APEC Exam #1
Naturalistic ethics
Ethical considerations also based on human impacts and the impacts of other living organisms
Simon and Ehlrich bet
Simon believed that commodities' inflation-adjusted price would be lower in the future. Simon offered a bet to Ehlich Pick any raw material (chromium, copper, nickel, tin, and tungsten were chosen) Select any date more than a year away (ten years was chosen - September 29, 1990) $200 bet per materials (five were chosen) - Simon won! The prices of the metals had all fallen
How to grow more food?
- Increase land use - Increase yields on existing land
Why are dams being removed?
Elwha, biggest dam removal, being taken down bc its so old and its structure isn't that good anymore - dams affect fish because they can't migrate - once a dam is removed, it's not an immediate response of the river returning to normal - Costs: cost of maintenance, liability
Humanistic ethics
Ethical considerations based on the impacts to humans only
Global Food Trends?
Food production has increased over time, food prices have fallen (all good) - but many people still can't afford food that is available (mostly in Africa and Asia) Per capita food production +25% since mid 1970s. 80 million extra people per year. Real price of food has fallen 10-30% since about 1980. 18% of world population (>1.1 billion) is undernourished. Most in Africa and Asia
Is exploitation of Natural Resources necessary for development?
No, there are places that have not relied on it at all. - Thought of intellectual ways to thrive, like trade - natural resources can be very helpful for economic growth
What is the leading cause of death in developed countries?
Noncommunicable diseases ex. heart disease, diabetes, cancer disease can't be passed
Negative externalities
Occurs when a decision maker chooses a level of production or consumption and does not fully bear the costs of his or her actions. ex. pollution, trash, dogs barking
Why Property Rights?
People don't have incentives to do things - Property rights protect a person's access to a stream of benefits - Property rights promote investment - risk= return in benefits Expropriation - Little evidence of success at improving human welfare. - gov will take money from rich and spread it throughout - but, rich are smart enough to get rid of it before this happens Tragedy of the commons - critical for not overexploiting resources
Corruption effects on anti-poaching?
People will turn a blind eye and hurts the enforcement of anti poaching
Alternative to Pesticides?
Planting seeds of high-yielding tolerant varieties Use of biopesticides (insect pathogens such as nuclear polyhedrosis virus, bacteria and fungi) Use of plant-based pesticides Use of pheromones Shaking of pigeonpea
What are the different ways to look at how the world is sized?
Population (India and China high), wealth (U.S., UK, Brazil, South Africa), poverty (India, China, Nigeria) age, infant deaths, internet usage...
Endangered Species Act
Prohibits government agencies from authorizing, funding, or carrying out any activities that might harm an endangered species or it habitat
New technologies for resources?
crop varietes, irrigation, pesticides, biotech, and more
Subsistence Agriculture
55% of world's cropland is in subsistence agriculture - Self-sufficiency farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families. The output is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade. Subsistence farming techniques - Mostly, plots under 10 acres - Various crops - Family-owned plots - Animal power and "primitive" equipment - Intercropping - "Growing two or more different crops in alternative rows" - Combines high protein nitrogen fixing crops (soybeans) with nitrogen-depleting grains Polyculture—Intercropping with many different plants (fields with different plants on the same field) Agro-forestry—Intercropping with trees and a crop
Non-point source
"Deliver pollutants to surface waters from diffuse origins" - Urban runoff, agricultural runoff, atmospheric deposition
Point-source pollution
"Discharge pollutants directly into surface waters from a conveyance" - direct, purposeful, knowingly - pipes, sewage, ditch Municipal sewage (see figure on p. 215 of text), industrial facilities, sewer overflows
Positive ethics
"what is"...it exists
Rivalry
The situation occurs when one person's good means no one else can consume it.
Challenges with agriculture
- Increasing regulation - Use of pesticides, herbicides, tillage of soil, wetlands management, erosion - Protect the environment, but make U.S. products less competitive internationally - Non-point source water pollution - Concerns about food safety - Concerns about food production processes. - Lack of evidence-based policy on conservation programs. - Soil erosion (getting better bc of GMO means less tilling) - Access to water - Depletion of aquifers - Loss of irrigation water to urbanization - Production costs - Reliance on fossil fuels
Fishing Quotas
- Individual Transferable Quota- you get a quota for an entire year and can sell fish to others who need more of a certain fish if he went over the quota of the fish, instead of needing to dump them dead in the water Most of the worlds oceans are overfished - 2/3 of fisherman have left the market, but this could lead to a collapse of fishing ports - in CA, new rules are being developed to help both fish and fishing ports - business is slow at the fishing industry - overexploitation of fish has led to less fisheries - industry is in trouble, but the fish are ok
Forest problems with sustainability
- Rainforest destruction - Logging on public lands - Fire - Road building - Threats - Urban encroachment - Forest species in decline - Deforestation (1/2 of forests are gone) - Pollution
Population, income, and life expectancy growth over time for U.S. and India
- U.S. grew in income but not life expectancies, but then grew a lot in both - India did not grow economically, life expectancies grew, recently began to increase economic growth
Life Cycle Analysis
- the systematic approach of looking at a product's complete life cycle, from raw materials to final disposal of the product. -It offers a "cradle to grave" look at a product or process, considering environmental aspects and potential impacts. - everything that goes into the product
Public Goods
A good that is both nonrivial and non excludable. - Often, but not always, supplied by the government rather than by private firms. ex. national defense, court system
Forest management goals
1) Provide a wide range of forest goods 2) Manage landscapes (not simply stands) 3) Cannot manage for wood products while entirely neglecting other ecosystem resources Challenges How to manage sustainably while meeting growing demand for forest goods
The Roles of the government from a Capitalistic perspective
1. Collect revenue for public goods (could also provide these goods directly or hire others to do so) - Physical infrastructure, such as roads, airports, harbors, train stations - Public education (thought private markets can also provide) - Military defense (defends everyone, good reason for gov to step in and provide it. 2. Provide institutional infrastructure - Enforcement of rights, regulation of food safety, health policy, etc 3. Government involved in the market in case it fails...really its just a way for them to have control of the people - Perform as a market participant in cases of market failure - Sell electricity, provide insurance in case of moral hazard - market differential between the sick and the healthy (ex. people who need glasses and don't will decide if they need insurance for it) 4. Make policies - Modify market outcomes with large externalities with policy instruments - Such as taxes on pollution.
Forest threats
1. Forest fire Fire suppression programs began in 1900s Issues associated with fire suppression? 2. Insects Defoliators, sapsuckers, feeders 3. Disease Fungi, bacteria, viruses 4. Abiotic factors
7 Sustainable development core questions?
1. How can the dynamic interactions between nature and society be better incorporated in emergency models and conceptualizations that integrate the Earth system, human development, and sustainability 2. how are long term trends in environment and development, including consumption and population, reshaping nature- society interacts in ways that relevant to sustainability - becoming more wealthy means that people have more wants/will consume more 3. what determines the vulnerability of resilience of the nature-society system - have vulnerable is our system? ex. trees will regrow but minerals will not 4. what are our boundaries and limits that would provide effective warnings of conditions beyond which nature-society systems incur a significantly increased risks of serious degradation - how far can we go to continue to meet peoples needs by using resources, but not harming them for the future? 5. What systems of incentive structures - including markets, rules, norms and scientific information- can most effectively improve social capacity to guide interactions between nature and society toward more sustainable trajectories? 6. How can today's operational systems for monitoring and reporting on environmental and social conditions be integrated or extended to provide more useful guidance for efforts to navigate a transition toward sustainability? - keeping track of how things are going 7. How can today's relatively independent activities of research planning, monitoring, assessment, and decision support be better integrated into systems for adaptive management and societal learning? - as we understand more, how do we make sure our society knows this and can adapt to it?
9 Factors to improve human welfare
1. National unity (lack of internal conflict) 2. Market-oriented economy - Marxism vs. Capitalism - market keeps those who are innovative, creative successful, up at the top - Marxism is more control over the economy of choosing who the winners and losers are - being lacking incentives for hard work - makes more people equal but does a poor job of raising everyone's quality of life 3. Democratic form of government 4. Sound education system 5. Protection of private property rights 6. Opportunity for social and economic mobility 7. Level of economic growth exceeds the level of population growth 8. Corruption is relatively minor. 9. Protection from the worse impacts of severe natural disasters
Four Revolutions?
1. Nomadic to Sedentary populations - new foods are being brought into production - allowed for specialized labor, - organized civilizations - allowed for economic development 2. 13th century on- exploration and discovery - accumulated knowledge - trade, new plants, and animals - bringing forth a new era of discover and growth 3. 18th century on- Industrialization - tech of transportation, steam power - farm mechanization, large reduction in number of farms - able to transport food to different places without food going bad 4. Currently- biotechnology breakthroughs - GMO - crossbreeding - fertilizer, herbicides, and insecticides - less inputs necessary, more sustainable - farm sizes are able to decrease - ex. increase of corn production
Worlds Cities Population
1. Tokyo, Japan - 28,025,000 2. Mexico City, Mexico - 18,131,000 3. Mumbai, India - 18,042,000 4. NYC, United States
8 millennium development goals
1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women 4: Reduce Child Mortality 5: Improve Maternal Health 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Food and Quantity supply in India/Rural areas?
60% of whom live in rural areas with little access to infrastructure, modern technology, and adequate health services However, over the last 30 years (thanks to the Green Revolution) India has seen a 106% increase in domestic food production India has long experienced a surplus in grain, enough to satisfy the demands of the 46 million children serviced by the Public Distribution Service (~4.8% of India's population)
Agricultural Subsidies
A governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agribusinesses to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities. -Industrialization -Specialized operators grow one crop or one animal - Mainly, developed world uses the industrialized agricultural system - Exceptions - Plantation agriculture in the developing world - Novelty farms in the developed world.
Non-renewable resources
A resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by natural means on a level equal to its consumption - (in fixed quantity) - Examples: natural resources: coal, oil, uranium, nonmetallic minerals, metallic minerals, coal Recyclable?
Renewable Resources
A resource which can be used repeatedly because it is replaced naturally. Examples are: oxygen, fresh water, solar energy, timber, and biomass, soil, range, forest, wildlife, fisheries, water, air - we could lose all of these sources if we don't rebuild/manage them, we can degrade them. - Need to replant trees if we cut them down - Resources can be useless if we are not taking care of them
Clear cutting forests advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Tends to be a lower-cost way of harvesting Less road building More efficient reseeding Shorter time to regenerate a stand More effective removal of damaged stand (fire, insect, storm) Improved game habitat Disadvantages Replaces diverse, uneven-aged areas with single species stands Increases susceptibility to fire, disease, insects Poor habitat for most wildlife Soil erosion, flooding, landslides, soil compaction
Price sensitivity of agriculture
Agriculture is one of the most competitive industries Demand for food is relatively inelastic: Small increase in food supply (a good harvest) can leads to a large decrease in food prices Good weather Abundant harvest Low prices Bad weather Reduced harvest High prices Dependent upon the global market and big producers Such as corn and Iowa and the Midwest, wheat and the great plains, coffee and Brazil. Also explains price increases in food due to ethanol production.
Pareto Improvements
An action done in an economy that harms no one and helps at least one person. The theory suggests that Pareto improvements will keep adding to the economy until it achieves a Pareto equilibrium, where no more Pareto improvements can be made.
U.S. corn yields
Bushels per acre increased dramatically over time - why? industrial agriculture
African Rhino use?
Aphrodisiacs Asian medicines Yemen dagger handles - population, mostly only alive in zoos
Why is land more likely to be owned privately than air?
Because it is easier to identify land - easier to define
Free riding
Benefiting from a good without paying for it. - ex. go to someones house to watch a football game and its on pay-per-view. You get to watch it but don't pay for it.
Adam Smith
Capitalism, invisible hand. - The unobservable market force that helps the demand and supply of goods in a free market to reach equilibrium automatically is the invisible hand - ultimately keeps those that are successful at the the top
What is critical to agriculture?
Climate - India's rainfall is not stable which is bad - no freezing temps in India means mosquitos never die, can help diminish pests
Will we exhaust the earth's resources?
Consider, role of price, substitution of one resource for another, Role of technology
CITIES
Convention of International Trade In Endangered Species of Wild Fauna And Flora) - Hope to lower prices received by poachers (PE and PR), by reducing international demand.
HDI (Human Development Index)
Created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, no economic growth alone
Food Production in India
Crisis arose when agricultural processes faced diminishing returns - India adopted new technology, marked by high-yielding seeds and large inputs of fertilizers and water. Led to the "Green Revolution" of the 1970's.
DDT
DDT was banned in developed countries decades ago due to bioaccumulation and adverse environmental and health issues Banned in the US in 1972 Exports from the US continued to 1985. - India still manufactures, uses, and exports DDT. Why? It is very affective in preventing malaria -DDT builds up in plants and in fatty tissues of birds, fish, and other animals - DDT affects the nervous system, causing tremors and seizures in large doses - Studies have shown that DDT depletes breast milk in women and increases the chance of having premature babies
Is shoot on sight ethical?
Depending on which stance you take/perspective, it can change if you think the policies are ethical or not .
Can we sustain ourselves?
Depends on natural resource process, social process - need to enhance the environment to go forward
Where is population growing the most and why?
Developing countries. Mostly because they're poor and don't have birth control - BUT population is growing at a slower rate because women have more access to birth control bc they are becoming wealthier
Ways to stop poaching?
Different policies in different places - arresting (not as effective) - increase the fine, lengthen imprisionment - higher wages of common jobs - lower prices of ivory/rhino horns *Some places just ban it, some make it illegal to trade
Trophic Effect
Going up the chain, things lose their efficiency. - ex. going from wheat, to cow, to him consumption - slowly the energy it contains becomes less
Loss of Biodiversity?
Human action has accelerated the rate of extinction of animal and plant species In the past, extinctions are natural phenomena Rate has increased 50% of species are in tropical areas Less than 10% of land area Currently, under high threat by population growth
What is the biggest use of water?
In cooking
Who is the largest pesticide producer in Asia?
India
How effective is the shoot on sight policy?
It is most effective
Irrigation is...
KEY to development
Shoot-on-sigh policy
Kenya has this, will shoot poacher right away bc if not they can be threatening and may just kill or over power the guards
Market-based policies
Make artificial ivory instead and don't have to kill elephants - Brown & Layton had idea to flood market with actual whine horns be people still want to use - want to harvest them so they will actually regrow
What is a serious problem in India? Why?
Malnutrition...its getting better but still not good - hard to be provided with good things in rural areas - Green revolution made a big difference in doubling food production in India. - Much more see sufficient bc of better technology
Karl Marx
Marxism - more control of the economy - government chooses who the winners and losers are - the basis of communism
The "Green Revolution"
Meaning, if you farm the modern way, your farms will turn green
Gini
Measurement of the income distribution of a country's residents. The number ranges from 0 to 1 based on residents' net income. - Helps define gap between rich and poor. - 0 represents perfect equality and 1 represents perfect inequality
Triple Bottom Line
Measures a company's degree of social responsibility, its economic value and its environmental impact. - people, planet, profits
Simon's Cornucopian Theory
More people, increased income, resources become more scarce prices rise. Inventors and entrepreneurs look for solutions, find solutions. Prices fall, new developments are made, we are better off with the price increase. More people, and increased income, cause resources to become more scarce in the short run. Heightened scarcity causes prices to rise. The higher prices present opportunity, and prompt inventors and entrepreneurs to search for solutions. Many fail in the search, at cost to themselves. But in a free society, solutions are eventually found. And in the long run the new developments leave us better off than if the problems had not arisen. That is, prices eventually become lower than before the increased scarcity occurred
The Ganges River
Most famous river in India, people drink it and bathe in it but is not not fit for this use bc it's so unclear
What are wetlands?
Must have 3 requirements; vegetation, soils, and hydrology - many different types of wetlands - illegal to build/ go through wetlands - can't farm on them, and they hold many mosquitoes - wanted to convert wet lands and fill them up bc they were thought to be useless
Coffee
Needed canopy over them, when they were brought into new countries the canopy were gone because technology made it so they were tolerant of sun.
Exploitation vs Conservation
Take all that you can in a cost-effective manner and move on vs. The efficient use of natural resources while protecting their capability for renewal (when they are renewable)
Principle of Double Effect
The action from which evil results is good or indifferent in itself; it is not morally evil. The intention of the agent is upright - i.e., the evil effect is sincerely not intended. The evil effect must be equally immediate causally with the good effect, for otherwise it would be a means to the good effect and would be intended. There must be a proportionately grave reason for allowing the evil to occur.
Does sustainable development talk about the wants or needs?
The needs...it's not about nice clothes, car, etc. - it's about having the basic needs - don't want to degrade the earth in a way that compromises the future
Excludability
The situation which anyone who does not pay for a good cannot consume it.
Global Forest Trends
There are more acres of forests in the United States and Europe today than 100 years ago.
Why is milk production so low in India?
These farmers do not use modern scientific management practices
Normative ethics
Things that "should be"
Pest application in the U.S. vs. India?
U.S.: Large trucks, arial spraying India: small scale level, individuals spray them, need to stand in crops
What is one of the greatest global problems?
Water, we have a lot of water but not a lot of fresh water - irrigation is key to devlopement
Highest agriculture produced in India?
Wheat. Why? -Multiple cropping seasons - ideal growing conditions - high yielding varieties - heavy reliance on wheat to sustain its population
Sustainable development
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Much of U.S. agriculture relys on...
fossil fuels
Resource Curse
having resources in your land means people in that country will fight over the resources/ownership
Ethics
moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity.
People and water are...
not spread out evenly throughout the world
Property rights and natural resource management
ownership of natural resources are important bc it determines who will get to control the resources - does the community decide who can use it? - one person? - no ownership?
Thomas Malthus
population was held in check by "misery, vice and moral restraint". - believed human population would continuously increase and our resources would decrease. - we would exhaust the earth and die. - He was wrong bc he wasn't aware of technology. ex. biotechnology has allowed us to maximize food supply
Abiotic
resources are "non-living" (minerals, air, water, solar radiation)
Biotic
resources are living organisms (fish, wildlife, grass, trees)
Indias population is supposed to...
surpass China's in the next couple of years
Value of elephant husks?
used for paint keys, decoration, jewelry - hard to say what the price is because they are illegal activity - can be between $3-700 per kg - one successful hunt could give Kenyans more money than farming
Are the anti poaching laws working?
yes, in nepal the rhinos are increasing. Some places, like Zambia they are continuing to decrease
Has the social value of rivers and wetlands changed over time?
yes. Rivers used to be where people lived, they were about power, transportation, very valuable but in different ways then they are valuable now. - rivers used to be used for waste disposal, dirty rivers used to be a sign of prosperity - used to dump alot of shit into the rivers
Earth's basic land uses?
~70% of the Earth is water 3% of that is fresh water ~30% of the Earth is land Agriculture (11%) Pasture (24%) Forest/woodland (31%) Remainder (34%) Desert, glacier, high mountains, urban 3-4% in buildings, roads, parking lots, and other infrastructure
