AP Psychology Conditioning, Learning, and Retention
reinforcement
the strengthening of a tendency to do something
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
input information
What is the first step of the retention process?
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance,, after a pause, of an extinguished response
habitutation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
flashbulb memories
detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence
selective attention
determines which sensory messages we encode. We encode what we are attending to or what is important to us.
sensory memory system
direct receivers of information from the environment
retroactive interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of OLD information. -You played baseball for 10 years. This summer, you learned to golf. Your baseball swing will suffer due to the new motion of the golf swing
proactive interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of NEW information -You always park in the same spot; however, today that spot was taken, so you parked in a different spot. Due to this, you walk to your old spot to find your car.
continuous
each time a behavior occurs, reinforcement is given quick to learn easy to extinguish
visual encoding
encode information based on images
semantic encoding
encode information based on meaning (deep processing) -best chance of being recalled
acoustic encoding
encode information based on sound (shallow processing)
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort LTM goes with explicit memory
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect
constructed memory
false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred.
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitations and empathy
cocktail party effect
if you are talking with a friend and someone across the room says your name, our attention will probably involuntarily switch across the room. Once a sensory message entered sensory memory that you knew was important, you switched your attention to that message, and it was encoded into your short-term memory.
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (aka conditioned stimulus)
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers a response
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in mouth)
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
negative transfer of training
interference with learning due to dissimilarities between 2 otherwise similar tasks -stick shift
spacing effect
it is better to practice over allotted time, rather than all at once
chunking
items are learned in groups 3s or 4s
Long-term potentiation
learning creates a chemical change in the neurons, and increased activity in a particular pathway causes synapses to form or strengthen.
transfer of training
learning is moved from one task to another based on similarities between the tasks
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
photographic memory
longer than normal iconic memory allows more details to encode into STM (1 minute or more). Extremely rare
anterograde
loss of new ones
state learning
material learned in one chemical state is best reproduced when the same state occurs again. (also true for context and mood)
mnemonic devices
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."
explicit memory
memory of general knowledge or experienced events (episodic memory) LTM
observational learning
organism observes and imitates the behavior of others -does not require reinforcement -Bobo Doll experiment -Clarks' Doll experiment
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
serial position efect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
consolidation
over time, memory will solidify until permanent (sleep is the best)
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
testing effect
practiced retrieval is more effective than rereading the material
Edward L. Thorndike
proposed the law of effect, which states that a behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced
partial
reinforcement is not given each time a behavior occurs longer lasting takes longer to learn
implicit memory
retention without conscious recollection LTM goes with automatic processing
primary reinforcement
something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward
positive reinforcement
something pleasant occurs when an action is performed, increasing the tendency to repeat it.
negative reinforcement
something unpleasant is stopped if an action is performed
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental or well-learned information
acquisition
when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
fixed interval
reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time slow, stable
variable interval
reinforcement occurs after a varying amount of time if the desired act occurs slow, stable response
fixed ratio
reinforcement occurs after the desired act is performed a specific number of times subject works quickly to get reinforcement
variable ratio
reinforcement occurs each time a desired behavior occurs, but a different number of the desired acts is required each time most addictive
short-term memory 7 (+/-2)
retains information for a few seconds to a few minutes Can only hold ___________ items
long-term memory
retains information for days, weeks, months, years, decades and is a limitless storehouse
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection. (nondeclarative memory)
eidetic memory
this is popularly defined as the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme accuracy and in abundant volume. photographic memory
positive transfer of training
transfer of learning that results from similarities between 2 tasks -shooting at targets
amygdala
two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
causes of forgetting
-interruption of the electrical activity in the brain, either from a shock or concussion. -repression -amnesia -storage decay
deja vu
1. feelings and thoughts that you have been in the situation before. 2. Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience 3. In other words, information is processed backwards SMS-->STM-->LTM
Hermann Ebbinghaus
1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words retention curve forgetting curve
John B. Watson
1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert
Ivan Pavlov
1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation
BF Skinner
1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box
Elizabeth Loftus
1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)
basal ganglia
A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord.
simultaneous conditioning
CS and US are presented at the same time
Albert Bandura
Did research on social learning
Premack Principle
Even primary reinforcers, like food, will affect different animals in different ways depending, most notably, on how hungry they are. This idea that the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation, is expressed in the ________ ____________. -the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation -whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the other activity
stress LTM
Eyewitness Testimony: -Because the witness is under _________, perception is often faulty -Witnesses will use ______ to fill-in missing details
tip of the tongue phenomenon
Have you ever tried to remember someone's name and start listing things about their appearance or personality until you finally come up with the name? the temporary inability to remember information is sometimes called the ___________.
Wolfgang Kohler
He questioned Thorndike's conclusion that his animals learned mechanically through the selection of action of rewards and punishments (Hothersall , 1995). He attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. His first experiments with dogs and cats involved food being placed on the other side of a barrier. The dogs and cats went right towards the food instead of moving away from the goal to circumvent the barrier like chimps who were presented with this situation; chimps using sticks to get food.
focus severe preservatives depressants
Interferes with learning: Large doses of stimulants cause overstimulation and an inability to ________. ___________ anxiety blocks your ability to learn ______________found in prepared foods chemically depress your ability to form new synapses ________________ affect neurotransmitters necessary for learning
practice
Mental rehearsal is not as good as ___________, but it's better than nothing
method of location peg word acronym narrative chaining
Mnemonic Devices: -create a visual representation -create a rhyme or jingle -create a word -make a sentence
token economy
Money is a special kind of secondary reinforcer, called a generalized reinforcer, because it can be traded for virtually anything. One practical application of generalized reinforcers known as ___________ _______________. -a practical application of generalized reinforcers used in prisons, mental institutions, schools -every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token -can be traded for any one of a variety of reinforcers
recency effect
Recall is strongest for items at the end of a list
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known. When you suddenly know an answer to a problem.
instinctive drift
The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior is called ________ ___________.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
arousal stimulants anxious motivated gum exercise
To increase learning, do something that will cause physical __________. Use small doses of legal ___________. Be mildly ___________. Be ___________. Chew ________. _____________, and then engage in learning within 2-6 hours
backward conditioning
US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This method is particularly ineffective 1.presentation of US 2.presentation of CS
1. input information-encoding 2.retain information-storage 3.output information-retrieval
What are the 3 steps of the retention process?
Martin Seligman
Who was the chief researcher for learned helplessness?
operant conditioning
a behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated, while a behavior that is not rewarded takes place only at random
iconic
a brief visual memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
flash bulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. in the amygdala
punishment
a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated
repression
a defense mechanism that banished anxiety-arousing memories form consciousness
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a certain type of map of it.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
hippocampus
a neural center located into the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (second-order conditioning)
negative punishment
a rewarding stimulus is removed
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten (aka working memory)
selective attention
alert focusing on material to be retained
positive punishment
an aversive stimulus is applied
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
forgetting
an increase in errors when trying to bring material back from memory (retrieval failure)
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
retention
any indication that learning has persisted over time; the ability to store and retrieve information
secondary reinforcement
anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer
classical conditioning
associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral behavior
elaboration
attaching the maximum number of associations to material to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
storage decay
basically, use it or lose it
retrograde
blocking old memories
acoustic
brief sound memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM
chaining
subjects can be taught to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
recall
the ability to bring back and integrate many specific learned details
recognition
the ability to pick the correct object or event from a list containing the correct answer
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation a subject learns when he/she is unable to avoid repeated aversive events
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
primacy effect
the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
trace conditioning
the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2