AP Psychology Conditioning, Learning, and Retention

Lakukan tugas rumah & ujian kamu dengan baik sekarang menggunakan Quizwiz!

reinforcement

the strengthening of a tendency to do something

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

input information

What is the first step of the retention process?

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance,, after a pause, of an extinguished response

habitutation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

flashbulb memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence

selective attention

determines which sensory messages we encode. We encode what we are attending to or what is important to us.

sensory memory system

direct receivers of information from the environment

retroactive interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of OLD information. -You played baseball for 10 years. This summer, you learned to golf. Your baseball swing will suffer due to the new motion of the golf swing

proactive interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of NEW information -You always park in the same spot; however, today that spot was taken, so you parked in a different spot. Due to this, you walk to your old spot to find your car.

continuous

each time a behavior occurs, reinforcement is given quick to learn easy to extinguish

visual encoding

encode information based on images

semantic encoding

encode information based on meaning (deep processing) -best chance of being recalled

acoustic encoding

encode information based on sound (shallow processing)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort LTM goes with explicit memory

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect

constructed memory

false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred.

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitations and empathy

cocktail party effect

if you are talking with a friend and someone across the room says your name, our attention will probably involuntarily switch across the room. Once a sensory message entered sensory memory that you knew was important, you switched your attention to that message, and it was encoded into your short-term memory.

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (aka conditioned stimulus)

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers a response

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in mouth)

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

negative transfer of training

interference with learning due to dissimilarities between 2 otherwise similar tasks -stick shift

spacing effect

it is better to practice over allotted time, rather than all at once

chunking

items are learned in groups 3s or 4s

Long-term potentiation

learning creates a chemical change in the neurons, and increased activity in a particular pathway causes synapses to form or strengthen.

transfer of training

learning is moved from one task to another based on similarities between the tasks

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

photographic memory

longer than normal iconic memory allows more details to encode into STM (1 minute or more). Extremely rare

anterograde

loss of new ones

state learning

material learned in one chemical state is best reproduced when the same state occurs again. (also true for context and mood)

mnemonic devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

explicit memory

memory of general knowledge or experienced events (episodic memory) LTM

observational learning

organism observes and imitates the behavior of others -does not require reinforcement -Bobo Doll experiment -Clarks' Doll experiment

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

serial position efect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

consolidation

over time, memory will solidify until permanent (sleep is the best)

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

testing effect

practiced retrieval is more effective than rereading the material

Edward L. Thorndike

proposed the law of effect, which states that a behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced

partial

reinforcement is not given each time a behavior occurs longer lasting takes longer to learn

implicit memory

retention without conscious recollection LTM goes with automatic processing

primary reinforcement

something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward

positive reinforcement

something pleasant occurs when an action is performed, increasing the tendency to repeat it.

negative reinforcement

something unpleasant is stopped if an action is performed

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental or well-learned information

acquisition

when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

fixed interval

reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time slow, stable

variable interval

reinforcement occurs after a varying amount of time if the desired act occurs slow, stable response

fixed ratio

reinforcement occurs after the desired act is performed a specific number of times subject works quickly to get reinforcement

variable ratio

reinforcement occurs each time a desired behavior occurs, but a different number of the desired acts is required each time most addictive

short-term memory 7 (+/-2)

retains information for a few seconds to a few minutes Can only hold ___________ items

long-term memory

retains information for days, weeks, months, years, decades and is a limitless storehouse

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. (nondeclarative memory)

eidetic memory

this is popularly defined as the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme accuracy and in abundant volume. photographic memory

positive transfer of training

transfer of learning that results from similarities between 2 tasks -shooting at targets

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

causes of forgetting

-interruption of the electrical activity in the brain, either from a shock or concussion. -repression -amnesia -storage decay

deja vu

1. feelings and thoughts that you have been in the situation before. 2. Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience 3. In other words, information is processed backwards SMS-->STM-->LTM

Hermann Ebbinghaus

1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words retention curve forgetting curve

John B. Watson

1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert

Ivan Pavlov

1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation

BF Skinner

1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

Elizabeth Loftus

1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)

basal ganglia

A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord.

simultaneous conditioning

CS and US are presented at the same time

Albert Bandura

Did research on social learning

Premack Principle

Even primary reinforcers, like food, will affect different animals in different ways depending, most notably, on how hungry they are. This idea that the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation, is expressed in the ________ ____________. -​the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation -whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the other activity

stress LTM

Eyewitness Testimony: -Because the witness is under _________, perception is often faulty -Witnesses will use ______ to fill-in missing details

tip of the tongue phenomenon

Have you ever tried to remember someone's name and start listing things about their appearance or personality until you finally come up with the name? the temporary inability to remember information is sometimes called the ___________.

Wolfgang Kohler

He questioned Thorndike's conclusion that his animals learned mechanically through the selection of action of rewards and punishments (Hothersall , 1995). He attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. His first experiments with dogs and cats involved food being placed on the other side of a barrier. The dogs and cats went right towards the food instead of moving away from the goal to circumvent the barrier like chimps who were presented with this situation; chimps using sticks to get food.

focus severe preservatives depressants

Interferes with learning: Large doses of stimulants cause overstimulation and an inability to ________. ___________ anxiety blocks your ability to learn ______________found in prepared foods chemically depress your ability to form new synapses ________________ affect neurotransmitters necessary for learning

practice

Mental rehearsal is not as good as ___________, but it's better than nothing

method of location peg word acronym narrative chaining

Mnemonic Devices: -create a visual representation -create a rhyme or jingle -create a word -make a sentence

token economy

Money is a special kind of secondary reinforcer, called a generalized reinforcer, because it can be traded for virtually anything. One practical application of generalized reinforcers known as ___________ _______________. -​a practical application of generalized reinforcers used in prisons, mental institutions, schools -every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token ​-can be traded for any one of a variety of reinforcers

recency effect

Recall is strongest for items at the end of a list

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known. When you suddenly know an answer to a problem.

instinctive drift

The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior is called ________ ___________.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

arousal stimulants anxious motivated gum exercise

To increase learning, do something that will cause physical __________. Use small doses of legal ___________. Be mildly ___________. Be ___________. Chew ________. _____________, and then engage in learning within 2-6 hours

backward conditioning

US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This method is particularly ineffective 1.presentation of US 2.presentation of CS

1. input information-encoding 2.retain information-storage 3.output information-retrieval

What are the 3 steps of the retention process?

Martin Seligman

Who was the chief researcher for learned helplessness?

operant conditioning

a behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated, while a behavior that is not rewarded takes place only at random

iconic

a brief visual memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

flash bulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. in the amygdala

punishment

a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

repression

a defense mechanism that banished anxiety-arousing memories form consciousness

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a certain type of map of it.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

hippocampus

a neural center located into the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (second-order conditioning)

negative punishment

a rewarding stimulus is removed

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten (aka working memory)

selective attention

alert focusing on material to be retained

positive punishment

an aversive stimulus is applied

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

forgetting

an increase in errors when trying to bring material back from memory (retrieval failure)

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

retention

any indication that learning has persisted over time; the ability to store and retrieve information

secondary reinforcement

anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer

classical conditioning

associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral behavior

elaboration

attaching the maximum number of associations to material to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

storage decay

basically, use it or lose it

retrograde

blocking old memories

acoustic

brief sound memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM

chaining

subjects can be taught to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

recall

the ability to bring back and integrate many specific learned details

recognition

the ability to pick the correct object or event from a list containing the correct answer

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation a subject learns when he/she is unable to avoid repeated aversive events

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

primacy effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

trace conditioning

the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2


Set pelajaran terkait

Business Finance Ch 2 Reading assignment

View Set

Anatomy: Chapter 7 and 8 Homework

View Set

Language Learning Materials Development

View Set

Consideration and Promissory Estoppel

View Set

Synonyms & Antonyms [ Match, Write]

View Set