APK3200 Ch 17-19
Baddeley & Longman (1978) overview
controlled study in the real world with regular workers; Training schedule for postal workers on a mail sorting machine which required operating a typewriter-like keyboard.
Fatigue hypothesis
distributed practice is better for learning because fatigue negatively effects learned for massed practice
Cognitive effort hypothesis
distributed practice is better for learning because massed practice reduces the attentional focus and cognitive effort used on each trial- threshole
Memory consolidation hypothesis
distributed practice is better for learning because of LTM storage process: 1. processing time requires time intervals (cannot cram at once- biochemically and mechanically) 2. transform unstable memory representation into a permanent one (learning over time) 3. distributed practice offers better opportunity for processing
low skill level organization
parts are relatively independent (distinct from one another)
high skill level organization
parts are spatially and temporally interdependent (parts mesh)
overlearning can lead to what?
poor learning
part practice
practicing parts of a skill before practicing the whole skill
Evidence of Mental Practice & Imagery Ability (individual difference variable)
Movement imagery questionnaire (MIQ) -Test designed specifically to apply to motor skill performance
definitions of the terms "massed" and "distributed"
No objective definitions of the terms "massed" and "distributed"
dynamic balance skills and overlearning
-point of diminished returns for amount of extra practice -balance on platform (stabilometer) that measured sway -criterion time: 28 sec out of 50 sec -extra practice was benefitical but there were diminshing returns -50% of overlearning was as effective as 100% and 200% overlearning
Simplification
Reduce skill difficulty by practicing an easier (i.e., simpler) variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself
imagery ability individual difference variable
'ability' is an achievement potential for mind; can have high degree of vividness or low degree with difficulty imagining
Overlearning summary
- "Practice doesn't make perfect; perfect practice makes perfect." - Amount of practice is not critical variable influencing learning - other variables that are more critical than amount of practice: length (duration) and distibution (spacing) of practice
Continuous and serial skills
- High level of complexity and differing levels of organization - Serial skills vary on degrees of organization according to the skill
Discrete skills
- Low in complexity because they consist of one identifiable part - High end of organization continuum
Travlos (1999): Overlearning Strategy Can Lead to Poor Learning
- Overlearning and negative transfer -Task: distance learning of horizontal line (8 in.) using a digitizing tablet with stylus -KR given for distance error -Range of trials: 42, 77, 102, 127, 152 -Transfer test (5 trials) - Estimate length of 10 in. line -RESULTS: 77 and 102 range produced lowest error; 42 not enough and 127-152 too much (there was an optimal practice level and what was too much)
overlearning applied to procedural skills
- Skills that include a combination of cognitive and motor components: psychomotor skills - require manual dexterity and fine motor control: perceive instructions and perform with precision, speed, and techniques for execution - Require performance of a series of relatively simple movements, e.g., assembling a rifle
Research in procedural skills with overlearning
- U.S. Army sponsored research found 100% overlearning strategy effective for long-term retention -Meaning 100% more trials (double) than necessary to reach a performance criterion of 1 correct assembly/disassembly trial - skill required a lot of cognitive effort, attention to detail, and remembering; and doing (precision fine motor control with speed)
overlearning research
-positive influence on retention for learning skills -extra practice of 50 to 200% results in proportionate higher retention test performance -doesn't take into consideration different types of skills
Baddeley & Longman (1978) Goals and Results
-Action goal: Achieve a typing speed of 80 keystrokes/min -Study goal: determine # of hrs the trainees needed to achieve goal -Results: - Group (A) - 55 (12-wks; 1 hr/s, 1 s/d) (most distributed) - Group (B) - 75 (6 wks; 1 hr/s, 2 s/d) - Group (C) - 67 (6 wks; 2 hr/s, 1 s/d) - Group (D) - 80+ (3 wks; 2 hr/s, 2 s/d) (most massed) -Only the most distributed practice schedule (12-wk) reached the action goal in the allotted 60 hours. -Those in the 2 hr/s, 2 s/d needed 80+ hours
Why would "extra" practice lead to poorer retention and transfer test performance than less practice?
- skill practiced is too simple, boredom and lack of attention to detail may have been a problem after a certain amount of practice - Lower levels of cognitive effort because attention demands are so low
Orthopedic Surgical Task research
-1st and 2nd year med students with no experience in bone-plating -Bone-plating: serial task in which parts are distinct, yet inter-related, and must be performed in a specific order -5 parts: 1. sizing plate and clamping to bone 2. drilling 6 holes of precise depth and dimension 3. measure depth of holes 4. create threading for screws 5. inserting screws -3 Practice Schedules: 1. whole practice (in order) 2. blocked part practice: each part of procedure practiced 3 times in a 12- min session before practicing next part 3. random part practice: practiced each part in random order in 3 20-min sessions.
Segmentation
-AKA progressive-part strategy -begin practice with first part of skill and progressively add each part until skill is practiced as a whole -useful for: dance, swim styles, etc
mental practice and Skill Acquisition research
-Action goals: (1) pegboard task (60s) and (2) rotary pursuit tasks for 15s (45rpm) -RESULTS: -Mental practice was better than no practice -75/25 was best for combined -Physical practice was best, but the difference between physical practice and combined was small -Take home message: for Healthy participants, the similar results for combined included less physical effort (less fatigue per practice session) and lower injury risk; Potential for more practice (distributed)
Movement Imagery Questionnaire
-Action situations that a person is asked to physically perform -Asked to perform mental task(s) as an instructional set: 1. "form as clear and vivid a mental picture as possible of movement just performed" -visual imagery 2. "attempt to positively feel yourself making the movement just performed without actually doing it" -kinesthetic imagery -Person performs mental task and rates how easy or difficult it was to do on a continuum
Fractionalization:
-Asymmetric bimanual coordination skills: distinctly different movement patterns between limbs; musical instruments like guitar, piano, and drums -Practice each arm or hand individually before performing the skill bimanually -limb that has to perform the more complex movement should be practiced first and then incorporate the limb with the less complex movement
Segmentation example
-Breaststroke -divided into arm and leg action -Difficulty in learning the timing of the coordination of the 2 parts. -Reduce the attention demands of the whole skill by practicing each part individually 1st -after practicing each part independently the swimmer can put them together to practice them as a whole unit -attention directed toward the temporal-spatial demands of the arm and leg actions
Cognitive hypothesis
-Cognitive stage is first stage of motor learning: Cognitive activity and "What to do" aspect -MP is a strategy for acquiring new skill and relearning old one -MP accelerates learning process (mental elements) because the performer answers performance related questions without pressure of physical performance -Not fatigue inducing and safe (no risk of injury) -Later stages of learning: MP effective in refining movements and correcting errors
What else would account for the results that overlearning can lead to poor performance?
-Constant or blocked practice effect lacks transfer -indicates need for practice variability because it enhances capability to transfer a related movement more than constant practice
Distribution of Practice for Intertrial Intervals- open motor skills research
-Discrete motor skills: usually simple tasks -example: rapid aiming task -short trials (150 msec) -massed schedules more effective than distributed
Mental Practice Techniques
-Early learning stages (cognitive and into associative) -Rehearsal and problem-solving prior to practice -Between trials (intermittent) -error detection & correction -Site-specific visualization (movement or sequence) -Practice in relaxed state -active subconscious mind
Orthopedic Surgical Task research results
-Final product evaluation w/ performance measure checklist done by panel of 3 skilled orthopedic surgeons showed that whole practice performed better in post-tests immediately after and 30-min later followed by those in random practice group -makes sense because they are skills in high complexity and organization with multiple component parts (high attention demand) that are interdependent
MP aids learning research
-Five step general preparation strategy -Ball throw to target and lawn dart throw to target (transfer) -RESULTS: -Improved throwing accuracy (ball): Overhand -Improved throwing accuracy for lawn dart (transfer test): Underhand
Shea and Kohl (1991): Overlearning Strategy Can Lead to Poor Learning
-Goal: learn to push a handle with 175 N force - Group 1 constant: practiced skill 85 trials at 175N - Group 2 variable: practiced 85 trials at 175N, then 51 trials at 125, 150, 200, and 225N for a total of 289 trials - Group 3 constant: practiced 289 trials at 175N - Day later, retention test of skill with goal Force =175N for 10 trials - RESULTS: ~ Group 3 had poorest performance on initial 5 trials, Group 2 performed the best, group 1 fell in between ~ Performance was the same among groups for the last 5 trials: the extra trials did not help performance
MIQ and MP ability
-Imagery ability influences the success of mental practice -High level of imagery ability- MP more beneficial -Groups: -HH -high visual/high kinesthetic -HL-high visual/low kinesthetic -LL-low visual/low kinesthetic -Why are there high and low effects? Motivation issue or concentration issue? Better ability to activate brainwaves and produce mental movement images
Neuromuscular hypothesis research
-Jacobson (1931) -Asked subjects to 'visualize' bending right arm: took EMG activity in ocular muscle (not biceps) -Asked subjects to 'imagine' bending right arm to lift 10-lb weight: EMG activity in biceps (>90% of trials)
Distributed Practice advantage
-Learning advantage -distributed practice (shorter and more sessions) lead to better learning and retention than massed (longer and fewer sessions) -Extends to a variety of motor skills
MP benefits for power & speed training
-Performance enhancement -Spring cycling (40-m) -power training
highly complex skill examples
-Performing a dance routine -Serving a tennis ball -Getting out of bed and into a wheelchair
Distribution of Practice for Intertrial Intervals- closed motor skills research
-Practice distribution schedule that is best for learning depends on type of skill (Lee & Genovese, 1988, 1989) -Continuous motor skills: example is a rotary pursuit task -longer trials (20-30 s) -longer rest periods between trials -distributed schedules more effective than massed
Mental Practice in rehab and clinical settings
-Rehabilitation settings -relearning motor skills -Clinical cohorts: 1. Post-stroke patients -upper-limb fine motor control and strength 2. Aging (elderly) improved gait & dynamic balance 3. Spine conditions (abnormal curvature) -postural adjustments reduced pain and improved spine angles 4. Injured athletes (grade II ankle sprains) -improvements in muscular endurance
overlearning
continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion: can be variable (random) or specific (blocked)
Baddeley & Longman (1978) Retention test results
-Retention tests: 1, 3, and 9 months post-training -Results: at 9 months post, the most massed group (3 week) performed worse than the other groups which performed about equally -interestingly, when asked how they liked their training schedule, the most massed (3 week) liked their schedule the best and the most distributed liked their schedule the least
massed practice
-Sessions are longer and fewer -Between-Trial Rest Intervals are none to very short
Distributed Practice
-Sessions are shorter and more frequent -Between-Trial Rest Intervals are relatively long
low complexity skills examples
-Shooting an arrow -Shooting a free throw -Picking up a cup
Mental Practice is effective for what?
-Skill learning (facilitating rehearsal -encoding/storage to retrieval) -Action preparation -Motivation -Self-confidence -Reduce performance anxiety
Dial & Christina (2004)
-Subj: novice golfers -Task: practice putting at 3.7m distance for 240 trials -Groups: massed (all 240 trials in 1-d) or distributed (spread out over 4-d; 60 trials/d) -Results: metacognition- distributed group predicted performance on retention test more accurately than massed group -distributed group consistently had lower (better) scores in retention
Shea et al. (2000)
-Task: continuous dynamic balance task (3 sessions) -1 day: completed 2 sessions -2 day: completed 1 session/day over 2 day period -session 3: retention test -Trials: each trial consisted of 90s of continuous balancing -Results: 2-day had less error than 1-day -retention test (1 day later) continued to show improvement for 2 day -session 1: similar performance; but session 2: 2 day began to perform with less error
Baddeley & Longman (1978) training
-Time limits were 60 hrs, 5 d/wk -DISTRIBUTED Groups: 2 groups practiced for 1 hr/session -One group (A) practiced 1 session/day for 5 days per week: 12 wks of total training time -Other group (B) practiced 2 session/day for 5 days per week: 6 wks -MASSED Groups: 2 groups practiced 2 hrs/session (Massed) -One group (C) practiced 1 session/day for 2 hrs for 5 days per week: 6 wks -Other group (D) practiced 2 sessions/day for 2 hrs each: 3 wks -Most Distributed = 12 weeks -Most Massed = 3 weeks
Empirical Evidence: Juggling study
-Whole practice (WP) v. part practice (PP) -College students (no previous juggling experience) -Practiced until the could make 100 catches while juggling 3 balls. -RESULTS: WP approach achieved goal in 65 trials, where PP group needed 77 trials; timing and spatial awareness, so it is better to use WP
Simulators and virtual reality (VR) environments
-advantages: people can practice skills w/o concerns about cost of accidents, and practitioners can control specific aspects of the performance environment more easily than in real environments. -Degree of similarity important for positive transfer to occur -Not very many sports contexts (but can be used in golf)
Considerations of amount and distribution of practice
-amount of practice to learn a motor skill needs to be determined -if experience is a goal, 10 years of deliberate practice is necessary -amount of practice can be limited depending on sport
benefits of distributed practice
-better learning with more frequent and shorter practice sessions -As seen with experiments by: Baddeley & Longman (1978), Shea (2000), and Dail & Christina (2004)
organization: high level
-chain of events (eg. jump shot) -spatial-temporal performance characteristics are interdepenent -each part will depend on the manner in which he/she performed the parts that preceded it -hard to practice a highly organized skill in parts
decision to practice a skill as a whole or in parts is based on what?
-decision to practice a skill as a whole or in parts is based on characteristics of the skill (hypothesis by Naylor and Briggs) -complexity: number of component parts; complexity is distinct from difficulty -organization: attention demand
Making the decision regarding whole or part practice: juggling example
-decision: determine whether to practice juggling 3 balls as a whole or in parts. -Skill analysis: Complexity characteristics 1. Hold 3 balls in 2 hands 2. Toss ball 1 from hand 1 3. Catch ball 1 in hand 2 while tossing ball 2 with hand 2 4. Catch ball 2 in hand 1 while tossing ball 3 with hand 2 5. Catch ball 3 in hand 1 while tossing ball 1 with hand 2 6. Repeat steps 2 and 5 7. Between-component timing: critical for performance -Organization characteristics: performing one part w/o including the part that precedes or follows it does not allow the learner to experience critical between-component timing aspects. -Conclusion: 3-ball juggling involves multiple component parts that are highly interdependent, so juggling 3 balls is relatively high in complexity and in organization; practicing whole skill is appropriate method
Reduce object difficulty
-example: Juggling substitute balls with scarves or bean bags (objects move slower than ball) -person has more time to make appropriate movements that the right times -positive transfer should occur
Considerations after basics of skill is learned
-how much time to devote to each activity in a session? -length of each session? -time of rest between activities in a session? (how long is rest period)
organization: low level
-in a skill with low level of organization, can practice any one component part by itself -Independent parts: spatial-temporal characteristics do not depend on those of the part that preedes it
How much rest during intertrial intervals (between trials) is needed?
-massed: rest is very short, practice is continuous -distributed: rest is relatively long for info processing time or memory consolidation
Progressive sequences of increasing skill difficulty or complexity
-progressive sequences of increasing skill difficulty or complexity -sequencing of skill progressions so that a learner practices variations of the skill from less to more complex or difficult -eg. practice tennis serve in front of the service line and work your way back to the appropriate distance
who determines the need for extra practice research
-research that aimed to figure out who determines need for extra practice -physical education class setting with 5th graders (boys and girls) -learned 2 step kick (punt) -the teacher or student determined if needed more practice; followed by retention test -results: student determined extra practice resulted in better learning than teacher-determined extra practice
what can limit the amount of practice?
-time of season or when practice can begin (eg. football cannot start practice until July 20 for a fall season) -number of coaches to players ratio -rehab usually restricted to insurance plan -personal or group instruction- pay by the hour and cost
example of distributed practice: class schedule
-total time = 3 hrs/week -3 days/week: 3 sessions for 50 min -2 days/week: 2 sessions (1 for 50 min, 1 for 100 min) -1 day/week: 1 session for 150 min
Three part-task strategies (From Wrightman & Lintern, 1985) for practicing parts of a skill
1. Fractionalization 2. Segmentation 3. Simplification
Examples of simplification methods
1. Reduce object difficulty 2. Reduce attention demands 3. Reduce movement speed 4. Add auditory cues 5. Progressive sequences of increasing skill difficulty or complexity 6. Simulators and virtual reality environments
Big Questions for amount and distribution of practice
1. how much practice should be engaged in by the performer? 2. how much time to devote to various activities? - within and across practice sessions; within the total amount of practice time
imagery ability
Ability to imagine an action when requested to do so; is an individual -difference variable
Decisions to Use Whole or Part Practice
Analyze the skill to determine which part of each continuum for complexity and organization best represents the skill - If the skill is low in complexity and high in organization: practice of the whole skill is best - If the skill is high in complexity and low in organization: practice by using the part method
internal visual imagery
Approximating real-life situation; Imagines being inside one's own body with "actual" experience of sensations
MP benefits skill acquisition
Benefits seem to specific to the visual and kinesthetic aspects of imagery
Constant or blocked practice effect
Extended practice of the same relatively simple movement results in decreased capability to transfer to a movement variation; lacks transfer
Add auditory cues
Helps when learning skills with a distinct rhythmic characteristic (timing pattern)
Brain activity hypothesis
Imagine movement while using brain imaging studies; similarity in activity between imagining moving a limb and physically moving a limb- Neurophysiological similarities between both processes
Neuromuscular hypothesis
Imagining movement has a neuromuscular basis; Imagination reinforces neuromotor pathways used during physical performance and reduces demands on motor system
Mental Practice
Mind preparation (not meditation or day-dreaming) that refers to the cognitive rehearsal of a motor skill in the absence of overt physical movement(s); use visual and/or kinesthetic imagery of the "look" and "feel" of the movements (or part of movement) to rehearse procedural aspects of skill -"how to do"
Distribution of Practice for Intertrial Intervals
Learning effects may be different based on what the skill is- closed vs discrete motor skills- and whether a massed or distributed practice was used.
Two Types of Practice Distribution Schedules
Massed practice Distributed practice
Mental Practice occurs when?
May occur while a person observes: -Another person live -Another person on film or video -Himself/herself on film or video -Or may occur without any visual observation
Visual Imagery
Not to be confused with metaphoric imagery or meaningfulness of the movement; can be internal or external
Which is better for skill acquisition? Physical practice + mental practice, Physical practice alone, or Mental practice alone
Physical practice + mental practice
overlearning leads to poor learning research
Research has shown situations in which learning deficits resulted from excessive practice, i.e., too much overlearning
skill organization definition
Spatial and temporal relationships among the parts of the skill; high or low level skill organization
Why Distributed Practice Sessions Are Better for Learning
Three hypotheses: Fatigue hypothesis, Cognitive effort hypothesis, Memory consolidation hypothesis
External visual imagery
Viewing oneself as observer (watching movie)
practice distribution problem
You have a specific amount of time to practice [or for rehab] for a future "test." What is the best way to schedule the available time in terms of: 1. practice session: how long (duration) and how often (frequency) 2. rest or recovery intervals (mental and physical): within and between sessions
dynamic balance skill
a gross motor skill (more open than closed) that requires sensory perception and motor integration
Add auditory cues example
adding music with metronome sounds embedded can assist Parkinsons patient when practicing walking; improvement seen in gait velocity, stride length, and step cadence
dynamic pattern view of overlearning
extra practice helps a learner increase the stability of the coordination patterns and control characteristics (parameters)
motor-program based view of overlearning
extra practice helps strengthen the GMP and response schema: closes loop- feedback
highly complex skill has...
has many components and demands a lot of attention
low complexity skills definition
have few component parts and demand relatively limited attention
highly complex skill definition
have several component parts and demand higher levels of attention than low complexity skills
Whole practice
involves practicing a skill in its entirety
Big Answers for the questions surround amount and distribution of practice
it all depends: more practice is better, but it may not always be the best alternative
Imagery: why does it work?
three hypotheses: neuromuscular hypothesis, brain activity hypothesis, cognitive hypothesis
Skills with many, not highly related component parts
use part method eg. reaching for grasping and drinking from a glass, shifting gears on a car
Simple skills with few, highly related component parts
use whole practice method eg. buttoning a shirt, throwing a dart, putting a golfball
Practice strategies
whole practice or part practice
