AP wpr
is a term from political science describing major gains made by a political party. Although there is no precise definition of what constitutes a wave election, the term is used in the United States when one party makes major gains in the House and Senate.
"Wave" election
Money helps to pay for ads (nearly 80%), propaganda, campaign workers, rallies, speeches, fundraisers, etc. Money does not buy elections but it does always win. It has the power to get your concerns received. Dark money-contributors can spend virtually unlimited sums to influence election outcomes without disclosing their identity.
Analyze the role of money in political campaigns
the influence on public opinion that results from journalists and editors decisions about which of many potential news stories to report
Filtering
The term "collective action problem" describes the situation in which multiple individuals would all benefit from a certain action, but has an associated cost making it implausible that any individual can or will undertake and solve it alone.
Collective Action Problem
They are a smaller amount of people who all care about the same thing so they are less likely to do things like not report something. Selective incentives are benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they are available only to those who participate, such as member services offered by interest groups.
Describe how interest groups solve the collective action problems in American politics.
1) Identification (identification of policy problems through demands for government action, public opinion which includes media, elite opinion, and your parents) 2) Agenda Setting (focusing the attention of the mass media and public officials on specific public problems to decide what will be decided, media) 3) Formulate the policy proposals (formation of policy proposals through their initiation and development by policy-planning organizations, interest groups, government bureaucracies, and the president and congress- the white house, interest groups, think tanks) 4) legitimize policies (getting support and enacting of policies through political actions by parties, interest groups, and the president and congress) 5) implement policy ( implementation of policies through organized bureaucracies- bureaucracy is responsible for implementation. , public expenditures, and the activities of executive agencies) 6) Evaluate policies (evaluation of policies by government agencies themselves)
Describe the stages of Dye's policymaking process.
The main purpose of political parties is to join people, who hold similar points of view about the government, together. These groups work to participate and influence the government by having members elected to a government position. Even though many people choose to be associated with a certain party, they don't all share exactly the same beliefs. Instead, beliefs about how government should be run are shared. Another function of a political party is to influence public opinion. By that, parties should make an effort to sway people to support and to vote for them. They should be the other "option" to an existing opposing candidate.a) Protect the public against the demand that it do impossible things b) to stay competitive c) use and exploit popular sovereignty (a doctrine in political theory that government is created by and subject to the will of the people)
Describe two primary roles of modern American political parties.**
holds that plurality-rule elections (such as first past the post) structured within single-member districts tend to favor a two-party system and that "the double ballot majority system and proportional representation tend to favor multipartism".
Duverger's Law
People typically form political orientations before they reach voting age. Their orientations are influenced by their social circle, more specifically their family. Kids who come from actively engaged households are more likely to continue to share the political views that he grew up learning.
Explain how most people develop their party identification.
In United States politics, the iron triangle comprises the policy-making relationship among the congressional committees, the bureaucracy, and interest groups. According to the iron triangle theory, all three will work together so that all three can achieve their goals. The interest group provides electoral support for congress and congress provides friendly legislation for the interest groups. Congress provides funding for the bureaucracy and the bureaucracy contributes execution to congress. The interest groups provide lobbying to the bureaucracy and the bureaucracy provides regulations to the interest groups. In today's society the triangle isn't so much a triangle anymore.
Explain the concept of the "Iron Triangle" in American politics.
the influence on public opinion caused by the way a story is presented or covered, including the details, explanation, and context offered in the report
Framing
They can take part in organizations that work to directly influence policies made by government officials. They can communicate their interests, preferences, and needs to government by engaging in public debate (Verba, Schlozman, & Brady, 1995). Such political activities can support government officials, institutions, and policies, or aim to change them.Far more people participate in politics by voting than by any other means. Yet there are many other ways to take part in politics that involve varying amounts of skill, time, and resources. People can work in an election campaign, contact public officials, circulate a petition, join a political organization, and donate money to a candidate or a cause. Serving on a local governing or school board, volunteering in the community, and running for office are forms of participation that require significant time and energy. Organizing a demonstration, protesting, and even rioting are other forms of participation
How do citizens participate in politics to convey their preferences to government officials?
Schattschneider First, groups go public with a problem by using symbols and images to induce greater media and public sympathy for their cause. Environmental groups dramatize their causes by pointing to symbols and images of allegedly willful or negligent humanly caused environmental damage (for example, the Exxon Valdez spill). Second, groups that lose in the first stage' of a political conflict can appeal to a higher decision-making level, such as when losing parties appeal to state and then federal institutions for an opportunity to be heard, hoping that in the process they will attract others who agree with them to their cause. Conversely, dominant groups work to contain conflict to ensure that it does not spread out of control. The underlying theory of these tendencies dates to Madison's defense, in Federalist 10, of the federal system as a mechanism to contain political conflict.
How do interest groups increase the "scope of conflict" in the policymaking process?
Political opinions are based largely on individual research, political predispositions, recent political considerations, and/or easily accessible information. Reception Axiom: the greater a person's level of cognitive engagement with an issue, the more likely she or he is to be exposed to and comprehend (i.e. "receive") political messages concerning that issue. Resistance Axiom: people tend to resist arguments that are inconsistent with their political predispositions, but they do so only to the extent that they possess the contextual information necessary to perceive a relationship between the message and their predispositions. Accessibility Axiom: the more recently a consideration has been called to mind or thought about, the less time it takes to retrieve that consideration or related considerations from memory and bring them to the top of the head for use. Response Axiom: individuals answer survey questions by averaging across the considerations that are immediately salient or accessible to them; determine if pros outweigh cons
How do people form political opinions? Explain the mechanism most people use to respond to questions about government, referencing Zaller's RAS Model.
Other differences that interest groups and political parties share come from their interaction with the candidates. Interest groups have interaction from a length away while the political parties have direct interaction with their candidates. The candidates have to be careful when choosing the political party because if they chose the wrong one, it can be costly even if it gets electorate votes.
How do political parties aggregate candidates and preferences?
While it is clear that the electoral structure can constrain and influence election outcomes, the exact influence is often difficult to gauge. This is due to the simple fact that no two elections are exactly alike. Each election has its own dynamics resulting from the interaction among the candidates running, the campaign issues, and the cultural context.
How do the rules and structure of elections influence electoral outcomes?****
Political and civil associations are strongly related in that civil associations prepare the way for political ones. Politics also draw people together of different social circles, and political associations.
How does the civic engagement inform political participation?
Encouraged polarization because many media outlets seek to position themselves within a discrete ideological or partisan niche rather than maintain a middle-of-the-road stance. People tend to go one way or another.
How does the proliferation of news sources affect the public's level of information about American politics?
1) social influence 2) Threat of virality- During an election, candidates are always under the microscope, but new technology allows the media to watch them more closely. Social media runs in real time and with the variety of channels, from Twitter to YouTube, candidates' words are replayed, dissected and played again. Once something hits the web, it stays there forever. 3) smarter campaigns- Candidates always relied on polls to give them insights on where they stand with the public and what they should change about their campaigns. With the rise of big data and analytics, candidates can now understand much more deeply what's working and what's not in their campaigns. With this information, campaigns become more effective and can be tailored to garner the votes, funds or public opinion needed from a particular region or constituency 4) technology - Candidates always relied on polls to give them insights on where they stand with the public and what they should change about their campaigns. With the rise of big data and analytics, candidates can now understand much more deeply what's working and what's not in their campaigns. With this information, campaigns become more effective and can be tailored to garner the votes, funds or public opinion needed from a particular region or constituency
How have new technologies and advancements in social sciences affected the execution of campaigns and elections? ***
inside- inside of Washington, dc. Direct lobbying, drafting legislation and regulations(interest groups sometimes draft legislation proposals and regulatioons, which they deliver to legislators and bureaucrats as part of their lobbying efforts. outside- outside of Washington, dc. grassroot lobbying (group members participation in a letter or protest. mobilizing public opinion (one of the strategies involves trying to change what the public thinks about an issue. the goal is not to get citizens to do anything but to influence public opinion in the hope that elected officials will see this change and respond by enacting new laws that will make their constituents happy)
Inside and Outside Strategies
a group of people that seeks to influence public policy on the basis of a particular common interest or concern
Interest Group
when voters cast their vote in elections based on political issues
Issue Voter
an opinion formed on the spot, when it is needed (as distinctly from a deeply held opinion that is stable over time). If the political opinions are unexpressed that have the potential to become manifest attitudes or belief
Latent Opinion
The act of attempting to influence business and government leaders to create legislation or conduct an activity that will help a particular organization.
Lobbying
the question of why citizens vote even though their individual votes stand little chance of changing the election outcome
Paradox of Voting
citizen's loyalty to a specific political party
Party Identification
involves the structure of the national, state, and local parties, including party leaders and workers
Party Organization ****
shifting of party coalition groupings in the electorate that remains in place for several elections
Party Realignment
made up of the politicians who were elected as candidates of the party
Party in Government
the voters who consider themselves allied or associated with the party
Party in the Electorate
'policy entrepreneur' is used by Kingdon. Used to describe actors who use their knowledge of the process to further their own policy ends. Entrepreneurs may be elected politicians, leaders of interest groups or merely unofficial spokespeople for particular causes. They are people with the knowledge, power, tenacity and luck to be able to exploit windows of opportunity and heightened levels of attention to policy problems to promote their 'pet solutions' to policymakers
Policy Entrepreneur
During a brief 'window of opportunity called the policy window' - before a policy will change significantly. The three separate 'streams' problems, proposal, and politics must come together at the same time. An open policy window is an opportunity for advocates to push their pet solutions or to push attention to their special problems. The window can open predictably when legislation comes up for renewal on a schedule, creating opportunities to change, expand, or abolish certain programs. At other times, it is unpredictable when there is unexpected turnover in key decision makers.
Policy Window.
a ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election : a local meeting in which party members select a party's nominee for general elections
Primary/Caucus
the influence on the public's general impressions caused by positive or negative coverage of a candidate or issue
Priming
The desires, wants, and thinking of the majority of the people - or the collective opinion of the people of a society or state on an issue or problem
Public Opinion
E.E. Schattschneider's "scope of conflict" concept describes why "it is the loser who calls for outside help" (Schattschneider, 16). Nice and Frederickson (1995) explain that the scope of conflict is "simply the size and extent of a conflict," which may involve various types and levels of private or public organizations (27). Generally, the loser in the battle will seek to expand the scope of conflict to new participants in order to gain the advantage.
Scope of Conflict
the imbalance in a story that covers one candidate or policy favorably without providing similar coverage or issue
Slant
the expected collective or economic benefit derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individual and groups; includes features of social organizations like networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate trust and cooperation
Social Capital
combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others, based on income, education, and occupation
Socioeconomic Status
Ultimately, a responsive public provides guidance to electorally-motivated politicians and a basis for removing politicians who defy the public's will. If the public is responsive to what policymakers do, it would function like a public thermostat. If the level of policy differs from the level the public prefers, the public favors a corresponding change in policy. In effect, the public would behave like a thermostat, where a departure form the favored policy temperature produces a signal to adjust policy accordingly.
Thermostatic Model.
Kingdom Agenda Setting Theory problems refer to the process of persuading policy decision makers to pay attention to one problem over others. Because a policy proposal's chances of rising on the agenda are better if the associated problem is perceived as serious, problem recognition is critical. It can be influenced by how problems are learned about (e.g., through data or indicators, focusing events like a disaster or crisis, constituent feedback) or defined (e.g., framed or labeled). Budget crises are a special consideration in problem recognition, as they often trump other problems. Proposals represent the process by which policy proposals are generated, debated, revised, and adopted for serious consideration. Because competing proposals can be attached to the same problem, getting a proposal on the "short list" typically takes time and the willingness to pursue it by using many tactics. Proposals are likely to be more successful if they are seen as technically feasible, compatible with decision maker values, reasonable in cost, and appealing to the public. Politics are political factors that influence agendas, such as changes in elected officials, political climate or mood (e.g., conservative, tax averse), and the voices of advocacy or opposition groups.
Three Streams
situation in which one major party holds the majority in Congress, Senate, and Presidency a situation in which at least Congress, the Senate, or the Presidency is a dominated by a party different than in the other branches
Unified/Divided Government
pieces of information about a candidate that are readily available, easy to interpret, and lead a citizen to decide to vote for a particular candidate
Voting Cues
Public opinions are measured most often with polls. Many factors can makes polls unreliable as to ascertaining true public opinion, such as demographics, false answers, etc. Respondents may be influenced by question wording of surveys. Push polling is also a problem because it attempts to influence the view of a voter under the guise of conducting a poll. To mitigate problems with measuring public opinion, random sampling must be implemented. Means by which the poll is issued may not accurately reflect the public, such as with internet surveys because not everyone will have internet access. Fluctuating social ideas based off of the media
What are some common problems with measuring public opinion and how can they be corrected or mitigated?
Incumbency, information about the candidate, retrospective evaluations, personal character, personal vote, partisanship
What are some ways citizens can participate in the political process?**
The three major components of an American political party are national, state, and local. Each component has its own responsibilities and represents the diverse interests of the party. A political party is responsible for mobilizing support, uniting people with similar interests, and encouraging voting. Politics is extremely reliant on political parties for organizing public opinion because political parties are the major agents of change. Politics is also dependent on parties because people usually associate themselves with a particular party based on their personal interests.
What are the three different aspects of American political parties?**
Civil associations, therefore, facilitate political association: but, on the other hand, political association singularly strengthens and improves associations for civil purposes. In civil life every man may, strictly speaking, fancy that he can provide for his own wants; in politics, he can fancy no such thing. When a people, then, have any knowledge of public life, the notion of association, and the wish to coalesce, present themselves every day to the minds of the whole community: whatever natural repugnance may restrain men from acting in concert, they will always be ready to combine for the sake of a party. Americans are continually forming associations of every type. Since citizens in democratic societies are independent and weak, they need to form associations in order to have some influence. It is extremely salutary to democratic life that citizens need to form numerous associations, because it combats individualism.
What does de Tocqueville observe about the freedom of association in the United States **
THE CHALLENGE BEFORE THE AMERICAN MEDIA " IS NOT TO STAY IN business-it is to stay in journalism," says former journalist Harold Evans. -As long as advertising supports most of the cost of printing and distributing newspapers, all the cost of "free television," about half the cost of magazines, and a major portion of cable revenues, news organizations will flourish to the extent that they attract the readers and viewers desired by advertisers. -In short, the media is too focused on advertising, which brings in profit. This detracts from the authenticity and integrity of journalism, or of the stories.
What is Sparrow's critique of the role money plays in which stories are covered?
Incumbency-vote for the incumbent candidate retrospective evaluations- focus on small votes the incumbent has cast while in office personal character- vote for the candidate whose personal characteristics match your own. personal vote- vote for the incumbent if he or she has helped you get assistance from a government agency partisanship- vote for the candidate whose party affiliation matches your own For the party in power- vote for a candidate based on a comparison of the candidates party with an assessment of the party in power.
What voting cues or information shortcuts do voters use to decide how to vote? Why do voters rely on these shortcuts? **
Party fluctuations occur two different ways—personal and social forces. Personal forces are the idea that an individual selectively move to different political parties. It occurs in an uncorrelated way and on an individual basis. The second type is by social forces. Social force is able influence large numbers of people. National crises and progress through the life cycle can cause fluctuations in parties.
Which factors can change your alignment with a particular political party?
Political Elite: people, institutions, and interest groups "on top" are used as mouthpieces and have money to influence the media and policy Public Opinion: this basically means the American people Media: meaning News agencies, magazines, ect.
Who are the most critical actors in the policymaking process, according to Dye?
Those who are engaged socially and have a mentality of "we" rather than "you" and "I." According to Putnam, decline in political participation is due to erosion of civic engagement such as decline in informal social ties, decline in trust, and decrease in political knowledge and activism. This has been caused by changes in family structure (living alone), mobility (such as living many miles from work, thus not being able to spend time at the country club), and electronic entertainment.
Who participates in political activities, according to Putnam?
When individuals have common interests, it often makes sense for them to join together in pursuit of those interests. When this happens, a special interest group is formed. These groups then compete for a share of the limited resources distributed through the political process. by lobbying
Why do interest groups form and what are their primary objectives In American politics?
Policy evaluations are unsystematic and impressionistic. Doesn't follow the process in the exact order.
Why doesn't Dye's process hold for all government policies? Where does actual policymaking diverge from Dye's model?
If the public did not notice and respond to changes in policy, then politicians would have little incentive to represent what the public wants. Ultimately, a responsive public provides guidance to electorally-motivated politicians and a basis for removing politicians who defy the public's will. If the public is responsive to what policymakers do, it would function like a public thermostat. If the level of policy differs from the level the public prefers, the public favors a corresponding change in policy.
Why is public opinion important and how does it affect public policy outcomes?
the principle that in a democracy with single-member districts and plurality voting, like the US, only two parties candidates will have a realistic chance of winning political office
Why is there a two party system in the United States and how does party realignment relate to Duverger's Law? ****
1) movement of women into the labor force 2) mobility 3) demographic transformation 4) technological transformation of leisure
Why was social capital in the United States eroded since the latter half of the twentieth century?
