aggressive)
prosocial behavior
copying positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Structuralism
created by Edward Titchner, stressed the basic units of experience and the combinations in which they occur
stress on immune system
creates competing energy needed to defeat viruses & bacteria
prenatal hormones
critical period for neural-hormonal control
death deferral phenomenon
death rates increase after Christmas, birthdays, or holidays
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
William James
developed FUNCTIONALISM, based his school on Charles Darwin; wrote 1st psychology textbook: Principles of Psychology
phrenology
developed by Franz Gall; study of bumps on skull and their relationship to mental abilities; not much science behind their studies except for that different parts of the brain do different things
functionalism
developed by William James, Studied the purpose of behavior, how ones behavior allows it to function in its environment.
psychological disorder
deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. - state of mental/behavioral ill health - deviant = differing from the norm, context matters because it is different from what would be expected - collection of symptoms that go together
sensory adaption
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of a constant stimulation
cognitive development theory
dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development - their knowledge and understanding.
wish-fulfillment theory
dream's express unacceptable feelings, contain manifest content & a deeper layer of latent content ( a hidden meaning)
information-processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories - occurs during REM sleep as the brain deals with daily stress and events
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, methamphetamine)
depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (alcohol, barbiturates & opiates)
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded- up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
antianxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression and some anxiety disorders. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters.
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder.
small amplitude
dull colors
fraternal birth-order effect
each older brother increases a man's odds of having a homosexual orientation
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram -"go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs (semantics is right but syntax is not)
neural impulse/action potential
electrical signals traveling down the axon (potassium and sodium ions)
Zajonc
emotional reaction apart from interpretation of a situation
catharsis
emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
active listening
empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy
how does memory work?
encoding --> storage --> retrieval
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words - structural, the appearance of the letters (written in capitals? - the sound of the word (rhymes with ...) - hearing/seeing requires less effortful processing than understanding the material
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention - when encoding we are more likely to retain it if we deeply process the word and focus on the semantics (meaning) of the words - the meaning of the word
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort and a way to encode information into memory to keep it from decaying and make it easier to retrieve - AKA studying - driving for the first time --> extremely focused & takes effort/thinking to do it - listening to something in a foreign language - how much effort/thinking is used to learn/do something - E.x: chunking (grouping), mnemonics (images, maps), hierarchies/categories, rehearsal/practice, deep & semantic processing
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information (retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning)
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. - AKA retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning - e.x --> using quizlet to test yourself and strengthen your knowledge
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common - negative: part of heuristics that prevents/impedes us to make reasonable problem solving - based on an impression, judgement, un-conscious rather than logical reasoning
environment
every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
cross-sectional studies
examine people of different ages all at once - scores decrease over time - evidence for change/decline
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
plateau phase
excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure increases
activation-synthesis theory
explains the origin and function of dreams
psychology of sex
external stimuli: - women exhibit same amount of sexual arousal to erotic stimuli as men - with repeated exposure, the emotional response to a stimulus often lessens - adverse effects = depictions of women being sexually coerced & TV/magazine depictions
states of consciousness - physiologically induced
hallucinations, orgasm, food or oxygen starvation
excitement phase
genitals become engorged with blood, woman's vagina expands and nipples may enlarge
proximity
geographic nearness is friendships most powerful predictor - psychological factor which brings people together
immediate reinforcement
giving a desirable stimulus right after the behavior --> more efficient in strengthening the positive behavior
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
task leadership
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals - good at keeping a group centered on its mission
GRIT
graduated & reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction, a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
social leadership
group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support - democratic style - "collective intelligence"
NREM - 1
hallucinations, fleeting images
treating hearing loss
hearing aid --> conduction hearing loss implant --> sensorineural hearing loss
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells (caused by loud noise)
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (hammer, anvil, stirrup, ear canal, ear drum) - cochlear implant
human factor psychologists
help to design appliances, machines & work settings that fit our natural perceptions and inclinations - help to design intuitive products with easy usability
semicircular canals
help you keep your balance; when the fluid inside sloshes around it can cause feeling dizzy and unbalanced
cortisol
helps our bodies respond to brief stress
short wavelength
high frequency, bluish colors
Humanistic Psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
life-span perspective
how maturation and experience shape us not only in infancy and childhood, but also in adolescence and beyond.
Neuroscience perspective
how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences (biological, cognitive, clinical)
evolutionary perspective
how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes (biological, developmental, social) (Charles Darwin)
dissociation theory
hypnosis causes us to divide consciousness voluntarily (one responds to suggestions and another part retains awareness) - explained by ERNEST HILGARD
role theory
hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view (children don't have the same ability to take another's point of view like adults)
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. - semantics = set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds (idea/meaning of a sentence) - syntax = set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences (how the order of words makes meaning)
phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit - vowels and consonants - "touch" = 3 phonemes (t-o-ch) - "cat" = 3 phonemes (c-a-t)
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) - parts of a word - "touch" = 1 morpheme - "illegal" = 2 morphemes (il - legal)
control group
in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning - touching forehead (baby) - hearing bell - song NS = CS
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response (UR). - no prior teaching ("inborn") - NS + US = UR
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) - NS + US = UR
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. - NS + US
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus - having a different reaction to stimuli - PREVENTS generalization
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated - different locations (high = outside & low = inner)
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch - how quickly nerve impulses reach the brain
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking - different rates of reinforcement affects behavior
variable - ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses - after an unpredictable number of time... - reinforcement after a random number of behaviors - when playing slot machines - trolling for fish - kid has tantrum, parent sometimes gives in
variable - interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time interview - unpredictably often... - reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time - checking for a Facebook response - checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text
fixed - ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses - every so many times... - reinforcement after every nth behavior - buy 10 coffees, get 1 free - pay per product unit produced - rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
fixed - interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. - every so often... - reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time - Tuesday discount prices - getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done - repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
pruning process
in our brain, unused links are shut down to strengthen others
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing - the highway to unconscious - key therapeutic technique - suggested meanings for slips of the tongue & for "latent" content of dreams
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. - unconscious decision to bury a memory (Sigmund Freud) - motivated forgetting = choosing to forget or to change our memories
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. 1. regression 2. reaction formation 3. projection 4. rationalization 5. displacement 6. denial
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgement.
perceptual adaption
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event - memory gets constructed --> imagined, selected, changed, and rebuilt - Elizabeth Loftus article --> wording effect alters memory
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. - ADDING something good - pet a dog that comes when you call it - pay a person who paints your house
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. - REMOVING something bad - take painkillers to end pain - fasten seat belt to end loud beeping
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval - changing to fit in - sensitive to social norms - Ash Conformity --> changing their answers to fit in with the group
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality - going along with others because their ideas and behavior makes sense - evidence and facts change our minds
top - down processing
information processing guided by higher - level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
structured interviewers
interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applications, each of whom is rated on established scales (more accurate than unstructured interviews)
toddlerhood stage
issue: - autonomy v. shame and doubt description of task: - toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
elementary school stage
issue: - competence v. inferiority description of task: - children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
middle adulthood stage
issue: - generativity v. stagnation description of task: - in middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
adolescence stage
issue: - identity v. role confusion description of task: - teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
preschooler stage
issue: - initiative v. guilt description of task: - preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
late adulthood stage
issue: - integrity v. despair description of task: - when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
young adulthood stage
issue: - intimacy v. isolation description of task: - young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
infancy stage
issue: - trust v. mistrust description of task: - if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
epigenetic effect
it leaves chemical marks (alcohol) on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off
williams syndrome
lack of racial stereotypes and prejudice
observational learning
learning by observing others; learning without direct experience by watching and imitating each other
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ("monkey-see-monkey-do")
significant life changes
life transitions (marriage, divorce, leaving home, losing a job)
psychophysiological illnesses
literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches - stress leaves us less able to fight off diseases
dissociative amnesia
loss of memory with no known physical cuase; inability to recall selected memories or any memories
long wavelength
low frequency, reddish colors
visual cortex
majority of OCCIPITAL LOBE
gender differences in IQ
males = more intelligence extremes (more low & high IQ), better at complex math problems and spatial reasoning females = more stable IQ scores, better at spelling, finding things, emotions & more verbally fluent
polygraph
measures emotion linked changes - breathing, cardiovascular activity, perspiration (lying = left frontal lobe)
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices - a memory "trick" to strengthen knowledge - e.x --> PEMDAS, SOH CAH TOA - using peg words --> visually associates new words with an existing list that is already memorized
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" - AKA declarative memory - formed through studying, rehearsing, thinking, processing - stored in long-term memory - knowing "that" - declarative memory = HIPPOCAMPUS
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. - "whatever intelligence tests measure"
Mary Calkins
mentored by William James, first female president of APA (denied of PhD)
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation + = no alterations to experiment - = only description
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts - influencing attitudes with evidence & logic - data, evidence, logic
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness - changing attitudes by going around the rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, associations - personal feelings
rationalization
offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth - high self-esteem = less chance of being bullied, confidence, increased resistance to conformity, narcissism - low self-esteem = depression, being critical
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety - affects endorphins
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically - easier to remember and recall by studying 1 bunch at a time - organizing information - works even better if organized information into meaningful groups
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood - math, science, technology - thinking quickly & abstractly
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age - wisdom, knowledge, expertise, vocabulary - philosophy, English, history, humanities
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Maslow's hierarchy of needs - hunger
our drive to meet the physiological needs of hunger & thirst take priority over safety needs (prompting us to take risks at times in order to eat)
lost benefit analysis
our goal is to maximize rewards & minimize costs = utilitarianism - norms of helping
sleep
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
adaption-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgement (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (priming effect) items in a list - priming effect --> the reason why we know the first items - recency effect --> why we know last items
self concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) - thinking that others are putting their full focus on you
authoritative parenting style
parents are both demanding and responsive (adults who model a good life)
authoritarian parenting style
parents impose rules and expect obedience
permissive parenting style
parents submit to their children's desires
grit
passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal
posthypnotic amnesia
people report forgetting events that occurred while they were hypnotized
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and other's mental status, about their feelings, perceptions and thoughts, and the behaviors they might predict - ability to understand that others have their own thoughts - young children & autistic people do NOT have this
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.
complexity
perceived as sound quality or resonance - simple = pure tone - complex = mix of frequencies
memory
persistence of learning over time, through the storage and retrieval of information and skills
alarm reaction
phase 1 of GAS: - sympathetic NS is activated - heart rate & respiration increase - perspiration occurs - feel faintness of shock
resistance
phase 2 of GAS: - temperature & blood pressure increases - respiration remains high - adrenal glands pump hormones into bloodstream
exhaustion
phase 3 of GAS: - body's reserves begin to run out - more vulnerable to illness - chance of death
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children cause by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial disproportions.
aggression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
Automatic Nervous System
physiological arousal felt during various emotion is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system (arousing) vs. parasympathetic nervous system (calming)
parietal lobes
portion of cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head; includes areas that receives sensory input for touch and body position (INCLUDES SENSORY CORTEX)
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the VISUAL AREAS
frontal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in SPEAKING, MUSCLE MOVEMENT, MAKING PLANS & JUDGEMENTS
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the AUDITORY AREAS, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
post-traumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crisis. - finding strengths - finding connection - finding hope
hippocampus
processes conscious, episodic memories, works with amygdala to form emotionally charged memories
Ratio
proportion
unstructured interviews
provide someone's personality but also give interviewees considerable power to control the impression they are making
hallucinogens
psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. - GAD - panic disorder - phobias (OCD & PTSD are not considered anxiety disorders anymore)
mood disorders
psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder. - depression - bipolar (manic depression) - S.A.D (seasonal affective disorder) - cutting is a symptom of mood disorder
personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. - anxious: ruled by fear of social rejection - eccentric/odd: flat affect, no social attachments - dramatic: attention-seeking; narcissistic; self-centered; antisocial
Types of research (psych. subfield)
psychologists in Universities and companies, write textbooks, research
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
correlational research method
purpose: to detect naturally occurring relationships, to assess how well one variable predicts another conducted through: collect data on two or more variables weaknesses: does not specify cause and effect
experimental
purpose: to explore cause & effect conducted through: manipulate one or more factors (random assignment) what's manipulated: independent variable weaknesses: not feasible, results may not generalize to other contexts, not ethical to manipulate certain variables
descriptive research method
purpose: to observe and record behavior conducted through: case studies, naturalistic observations & surveys weaknesses: no control of variables (misleading)
Natural Killer Cells (NK cells)
pursue diseased cells - those infected by viruses or cancer
back to sleep position
putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of smothering crib death (associated with later crawling) - genes also guide motor development
REM Sleep
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for twitching) but other body systems are active - nightmares - dreams
re-standardization
re-testing a sample of the general population to make an updated, accurate comparison group, in case people are smarter than they used to be when the test was first made. - rising average intelligence test performance
Wilhelm Wundt's experiment
reaction times impaired because of the word choice "aware". Measured reaction time (cognitive & experimental psychology)
retrieval
reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded - RECALLING INFORMATION - taking tests require you to retrieve the information you learned
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep - one of the most common sleep disroders
Seasonal Affective Disorder
recurring seasonal pattern of depression, usually during winter's short dark, cold days - recurring seasonal pattern of depression in winter
denial
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
psychological function theory
regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement the desired response every time it occurs - reinforcement EVERY time --> quick learning
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; a results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement - reinforcement PART of the time --> slower more persistent learning
self-reference effect
relating materials to your own experiences which aids encoding and retention
causation
result as to why something is happening, only proved in an experiment (NOT a case study)
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection - AKA nondeclarative memory - stuff that we are not completely aware of - phobias - knowing "how" - formed without our awareness that we are building a memory without rehearsal or other processing of working memory - procedural memory = CEREBELLLUM
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
regression
retreating to more infantile psychosexual stage (curling up into a ball, sucking thumb, etc.)
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others - sharing self in conversation increases intimacy
gallup workplace audit
satisfaction survey which aims to assess how happy employees are at their jobs
behaviorism
scientific study of outwardly observable behavior rather than subjective mental states
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
conventional
second basic level of moral thinking; uphold laws and rules to gain social approval (adolescence)
Margaret Floy, Washburn
second female president of APA; wrote The Animal Mind (Darwinistic)
estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person - taking your anger out on someone/something else
pain circuit
signals that travel to the spinal cord, up through small nerve fibers, which then conduct pain signals to the brain
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting, that marks bulimia nervosa.
NREM - 2
sleep spindles
smell - odor receptors
smell --> doesn't go to thalamus, it goes directly to olfactory nerve
early warning signs of schizophrenia
social factors: early separation from parents; short attention span; disruptive OR withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability biological factors: having a mother with severe schizophrenia; birth complications; poor muscle coordination; maternal virus
stressor
something that causes the release of stress hormones
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety.
reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites (acting super nice to your enemy or being really mean to someone you start to like)
stress response system
sympathetic nervous system: - increases heart rate & respiration - dulls feeling of pain - releases sugar & fat from body's store - FIGHT OR FLIGHT
cerebellum
the "little brain" t the rear of the brainstem functions: processing sensory input, coordinating movement output & balance, enables nonverbal learning & memory
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group membership
DSM - IV - TR
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, with an updated "text revision"; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. - used to justify payment for treatment - consistent with diagnoses used by medical doctors worldwide - it is a way of getting data & classifying people into disorders - looks at people in 5 different ways (5 "Axes" of Diagnoses)
puberty timing
the SEQUENCE of physical changes in puberty is far more predictable than TIMING
two-factor theory
the Schachter & Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) sub-tests. - WISC = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards (shows high EQ)
competence
the ability to do something successfully or efficiently - "being good at something" can affect how you feel
divergent thinking
the ability to generate new ideas, new actions, and multiple options and answers (creativity)
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions - perceiving emotions - understanding emotions - managing emotions - using emotions - ability to delay gratification = high EQ - EQ correlates with success in career & other social situations
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
social intelligence
the ability to understand and navigate social situations - street smart & being social
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response - our ability to answer questions we have been exposed to before even if we do not remember having seen them - using cues to trigger memory (priming kids with picture of Santa Claus led them to share more candy) - "invisible memory" --> affects us unconsciously - used by many advertisers
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplace
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution (adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores)
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (lack by young infants - why they enjoy peak-a-boo)
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing (someone with total brain damage above medulla could still breathe but someone with damage in the area could not)
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (temperature, wakefulness, arousal, energy, mental sharpness)
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes & external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible
endocrine systm
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; "flight or fight"
basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy expenditure - lower weight = lower BMR - higher weight = higher BMR - reason why it is harder for obese people to lose weight because they have a high BMR
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord (makes decisions for the body) brain --> web of neural networks spinal cord --> full of inter neurons that sometimes have a "mind of their own"
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience - brain doesn't repair damaged neurons BUT it can restore some of its funtions (form new connections, reassign networks & insert new neurons)
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla (all 5 senses are routed EXCEPT smell)
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window - ossicles --> hammer, anvil, stirrup - oval window --> between middle ear & cochlea
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. - erogenous zones = sensitive areas of the body - if messed up it will result in problems in the future
coronary heart disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries (closely linked with stress)
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital. - treats psychological diseases the same way as a physical disease ( no stigma, a diagnosis, treating them like patients, etc. )
social clock
the culturally preferred thinking of social events such as marriage, parenthood and retirement
compassionate love
the deep affectionate attainment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined - hormone oxytocin = supports feelings of trust, calmness & bonding - a feeling that lives are intertwined
fetus
the developing human organism from a 8 weeks after conception to birth (organs are developed enough to give the fetus a chance of survival if born prematurely)
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month (organs begin to form & function, heart beat begins)
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social - culture, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, red etc.
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. - US stops appearing with CS, CR decreases
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information - NEW memory/information interferes - daily activities retroactively interfere with morning lecture
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information - OLD memory/information interfere - makes it difficult to learn new things - e.x --> you have to change your phone number and you keep typing in your old phone number to your new phone
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fear, nervous, stress) symptoms: pupils dilates, accelerated heart beat, relaxes bladder, inhibits digestion
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (response to sympathetic) symptoms: contracts pupils, slows heartbeat, contracts bladder, stimulates digestion
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles, the skeletal nervous system (controls voluntary movements of muscles)
deja vu
the eerie sense that "i've experinced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience - "already seen"
pituitary glands
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands ("master gland" of endocrine system)
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group - when people of similar views form a group together, discussion within the group makes their views more extreme
stress appraisal
the events in our lives flowing through a physiological filter - how we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience & how effectively we respond
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed.
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting. - does the intelligence test yield the same score if administered again, even if administered by someone else - split-half reliability = to 2 halves of the test yield the same results - test-retest reliability = will the test give the same result if used again
personal control
the extent to which we perceive control over our environment
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months.
zygote
the fertilized eff; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo (cells begin to differentiate in function & structure)
menarche
the first menstrual period (when puberty begins for females)
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus (cocktail party effect)
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - 1. excitement 2. plateau 3. orgasm 4. resolution
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an arouse tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. - proposed by CLARK HULL - based on instinct theory because it failed to answer human motives - a psychological need creates an aroused state
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system - sensory memory--> (encoding) --> short term memory (encoding) --> long term memory - echoic memory (hearing) --> sensory memory captures 3-4 seconds - iconic memory (seeing) --> seeing and image for 1/20th of a second
anterograde amnesia
the inability to form NEW long-term declarative memory - can not form NEW explicit memories
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember explicit memories before the age of 3 years old - implicit memory is retained --> skills and conditioned responses (walking, talking, language)
retrograde amnesia
the inability to retrieve memory of the past - forgetting OLD memories
encoding
the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored - PUTTING INFORMATION IN - 2 parts: encoding into short- term memory & long-term memory
storage
the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved - INFORMATION IS HELD (warehouse)
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal, cognition, and environment - how personality, thoughts, social environment all reinforce/cause each other
Cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language)
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
tranformational leadership
the kind that motivates others to identify with and commit themselves to the group's mission - leads more engaged, trusting & effective workers
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. - peace maker - conscious mind - learn as toddlers
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; "all or none response"; number of excitory (party animals, gas pedal) > inhibitory (party poopers, brakes)
placenta
the life-link that transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother to the embryo
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity - loss of self-awareness and self-restraint - makes people online or wearing masks say or do meaner things because their identity is concealed - Milgrim Obedience --> when the "teachers" couldn't see the "patient" they were more likely to continue shocking them
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
cognition
the mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating - thinking = cognition
median
the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above and below
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a "just noticeable difference"
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives - in pursuit of social harmony groups will make decisions without an open exchange of ideas - prevents thinking & prevents a realistic assessment of options - can be prevented if individuals speak up when a group decision seems wrong
mode
the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organ in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. - vague ink blots to show inner feelings - not standardized/reliable/valid - used to interpret mental health
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (e.g - per second) - low frequency = low pitch sound - high frequency = high pitch sound - frequency = pitch
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brain stem is responsible for automatic survival functions
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figure) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside force beyond our personal control determine our fate - we feel an OUTSIDE force is responsible for our fate
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself - middle/upper class people are happier when comparing themselves to the poor
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate - we feel that WE our responsible for our fate
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
dispositional attribution
the person's stable, enduring traits, personality, ability, emotions (blaming the person for the outcome of an event) - Stanford Experiment (they are mean because they mistreated the prisoners)
resilience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.
mere-exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases linking of them - familiarity breeds fondness - tendency to bond with those who are similar to us - we prefer stimuli we have seen before over novel stimuli
set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. - hypothalamus adjusts person's metabolism to maintain that weight (changes basal metabolic rate) - persons set point can change over time
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction.
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. - among of variation that is apparently explained by genetics - from 0 - 1 - group statistic NOT individual statistic
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response - CR returns
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. - includes: knowledge, skills, and experiences
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
social psychologists
the scientific study of how we think about, influence & relate to one another - looks at the situation that would influence the person's actions
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive - Martin Seligman - focuses on building strengths, emotional well-being & optimism - find ways to help people thrive
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
audition
the sense or act of hearing
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body (gathers and sends information to and from the rest of the body)
y chromosome
the sex chromosome found ONLY in males. When paired with an x chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child
x chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two x chromosomes; males have one. An x chromosome from each parent produces a female child
preoperational stage
the stage (from 2 to 6/7 years old) during which a child learns to use language but doesn't yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic - developmental phenomena --> pretend play & egocentrism
sensorimotor stage
the stage (from birth to 2 years old) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities - exploring through SENSES - developmental phenomena --> object permanence & stranger anxiety
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
concrete operational stage
the stage of cognitive development (from about 6/7 to 11 years old) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events - developmental phenomena --> conservation & mathematical transformations - ANALOGIES
formal operation stage
the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning at 12 years old) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts - developmental phenomena --> abstract logic & potential for mature moral reasoning - ALLEGORICAL THINKING
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health - emerged to study mind-body interaction
epigenetics
the study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain - spine is ELEVATOR to send message of pain
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
moral reasoning
the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
lymphocytes
the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system (B & T)
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). - teaches us how we learn behavior
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments - how we phrase/word a statement or question - changing the focus/perspective of the question which affects the answer - Elizabeth Loftus article
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test Terman believed --> remove your genes from the population if you have a low IQ (eugenics) Binet believed --> study, develop self discipline & attention span if you have a low IQ
social exchange theory
theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs
scapegoat theory
theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame - negative emotions nourish prejudice
cognitive dissonance theory
theory that we act to releave the discomfort (dissonance) we fell when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. - FESTINGER - feeling guilty about our actions & beleifs not being the same
attribution theory
theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition - Fritz Heider - a conclusion about the cause of an observed behavior/event
endorphins
these hormones can be released by the body to reduce pain perceptions
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
postconventional
third basic level of moral thinking; actions reflect belief in basic rights (adulthood)
collectivist cultures
those which emphasize group unity, allegiance, and purpose over the wishes of the individual - behavior is attributed to the situation (situational attribution) - credit for success is given to others - blame for failures is taken on oneself (dispositional)
Left Hemisphere
thoughts & logic, details, language (words & definitions), linear & lateral, calculation, pieces & details
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
Interval
time
telomeres
tips of chromosomes that wear down by smoking, obesity, or stress
lesion
tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue (way of studying the brain by cutting out pieces)
longitudinal studies
track the performance of one group of people, or cohort, over time - evidence for stability
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.
trial and error
trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying others - more likely to have errors - ex: wander around a supermarket randomly trying to find mustard
identical twins
twins who develop from a single (monozygotic) fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal twins
twins who develop from separate (dizygotic) fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to EMOTION (helps process emotions especially fear & aggression)
UR
unconditioned response
US
unconditioned stimulus
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and well-learned information, such as word meanings. 1. procedural memory - knowing how to do things, motor skills (knowing how to ride a bike, well-practiced knowledge such as word meanings) 2. conditioned associations - such as a smell that triggers thoughts of a favorite place - listening to something in English (doesn't take effort) - driving after knowing how to for a long time
"low road"
unconscious, automatic track --> visual action track
tend and befriend
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
Decibels
unit to measure intensity of sound --> measured EXPONENTIALLY
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
catastrophes
unpredictable large-scale events that are appraised as threatening (wars, earthquake, famine)
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others - helping & protecting others without need for personal gain, doing it because it is the right thing to do
humanistic theories
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth - Maslow & Rogers - did NOT like psychodynamics - wanted to study healthy people rather than those with mental problems - focused on the conditions that support healthy personal growth
psychodynamic theories
view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences - psychoanalysis part 2 - Adler, Horney & Jung - neo-Freudians - similarities --> believed in unconscious, id, ego, superego - differences --> believed that personality are from social, NOT sexual tensions in childhood & that we have a collective unconscious (containing images from our species' experiences, not just repressed memories & wishes)
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and social context - result of an interaction takes place between a person and their social context - involves how we think about ourselves and situations
choice blindness
ways people are blind to their own choices and preferences
misscommunications
we DEPEND on both verbal & nonverbal cues to distinguish messages (technology limits this leading to miscommunication)
closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
proximity
we group nearby figures together
continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
reward theory of attraction
we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us & continue the relationship
judging based on vivid cases
when a drastic event happens, people then attribute that event with the people who committed it - "muslim = terrorist" after 9/11
conception
when a women's ovary releases an egg and millions of sperm race upstream approaching it.
formal operations
when adolescents achieve the intellectual summit
diffusion of responsibility
when more people shared a responsibility for helping, people were more likely to help
cognitive dissonance
when our actions are not in harmony with our attitudes
negative punishment
withdraw a rewarding stimulus - take a way a teenager's phone - no TV time - revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines
erotic plasticity
women are more likely to feel and act on bisexual attractions
Applied psychology (psych. subfield)
work with people and patients
Herbert Simon's 10-year rule
world class experts have invested ten years of hard work, at a rate of as much as 40 hours a week for 50 weeks per year