AP Psychology Brain & BBB (Murphy)

Serotonin

"mood molecule"; chemical that affects regulation asleep, dreaming, mood, hunger, pain, and aggressive behavior; and attaches to many receptors (receptor sites)

Neuron

100 billion in brain; individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three classes: efferent, afferent, and interneurons; made of Colin dendrites, axons, synaptic gap, terminal buttons, synaptic vesicles, and sometimes myelin

Human genomes

30,000 genes needed to build a human

Cerebral cortex

80% of weight of human brain; 70% of CNS's neurons; wrinkled outer portion of un-myelin aided cells (cerebrum) covering both hemispheres; processes thought, vision, language, memory, and emotions; most recently of all part of nervous system

Neural plasticity

Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically

Corpus Callosum

Connects two brain hemispheres; allows two hemispheres to communicate what each one is doing and the information that is being processed by each hemisphere.

Hypothalamus

Controls bodily activity (heart rate, temp) Motivated behaviors and arousal (sleep, sexual behaviors) through its effects on the endocrine system. Also houses reward circuits that, when activated, produce feelings of pleasure and euphoria

Right Hemisphere

Emotional, intuitive half of the brain; artisti or creative skills; recognition of faces

Amygdala

Governs initial emotional reactions to events, particularly fear and aggression

Axon

Greek for axle; a single long, fluid-filled tube that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands; can be 1 or 2 mm to 3 feet in length; often referred to as a nerve or tract; bundled together

Glial cells

Greek for glue; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste; prevents harmful substances from entering bloodstream; may play important role in memory and learning; affects brain's response to new experiences

Wernicke's area

Portion of the temporal lobe found only in the left hemisphere; involved specifically in processing and understanding speech.

Temporal Lobe

Responsible for auditory processing (also plays a role in long-term memory)

Parietal Lobe

Responsible for processing body sensations and all skin senses

CT scan

Uses x-rays to take pictures of the brain at various angles

Sympathetic division

a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; fight or flight; busiest when frightened, angry, or aroused; increases heart rate, increases breathing rate, enlarges pupils, stops digestion; connects to all internal organs; sudden reaction

Spinal cord

a bundle of neuron axons which act like cables carrying messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body; wrapped in myelin and, surrounded and protected by vertebral bones; spinal injuries-paralysis, bowel/bladder control, low blood pressure

Autonomic nervous system

a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; it takes a message from the central nervous system to the internal organs

Limbic system

a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories

Receptor site

a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways

Acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter found in high levels in the hippocampus and limbic regions of the brain

Relative refractory period

a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state

Myelin sheath

a white, lipid (fatty) material in casing many neuron fibers and enables faster transmission of an impulse; white matter; it's pinched at intervals; not on all neurons but found throughout the body; insulin to prevent interference from other neurons

Absolute refractory period

a. After firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be; length-1000th of a second

Neural impulse

action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)

Epinephrine

adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster

Sensory neurons

afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Cerebellum

attached to back of brainstem; plays integral role in balance and coordination of muscle movements.

Nerve

bundles of axons

Endorphins

chemical inhibiting the transmission of pain, often experienced during exercise, i.e. "runner's high"; discovered in 1970s when trying to find out how opiates were (morphine, heroin); "endorphins" is a pharmacological (drug/med) term

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released by synaptic vesicles and travel through the synaptic gap assisting neural impulses (messages) as they leave one neuron to the next; affects adjacent neurons; examples: ACh, dopamine, serotonin, endorphins, and norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and glycine

Dopamine

chemical that influences voluntary movement, learning, pleasure, memory,-is implicated in Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia; in Parkinson's disease a causes tremors, muscle spasms, increasing muscular rigidity; recently implicated in ADHD

Amniocentesis

collection of fetal cells and testing them for genetic abnormalities; using a long needle to withdraw cells from third trimester pregnant woman; uses amniotic fluid which surrounds fetus in the womb

Interneurons

connection neurons; Association neurons that carry messages to another neuron

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes

Somatic nervous system

division of peripheral nervous system; carries messages from afferent neurons central nervous system and between central nervous system to skeletal muscles; controls voluntary actions

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Hindbrain

division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles

Motor neurons

efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands

Ions

electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron

Genes

elements that control transmission of traits; on the chromosomes

Pituitary gland

endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain

Parathyroid

for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)

Insulin

hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes

Parathormone

hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids

Temporal lobe

involved in complex visual tasks and processing; balance; emotional regulation and maturity; Strong oral and language comprehension; smell; hearing; still developing after age 16

Hippocampus

involved in processing new information and storing new memories; plays integral role in learning

PET scan

involves the injection of radioactive dye into the blood stream that can be traced and detected to monitor blood flow to various regions of the brain.

Corpus callosum

large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s

Adrenal glands

located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine; stimulated by autonomic nervous system

Thyroid gland

located in the net; it regulates metabolism by secreting two hormones: thyroxine and parathormone

Dominant genes

member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait

Recessive gene

member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene

Prefrontal Cortex

most frontal region of the frontal lobe; involved in higher-order cognitive processes (planning, decision making, emotional control)

Reticular formation (RF) (RES)

netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system

Norepinephrine

noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response

Pancreas

organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones: insulin and glucagon

Chromosomes

pair of threadlike bodies within the cell ridiculous; contains genes

Occipital lobe

part of cerebral cortex that receives visual information

Pons

part of the brain involved in sleep regulation also connects a cerebellum to the cerebral cortex; sleep and wake cycles

Medulla

part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature

Parietal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex never see sensory information from skin, muscles, joints, organs, taste buds; involved in spatial/visual abilities and integrates all sensory signals; immature until age 16

Frontal lobe

part of the cerebral cortex; coordinates messages from other cerebral lobes; involved in complex problem-solving tasks, thinking, self-control, judgment, emotion regulation, personality affects, concentration, goal directed behavior; restructures in teen years

Broca's area

portion of the motor cortex found only in the left hemisphere and involved specifically in coordinating the muscles used in speech

Motor projection areas

primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands

Polygenic inheritance

process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits

Neurogenesis

production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life

EEG scan

provides info in the form of line tracings called "brain waves"

ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone)

released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system)

Thyroxine

released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism)

Gonads

reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries

Frontal Lobe

responsible for controlling behavior, thought and emotion (cognitive processes; reasoning, problem solving)

Limbic System

responsible for memory and emotional responses

Hormones

serves a function similar to neurotransmitters in that they carry messages; chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream; manufactured by glands (mostly); help regulate bodily functions

Graded potential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire

Motor cortex

strip of frontal lobe specialized for processing sensations of touch and for integrating various sensations

Twin studies

studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

Strain studies

studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another

Family studies

studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative

Selection studies

studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait

Behavioral genetics

study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking

Genetics

study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next

Neuroscience

study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology

Psychobiology

study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience

Synaptic cleft

synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next

Axon terminal

terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters

Endocrine glands

the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream

Endocrine system

the body slow chemical communication system which is made up of a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; made of the glands-pineal, pituitary, parathyroid, thyroid, pancreas, and adrenal, ovaries and testes

Central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord; 90% of the bodies neurons

Dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of the cell body that receives messages and conducts impulses; Greek for tree

Midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

Synapse

the point of communication between two neurons-includes axon terminal of the sending neuron, the synaptic space (gap), and dendrites/cell body of the receiving neuron

Synaptic vesicles

tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters

Forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

Brainstem

top of the spinal column

Identical twins

twins from a single fertilized oval with the same genetic makeup

Fraternal twins

two children developed on two separate eggs that share a room; no more genetically similar than other brother and sisters (i.e. different genetic makeup)

Resting potential

when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)

Polarization

when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization