APUSH Unit 4

Trail of Tears

"One each day, and all are gone. Looks like maybe all dead before we get to new Indian country, but always we keep marching on. Women cry and make sad wails. Children cry, and many men cry, and all look sad when friends die, but they say nothing and just put heads down and keep on toward west . . . She [his mother] speak no more; we bury her and go on." The route Indians took when they were forced to immigrate to the newly established Indian territory (Oklahoma-Texas area?)

John Slidell's failed mission to Mexico

Polk dispatched ____ to Mexico City as minister in late 1845. The new envoy, among other alternatives was instructed to offer a maximum of $25 million for California and territory to the east. But the proud Mexican people would not even permit ___ to present his "insulting" proposition.

daguerreotype (photographs)

Portrait painters gradually encountered some unwelcome competition from the invention of a crude photograph known as the ______, perfected about 1839 by a Frenchman, Louis Daguerre.

Oregon Trail, missionaries

The handful of Americans in Willamette Valley was suddenly multiplied in the early 1840s, when "Oregon fever" seized hundreds of restless pioneers. In increasing numbers, their creaking covered wagons jolted over the two-thousand-mile ______ as the human rivulet widened into a stream. ADD missionaries?

cult of domesticity

The vast majority of workingwomen were single. Upon marriage they left their paying jobs and took up their new work as wives and mothers. In the home they were enshrined in a "____," a widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of the homemaker. From their pedestal, married women commanded immense moral power, and they increasingly made decisions that altered the character of the family itself.

Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale, John Trumbull

A spendthrift Rhode Islander and one of the most gifted of the early group of competent American painters, he wielded his brush in Britain in competition with the best artists. He produced several portraits of Washington, all of them somewhat idealized and dehumanized. ____, a Marylander, painted some 60 portraits of Washington, who patiently sat for about fourteen of them. ____, who had fought in the Revolutionary War, recaptured its scenes and spirit on scores of striking canvases.

nationalism (examples)

Adam's _____ views gave him further woes. Much of the nation was turning way from post-Ghent _____ and towards states' rights and sectionalism. He urged Congress to construct roads and canals, and renewed George Washington's proposal to have a national university. The public reaction to these proposals was prompt and unfavorable. If the federal government should take on such heavy financial burdens, it would have to continue the hated tariff duties. Worse, if it could meddle in local concerns like education and roads, it might even try to lay its hand on the "peculiar institution" of black slavery.

land policy

Adam's ______ likewise antagonized the westerners. They clamored for wide-opened expansion and resent the president's well-meaning attempts to curb feverish speculation in the public domain. The fate of the Cherokee Indians, threatned with evicition from their holdings in Georgia, brought additional bitterness. Adams attempted to deal fairly with the Indians, but the Georgia governor threatened to resort to arms.

describe limitations on women

A wife was supposed to immerse herself in her home and subordinate to her husband. Like black slaves, should could not vote, and she could be legally beaten by her overlord "with a reasonable instrusment." When she married, she could not retain title to her property; it passed to her husband. ADD?

Ohio's Miami (Wabash) and Erie Canal (Toledo)

ADD

Eli Whitney and the cotton engine (cotton gin)

Born in Massachusetts, he was another mechanical genius. While in Georgia, he was told the poverty of the South would be relieved if someone could only invent a workable device for separating the seed from the short-staple cotton fiber. Within ten days, in 1793, he built a crude machine called the cotton gin (short for engine) that was fifty times more effective than the handpicking process. The gin affected not only the history of America but that of the world.

beaver, buffalo, otters

By 1820s American fur-trappers were setting their traplines all over the vast Rocky Mountain Region. The fur-trapping empire was based on the "rendezvous" system in which traders ventured from St. Louis to a verdant Rocky Mountain valley, made camp, and waited for the trappers and Indians to arrive with _______ pelts to swap for manufactured goods from the East. By the time these hats went out of fashion, the ___ had almost disappeared from the region. Trade in ___ robes also flourished, leading eventually to the annihilation of the bison herds in the western prairies. In California coast, traders bought up prodigious quantities of ____ pelts, driving the once-bountiful ___ to the point of near extinction.

stagecoaches; the Pony Express

By 1858 horse-drawn overland ___, immortalized by Mark Twain's "Roughing It," were a familiar sight. Their dusty tracks stretched from the bank of the muddy Missouri River clear to California. The ____ was established in 1860 to carry mail speedily the two thousand lonely miles from St. Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California. Daring, lightweight riders, leaping onto wiry ponies saddled at stations approximately ten miles apart, could make the trip in an amazing ten days. The speeding postmen missed only one trip, though the whole enterprise lost money heavily and folded after only eighteen legend-leaving months.

continental economy and regional specialization

By they eve of the Civil War, a truly ____ had emerged. The principle of division of labor, which spelled productivity and profits in the factory, applied on a national scale as well. Each region now specialized in a particular type of economic activity. The South raised cotton for export to New England and Britain; the West grew grain and livestock to feed factory workers in the East and in Europe; the East made machines and textiles for the South and the West.

Lancaster Turnpike

Cheap and efficient carriers were imperative if raw materials were to be transported to factories and if finished products were to be delivered to consumers. In the 1790s, a private company completed the ____ Turnpike in Pennsylvania. It was a broad, hard-surfaced highway that thrust 62 miles westward from Philadelphia to ____. As drivers approached the tollgate, they were confronted with a barrier of sharp spikes, which they turned aside when they paid for their toll. It proved to be a highly successful venture, returning as high as 15 percent annual dividends to its stockholders. It attracted a rich trade to Philadelphia and touched off a turnpike-building boom that lasted about twenty years.

working conditions, child labor, strikes

Clearly the early factory system did not shower its benefits evenly on all. While many owners grew plump, working-people often wasted away at their workbenches. Hours were long, wages were low, and meals were skimpy and hastily gulped. Workers were forced to toil in unsanitary buildings that were poorly ventilated, lighted, and heated. They were forbidden by law to form labor unions to raise wages, for such cooperative activity regarded as criminal conspiracy. In 1820 a significant portion of the nation's industrial toilers were children under ten years of age. Victims of factory labor, many children were mentally blighted, emotionally starved, physically stunted, and even brutally whipped. Dozens of strikes erupted in the 1830s and 1840s, most of them for higher wages, some for the ten-hour day, and a few for unusual goals as the right to smoke on the job. The workers usually lost more strikes than they won, for the employer could resort to such tactics as the importing of strikebreakers.

Phillis Wheatley

Colonial literature was generally undistinguished. One note-worthy exception was the precocious poet _____, a slave girl brought to Boston at age eight and never formally educated. Taken to England when twenty years of age, she published a book of verse and subsequently wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope. Her verse compares favorably with the best of the poetry-poor colonial period, but the remarkable fact is that she could overcome her severely disadvantaged background and write any poetry at all.

reasons for New England industrialization (factors of production)

Factories at first flourished most actively in New England, though they branched out into the more populous areas of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. New England was singularly favored as an industrial center for several reasons. Farming was difficult (hence making manufacturing attractive), a relatively dense population provided labor and accessible markets, shipping brought in capital, and snug seaports made easy the import of raw material and the export of the finished products. Finally, the rapid rivers provided abundant water power to turn the cogs of the machines.

Frederick Douglass' autobiography

He was the greatest of black abolitionists. He escaped bondage in 1838 at age 21 and was "discovered" by the abolitionists in 1841 when he gave a stunning impromptu speech at an antislavery meeting in Mass. Thereafter he lectured widely for the cause, despite frequent beatings and threats against his life. In 1845 he published his classic _____, "Narrative of the Life of ______." It depicted his remarkable origins as the son of a black slave woman and a white father, his struggle to learn to read and write, and his eventual escape to the North.

National (Cumberland) Road

In 1811 the federal government began to construct the elongated ____. This highway ultimately stretched from Cumberland, in western Maryland, to Vandalia, in Illinois, a distance of 591 miles. The War of 1812 interrupted construction, and states' rights shackles on internal improvements hampered federal grants. But the thoroughfare was belatedly brought to its destination in 1852 by a combination of aid from the states and the federal government.

American Colonization Society; Liberia

In 1817 this was founded to transport blacks bodily back Africa. In 1822 the Republic of ____, on the fever-stricken West African coast, was established for former slaves. It's capital, Monrovia, was named after President Monroe. Some fifteen thousand freed blacks were transported there over the next four decades.

Denmark Vesey slave rebellion and abolition

In 1822, there was a free black named _____ who lead an aborted slave rebellion in Charleston. The South Carolinians, still closely the British West Indies, knew that their slaveowning West Indian cousins were feeling the mounting pressure of British Abolitionism on the London government. Abolitionism in America might similarly use the power of the government in Washington to suppress slavery in the South. If so, now was the time, and the tariff was the issue, to take a strong stand against all federal encroachments on states' rights.

Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia)

In 1828, Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian affairs and Indian lands. The Cherokees appealed this move to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court upheld rights of Indians, but Jackson (who clearly wanted to open Indian lands to white settlement) refused to recognize the Court's decisions.

Texas boundary disputes with Mexico

During the long era of Spanish Mexican occupation, the southwestern boundary of Texas had been the Nueces River. But the expansive Texans, on rather far-fetched grounds, were claiming the more southerly Rio Grande instead. Polk, for his part, felt a strong moral obligation to defend Texas in its claim, once it was annexed. The Mexicans were far less concerned about this boundary quibble than was the US. In their eyes all of Texas was still theirs, although temporarily in revolt, and a dispute over the two rivers seemed pointless. Yet Polk was careful to keep American troops out of virtually all of the explosive no-man's-land between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, as long as there was any real prospect of peaceful adjustment.

Hudson River School of Art

During the nationalistic upsurge after the War of 1812, American painters of portraits turned increasingly from human landscapes to romantic mirrorings of local landscapes. The ____ school excelled in this type of art.

patents

Each momentous new invention seemed to stimulate still more imaginative inventions. For the decade ending in 1800, only 306 patents were registered in Washington; but the decade ending in 1860 saw the amazing total of 28,000. Yet in 1838 the clerk of the Patent Office resigned in despair, complaining that all the worthwhile inventions had been discovered.

Treaty of 1846; 49th Parallel through Oregon

Early in 1846 the British, hat in hand, came around and themselves proposed the line of 49°. President Polk, irked by the previous rebuff, threw the decision squarely into the lap of the Senate. The senators speedily accepted the offer and approved the subsequent treaty.

Noah Webster

Educational advances were aided by improved textbooks, notably those of _____, a Yale-educated Connecticut Yankee who was known as the "Schoolmaster of the Republic." His "reading lessons," used by millions of children in the 19th century, were partly designed to promote patriotism. He devoted twenty years to his famous dictionary, published in 1828, which helped to standardize the American language.

Southern slavery and King Cotton

Eli Whitney's invention, the cotton gin, made possible the wide-scale cultivation of short-staple cotton. The explosion of cotton cultivation created an insatiable demand for labor, chaining the slave to the gin and the planter to the slave. As the 19th century opened, the re-invigoration of southern slavery carried fateful implications for blacks and whites alike - and threatened the survival of the nation itself. As time passed, the Cotton Kingdom developed into a huge agricultural factory, pouring out avalanches of the fluffy fiber. Quick profits drew planters to the loamy bottomlands of the Gulf states. Caught up in the economic spiral, planters bought more slaves and land to grow more cotton, so as to buy still more __ and land.

National Republicans and Adams (Whigs)

Even before the election of 1828, the temporarily united Republicans of the Era of Good Feelings had split into two camps. One was the _____, with ___ as their standard-bearer. The other was the Democratic-Republicans.

election 1844 Democrat Polk (list campaign ideas)

Expansionist democrats were strongly swayed by the intoxicating spell of Manifest Destiny. They came out flat-footedly in their platform for the "Reannexation of Texas" and the "Reoccupation of Oregon." Polk won the election 170 votes to 105 votes (Clay) in the Electoral College. One of his goals (as president) was a lowered tariff. He also wanted the restoration of the independent treasury, the acquisition of California, and the settlement of the Oregon dispute.

Indian Removal Act, Bureau of Indian Affairs

Jackson proposed the bodily removal of the remaining eastern tribes - Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles - beyond the Mississippi. Emigration was supposed to be voluntary because it was "cruel and unjust" to force the Indians to move. Jackson's policy led to the forced uprooting of more than 100,000 Indians. In 1830, Congress passed the ____, providing for the transplanting of all Indian tribes then resident east of the Mississippi. The heaviest blow fell on the Five Civilized Tribes. Indians died on the route to the new Indian Territory were they would be permanently free of white encroachments. _____ was established in 1836 to administer relations with Indians. The permanent frontier lasted about 15 years.

Clay's compromise tariff

Jackson sent the navy and army to Palmetto Sates, while quietly preparing a sizable army. He issued a proclamation against nullification, to which the South Carolina governor responded with a counter-proclamation. To avoid civil war, ___ stepped forward and threw his influence behind a compromise bill that would gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by about 10 percent over a period of eight years. By 1842, the rates would be back at the mildly protective level of 1816. (compromise Tariff of 1833)

Texas settlers; conflict with Mexico and Santa Anna

Most of them were law-abiding, God-fearing people, but some of them had left the "States" only one or two jumps ahead of the sheriff. "G.T.T." (Gone to Texas) became current descriptive slang. The settlers were not easy to push around, and tension between Mexicans and Texans over issues such as slavery, immigration, and local rights increased. In 1833, Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to negotiate slavery in Texas, and he was put in jail for eight months by the Mexican dictator _________. In 1835, _______ wiped out all local rights and started to raise an army to suppress the upstart Texans.

social mobility

Myths of "_____" grew up and over the buried memories of the unfortunate (forgotten) day laborers. Mobility did exist in industrializing America - but not in the proportions that legend often portrays. Rags-to-riches success stories were relatively few. Yet America, with its dynamic society and wide-open spaces, undoubtedly provided more "opportunity" than did the contemporary countries of the Old World - which is why millions of immigrants packed their bags and headed for New World shores.

King Cotton

Nickname for the cotton gin. Almost overnight the raising of cotton became highly profitable, and the South was tied hand and foot to the throne of _____. Human bondage had been dying out, but the insatiable demand for cotton reriveted the chains on the limbs of the downtrodden southern blacks. South and North both prospered. Slave-driving planters cleared more acres for cotton, pushing the Cotton Kingdom westward off the depleted tidewater plains, over the Piedmont, and onto the black loam bottomlands of Alabama and Mississippi.

market revolution

No less revolutionary than the political upheavals of the antebellum era was the "_____" that transformed a subsistence economy of scattered farms and tiny workshops into a national network of industry and commerce. Greater mechanization and a more robust market-oriented economy raised new legal questions about winner and losers. ADD

Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (Know-Nothings)

Older-stock Americans were alarmed at the mounting figures of Roman Catholics. They professed to believe the "alien riffraff" would "establish" the Catholic Church at the expense of Protestantism and would introduce "popish idols." The nosier American "nativists" rallied for political action. In 1849 they formed the _____, which soon developed into the formidable American, or "Know-Nothing," party - a name derived from its secretiveness. "Nativists" agitated for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing deportation of alien paupers.

General Zachary Taylor and the Rio Grande River

On January 13, 1846, Polk ordered four thousand men, under General ____, to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican forces. Polk told his cabinet that he was going to ask Congress to declare war on Mexico on the basis of unpaid claims and Slidell's rejection. Two cabinet members said they would feel better if Mexican troops fired first. That evening, news of bloodshed arrived. On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops had crossed the Rio Grande and attacked General __'s command, with a loss of 16 Americans killed or wounded. Polk told Congress that despite "all our efforts" to avoid a clash, hostilities had been forced upon the country by the shedding of "American blood on American soil." A patriotic Congress voted for war. (Polk had bended truth - American blood shed on soil that the Mexicans had good reason to regard as their own)

William Lloyd Garrison's newspaper "The Liberator"

On New Year's Day, 1831, a shattering abolitionist blast came from the bugle of ____, a mild-looking reformer of 26. The emotionally high-strung son of a drunken father and a spiritual child of the Second Great Awakening, he published in Boston the first issue of his militantly antislavery newspaper, _____. With this mighty paper broadside, he triggered a thirty year war of words and in a sense fired one of the opening barrages of the Civil War.

spoils system (patronage)

Once in power, Democrats, famously suspicious of the federal government, demonstrated that they were not above striking some bargains of their own. Under Jackson the _____ - that is, rewarding political supporters with public office - was introduced to the federal government on a large scale. The system had already secured a firm hold in New York and Pennsylvania. Jackson defended the ___ on democratic grounds that every man was as good as his neighbor, so why develop the aristocracy, bureaucracy, and officeholding classes? Better to bring in new blood; each generation deserved its turn at the public trough. The system was less about finding new blood than about rewarding old cronies. It was accompanied by scandal since men had bought their new positions through contributions to the campaign. Illiterates, incompetents, and plain crooks were given positions of public trust; men on the make lusted forth the spoils - rather than toils - of office. It was an important element of the emerging two-party order.

John Deere plow

One of the first obstacles that frustrated farmers was the thickly matted soil of the West, which snagged and snapped fragile wooden plows. ____ of Illinois in 1837 finally produced a steel plow that broke the stubborn soil. Sharp and effective, it was also light enough to be pulled by horses, rather than oxen.

Dorothea Dix and mental health reform

Sufferers from so-called insanity were still being treated with incredible cruelty. Many crazed persons were chained in jails or poor-houses with sane people. Into this picture stepped a formidable New England teacher-author, _____. She traveled some 60,000 miles in eight years and assembled her damning reports on insanity and asylums from firsthand observations. Her classic petition in 1843 to the Massachusetts legislature, describing cells so foul that visitors were driven back by the stench, turned legislative stomachs and hearts. Her persistent prodding resulted in improved conditions and in gain for the concept that the demented were not willfully perverse but mentally ill.

Black Hawk rebellion and Captain Lincoln

Suspicious of white intentions from the start, Sauk and Fox braves from Illinois and Wisconsin, ably lead by ___, resisted eviction. They were crushed in 1832 by regular troops, including Lieutenant Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, and by volunteers, including Captain ______ of Illinois.

Daniel Webster, pro-tariff

Tariffs protected American industry against competition from European manufactured goods, but they also drove up prices for all Americans and invited retaliatory tariffs on American agricultural exports abroad. In 1820s, influential New Englanders like ___ gave up their traditional defense of free trade to support higher tariffs. In 1824, Congress had increased the tariffs significantly. Ardent Jacksonites now played a cynical political game. They now promoted a high-tariff bill, expecting to be defeated, which would give a black eye to President Adams. To their surprise, the tariff passed in 1828, and Andrew Jackson inherited the political hot potato.

sewing machine, Isaac Singer

The ____ machine, invented by Elias Howe and perfected by _____, gave another strong boost to northern industrialization. It became the foundation of the ready-made clothing industry, which took root about the time of the Civil War. It drove many a seamstress from the shelter of the private home to the factory, where, like a human robot, she tended the clattering mechanisms.

trans-Allegheny west and importance of corn

The _____ region - especially the Ohio-Indiana-Illinois tier - was fast becoming the nation's breadbasket. Pioneer families first hacked a clearing out of the forest and then planted their painfully furrowed fields of corn. The yellow grain was amazingly versatile. It could be fed to hogs or distilled into liquor. Both of these products could be transported more easily than the bulky grain itself, and they became the early western farmer's staple market items.

plantation slavery (slave importation ended in 1808)

The booming cotton economy created a seemingly unquenchable demand for slave labor, and their numbers quadrupled. Legal importation of African slaves into America ended in 1808, when Congress outlawed slave imports. But the price of "black ivory" was so high in the years before the Civil War that uncounted blacks were smuggled into the South, despite the death penalty of slavers. The planters regarded the slaves as investments. Slaves were the primary form of wealth in the South, and as such they were cared for as any asset in cared for by a prudent capitalist. Slavery was profitable for the great planters, though it hobbled the economic development of the region as a whole. ADD

Manifest Destiny

The campaign of 1844 was in part an expression of the mighty emotional upsurge known as Manifest Destiny. Countless citizens in the 1840s and 1850s, feeling a sense of mission, believed that Almighty God had "manifestly" destined the American people for a hemispheric careers. They would irresistibly spread their uplifting and ennobling democratic institutions over at least the entire continent, and possibly over South America as well. Land greed and ideals - "empire" and "liberty" - were thus conveniently joined.

Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin"

The dividing of families (on the auction block) was perhaps slavery's greatest psychological horror Abolitionists decried this practice, and _____ seized on the emotional power of this theme by putting it at the heart of the plot of _____.

abolition movement

The inhumanity of the "peculiar institution" gradually caused antislavery societies to sprout forth. ____ sentiment first stirred at the time of the Revolution, esp. among Quakers. Because of the widespread loathing of blacks, some of the earliest ___ efforts focused on transporting blacks bodily back to Africa. The American Colonization Society was founded for this purpose in 1817, and in 1822 the Republic of Liberia was established for former slaves. In the 1830s the movement took on a new energy and momentum, mounting to the proportions of crusade. American ___ took heart in 1833 when their British counterparts unchained the slaves in the West Indies. ADD

Sarah and Angelina Grimke

The were sisters who championed antislavery. Their crusade, which was not only to free the enslaved but to end racial discrimination throughout the United States, made them more radical than many of the reformers who advocated an end to slavery, but who could not envision true social and political equality for the freedmen and women. The sisters were also among the first abolitionists to recognize the importance of women's rights and to speak and write about the cause of female equality. ADD?

Quaker women; Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony

The women's rights movement was mothered by some arresting figures. Prominent among them was ____, a sprightly Quaker whose ire had been aroused when she and her fellow female delegates to the London antislavery convention in 1840 were not recognized. Quaker-reared ____, a militant lecturer for women's rights, fearlessly exposed herself to rotten garbage and vulgar epithets. She became such a conspicuous advocate of female rights that progressive women everywhere were called "Suzy Bs."

Specie Circular

It was a decree that required all public lands to be purchased with hard or metallic money. Wildcat currency had become so unreliable, esp. in the West, that Jackson authorized the Treasury to pass it. This drastic step stopped the speculative boom which caused a financial panic and crash in 1837.

railroads and Pullman sleeping cars

It was fast, reliable, cheaper than canals to construct, and not frozen over winter. Able to go anywhere, even through the Allegheny barrier, it defied terrain and weather. The first ___ appeared in the US in 1828. By 1860, the US boasted thirty thousand miles of track, three-fourths of it in the rapidly industrializing North. Railroad pioneers had to overcome obstacles like feeble brakes, conjectural arrivals and departures, and numerous differences in gauge meant frequent changes of trains for passengers. But gauges gradually became standardized, better brakes did brake, safety devices were adopted, and the _____ (has bunk beds so you can lay down) was introduced in 1859.

Panic of 1837

Its basic cause was the rampant speculation prompted by a mania of get-rich-quickism. Gamblers in western lands were doing a "land-office business" on borrowed capital, much of it in the shaky currency of wildcat banks. Jacksonian finance, including the Bank War and the Specie Circular, also helped cause the panic along with failures of wheat crops (caused by Hessian fly) causing grain prices to go up. In 1836, the failure of two prominent British banks created tremors, and these in turn caused British investors to call in foreign loans. Europe's economic distresses have often become America's distresses, for every major American financial panic has been affected by conditions overseas. American banks collapsed in the hundreds carrying 7 million in government funds down with them. Commodity prices drooped, sales of public lands fell off, and customs revenues dried to a rivulet. Factories closed their doors, and unemployed workers milled in the streets.

Abraham Lincoln's Spot Resolution

A Whig congressman from Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, introduced certain resolution that requested the precise "spot" on American soil where American blood had been shed. He pushed his "spot" resolutions with such persistence that he came to be known as the "spotty Lincoln," who could die of "spotted fever."

Second Great Awakening (Methodists and Baptists)

A boiling reaction against the growing liberalism in religion set in about 1800. A fresh wave of roaring revivals, beginning on the southern frontier but soon rolling even into the cities of the Northeast, sent the ______ surging across the land. It was one of the most momentous episodes in the history of American religion. It left in its wake countless converted souls, many shattered and reorganized churches, and numerous new sects. It also encouraged an effervescent evangelicalism that bubbled up into innumerable areas of American life - including prison reform, the temperance clause, the women's movement, and the crusade to abolish slavery. Methodists and Baptists reaped the most abundant harvest of souls from the fields of fertilized by revivalism. Both sects stressed personal conversion (contrary to predestination), a relatively democratic control of church affairs, and a rousing emotionalism. Peter Cartwright was the best known of the Methodist "circuit riders," or traveling frontier preachers.

Clinton's "Big Ditch" Erie Canal

A canal-cutting craze paralleled in turnpikes and steamboats. A few canals had been built around falls and elsewhere in colonial days, but ambitious projects lay in the future. Resourceful New Yorkers, cut off from federal aid by states' righters, themselves dug the Erie Canal, linking the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. They were blessed with the driving leadership of Governor DeWitt Clinton, whose grandiose project was scoffingly called "_____" or "the Governor's Gutter." Began in 1817, the canal eventually ribboned 363 miles. On its completion in 1825, a garlanded canal boat glided from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Hudson River and on to New York harbor.

"Declaration of Sentiments"

A document that declared "all men and women are created equal." It was read by Stanton at the Women's Rights Convention in 1848. It also formally demanded the ballot for females.

Knickerbocker Group of writers

A genuinely American literature received a strong boost from the wave of nationalism that followed the War of Independence and especially the War of 1812. By 1820 the older seaboard areas were sufficiently removed from the survival mentality of tree-chopping and butter-churning so that literature could be supported as a profession. This group in New York blazed brilliantly across the literary heavens, thus enabling America for the first time to boast literature to match its magnificent landscapes.

Industrial Revolution (free enterprise system)

A group of British inventors, beginning about 1750, perfected a series of machines for the mass production of textiles. This harnessing of steam multiplied the power of human muscles some ten-thousandfold and ushered in the modern factory system - and with it, the so-called Industrial Revolution. It was accompanied by a no-less-spectacular transformation in agricultural production and in the methods of transportation and communication. The factory system gradually spread from Britain to other lands. It took a generation or so for it to reach western Europe, and then the US. The youthful American Republic was so slow to embrace the machine. For one thing, land was cheap in America. People were not going to coop themselves up in smelly factories when the might till their own acres in God's fresh air and sunlight. Labor was therefore scarce, and enough nimble hands to operate the machines were hard to find - until immigrants began to poor into the US. ADD/CHANGE

Stephen Austin and Texas

Americans and Spanish wanted to populate ____, but before they could Mexico won its independence. A new regime in Mexico City thereupon concluded arrangements in 1823 for granting a huge track of land to _______ in 1823 with the understanding that he would bring 300 American families into the area. Immigrants were to be of the established Roman Catholic faith and upon settlement were to become properly Mexicanized. These 2 stipulations were ignored because immigrants were American at heart and resented the trammels imposed by a "foreign" government. They were especially annoyed by the presence of Mexican soldiers, many of whom were ragged ex-convicts.

Canada-Maine border battle (Aroostook War)

An explosive controversy of the early 1840s involved the Maine boundary dispute. Canada wanted to build a road westward from the seaport of Halifax to Quebec. But the proposed route ran through disputed territory - claimed also by Maine under the misleading peace treaty of 1783. Lumberjacks from both Maine and Canada entered the disputed no-man's-land of the tall-timbered Aroostook River valley. Ugly fighting broke out, and both sides summoned the local militia. The small-scale lumberjack clash, which was dubbed the "Aroostook War," threatened to widen into a full-dress shooting war.

Mason-Dixon Line (Dixie)

Antislavery sentiment was not unknown in the South, and in the 1820s antislavery societies were more numerous south of the ______ line (originally the southern boundary of colonial Pennsylvania) than north of it. ADD

Greek Revival architecture

Architecturally, America contributed little of note in the first half of the century. Public buildings and other important structures followed Greek and Roman lines, which seemed curiously out of place in a wilderness setting. A remarkable ____ came between 1820 and 1850, partly stimulated by the heroic efforts of the Greeks in the 1820s to wrest independence from the "terrible Turk." About mid-century strong interest developed in a revival of Gothic forms, with their emphasis on pointed arches and large windows.

anti-Catholic violence

As early as 1834, a Catholic convent near Boston was burned by a howling mob, and in ensuing years a few scattered attacks fell upon Catholic schools and churches. The most frightful flare up was in 1844 in Philadelphia, where the Irish Catholics fought back against the threats of the "nativists" (two Catholic churches had been burned and some thirteen citizens had been killed and fifty wounded in several days of fighting). These outbursts of intolerance, though infrequent and generally localized in the larger cities, remain an unfortunate blot on the record of America's treatment of minority groups.

Battle of the Alamo, Battle of the Goliad

At the _____ in San Antonio, Santa Anna wiped out the 200 soldiers with his 6,000 men after a 13 day siege. In ____, a group of 400 Texans were surrounded and butchered as "pirates." All these operations further delayed the Mexican advance and galvanized American opposition.

oligarchy (planter aristocracy)

Before the Civil War, the South was in some respects not so much a democracy as an _____ - or a government by the few, in this case heavily influenced by a planter aristocracy. In 1850 only 1,733 families owned more than 100 slaves each, and this select group provided the cream of the political and social leadership of the section and nation. Here was the mint-julep South of the tall-columned and white-painted plantation mansion - the "big house," where dwelt the "cottonocracy." The planter aristocrats enjoyed the lion's share of southern wealth. They could educate their children in the finest schools, often in the North or abroad. But the dominance of the favored aristocracy widened the gap between rich and poor. It hampered tax-supported public education, because the rich planters could and did send their children to private institutions.

revivals; Charles Grandison Finney

Bell voiced _____ was the greatest of the __ preachers. Trained as a lawyer, he abandoned the bar to become n evangelist after a deeply moving conversion experience as a young man. He held huge crowds spellbound with the power of his oratory and the pungency of his message. He led massive __ in Rochester and NYC in 1830 and 1831. He preached a version of the old-time religion, but he was also an innovator. He devised the "anxious bench," where repentant sinners could sit in full view of the congregation, and he encouraged women to pray out aloud in public. Holding out the promise of a perfect Christian kingdom on Earth, he denounced both alcohol and slavery. He eventually served as president of Oberlin College in Ohio, which he helped to make a hotbed of revivalist activity in abolitionism.

poor white non-slave owners, "hillbillies, rednecks"

Beneath the slaveowners on the population pyramid was the great body of whites who owned no slaves at all. By 1860 their numbers swelled to three-quarters of all southern whites. They scratched a simple living from the thinner souls of the backcountry and mountain valleys. To them the riches of the Cotton Kingdom were a distant dream, and they often sneered at the lordly pretensions of the cotton "snobocracy." These red-necked farmers participated in the market economy scarcely at all. As subsistence farmers, they raised corn and hogs, not cotton, and often lived isolated lives, punctuated periodically by extended socializing and sermonizing at religious camp meetings. The least prosperous nonslaveholding whites were scorned even by slaves as "poor white trash." They were also known as "___," and were often described as listless, shiftless, and misshapen. Later investigations have revealed that many of them were not simply lazy but sick, suffering from malnutrition and parasites, esp. hookworm. All these whites w/o slaves had no direct stake in the preservation of slavery, yet they were among the stoutest defenders of the slave system. They hoped to buy a slave or two of their own and parlay their paltry holdings into riches. They were fiercely proud of their "racial superiority," which would be watered down if the slaves were freed. ADD/Change?

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Best known of the transcendentalists was Boston-born ____. Trained as a Unitarian minister, he early forsook his pulpit and ultimately reached a wider audience by pen and platform. He was a never-failing favorite as a lyceum lecturer and for twenty years took a western tour every winter. Perhaps his most thrilling public effort was a Phi Beta Kappa address, "The American Scholar," derived at Harvard College in 1837. This brilliant appeal was an intellectual declaration of independence, for it urged American writers to throw off European traditions and delve into the riches of their own backyards. Catching the individualistic mood of the Republic, he stressed self-reliance, self-improvement, self-confidence, optimism, and freedom. By the 1850s he was an outspoken critic of slavery, and he ardently supported the Union cause in the Civil War.

German immigration (reasons, locations, treatment)

Between 1830 and 1860 over a million and half ___ immigrants stepped onto American soil. The bulk of them were uprooted farmers, displaced by crop failures and other hardships. But a strong sprinkling were liberal political refugees who were saddened by the collapse of the democratic revolutions of 1848. Most of them pushed out to the lush lands of the Middle West, notably Wisconsin, where they settled and established model farms. Like the Irish, they formed an influential body of voters whom American politicians shamelessly wooed. The Conestoga wagon, the Kentucky rifle, and the Christmas tree were all ___ contributions to American culture. They were occasionally regarded with suspicion by their old-stock American neighbors. ADD?

David Walker's "Appeal"

Black abolitionists distinguished themselves as living monuments to the cause of African American freedom. Their ranks included ____, whose incendiary "___ to the Colored Citizens of the World" (1829) advocated a bloody end to white supremacy.

Walt Whitman's "Leaves of Grass"

Bold, brassy, and swaggering was the open-collared figure of Brooklyn's _____. In his famous collection of poems, "_______," he gave free rein to his gushing genius with what he called "barbaric yawp." Highly romantic, emotional, and unconventional, he dispensed with titles, stanzas, rhymes, and at times even regular meter. He handled sex with shocking frankness, although he laundered his verses in later editions, and his book was banned in Boston." ____ "was at first a financial failure. But in time the once-withered "____," revived and honored, won for him an enormous following in both America and Europe. The book also gained him the informal title "Poet Laureate of Democracy."

utopian movement (Brook Farm, Oneida, Shakers)

Bolstered by the ____ spirit of the age (a state in which everything is perfect), various reformers, ranging from the high-minded to the "lunatic fringe," set up more than forty communities of cooperative, communistic, or "communitarian" nature. _____ in Massachusetts, comprising two hundred acres of grudging soil, was started in 1841 with the brotherly and sisterly cooperation of about twenty intellectuals committed to the philosophy of transcendentalism. They prospered reasonably well until 1846, when they lost by fire a large new communal building shortly before its completion. A more radical experiment was the ___ Community, founded in New York in 1848. It practiced free love ("complex marriage"), birth control (through "male continence"), and the eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring. This curious enterprise flourished for more than thirty years, largely because its artisans made superior steel traps and ___ Community (silver) Plate. Among the largest-lived sects were the _____. Led by Mother Ann Lee, they began in the 1770s to set up the first of a score or so of religious communities. They attained a membership of about six thousand in 1840, but since their monastic customs prohibited both marriage and sexual relations, they were virtually extinct by 1940.

lifestyles of slaves (summarize)

Conditions varied from region to region, from large plantation to small farm, and from master to master. Everywhere, of course, slavery meant hard work, ignorance, and oppression. Slaves had no civil or political rights, other than minimal protection from arbitrary murder or unusually cruel punishment. Some states offered laws like the banishment of selling a child under the age of ten away from his or her mother, but they were hard to enforce since slaves couldn't testify in court. Floggings were common, for the whip was the substitute for the wage-incentive system and the most visible symbol of the planter's mastery. But savage beating made sullen laborers, and lash marks hurt resale values. Forced separations of spouses, parents, and children were evidently more common on smaller plantations and in the upper South. Slave marriage vows sometimes proclaimed, "Until death or distance do you part." With impressive resilience, blacks managed to sustain family life in slavery, and most slaves were raised in stable two-parent households. Continuity of family identity across generations was evidenced in the widespread practice of naming children for grandparents or adopting the surname not of the a current master, but of a forebear's master. African roots were also visible in the slaves' religious practices. Though heavily Christianized by the itinerant evangelists of the Second Great Awakening, blacks in slavery molded their own distinctive religious forms from a mixture of Christian and African elements.

John Quincy Adams as minority president

Congress elected him president in 1825. Fewer than 1/3 of voters had voted for him. As the first "____," he would have found it difficult to win popular support even under the most favorable conditions. He did not possess many of the usual arts of the politician and scorned those who did. He had achieved high office by commanding respect rather than by courting popularity. His political allies wished that he would make a few more "corrupt bargains," but he resolutely declined to oust efficient officeholders in order to create vacancies for his supporters.

Force Bill

Congress passed the ___, known by South Carolinians as the "Bloody Bill," as a face-saving device. It authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect federal tariff duties. ADD

Brigham Young; Salt Lake City, Utah

Continuing hostility finally drove the Mormons to desperate measures. After Joseph Smith and his brother were murdered in 1844, the falling torch was seized by a remarkable Mormon Moses named ____. He had received only eleven days of formal schooling, but he quickly proved to be an aggressive leader, an eloquent preacher, and a gifted administrator. Determined to escape further persecution, he led his oppressed and despoiled Latter-Day Saints over vast rolling plains to Utah. Under the rigidly disciplined management of ___, the community became a prosperous frontier theocracy and a cooperative commonwealth. He married as many as 27 women - some of them wives in name only - and begot 56 children. The population was further swelled by thousands of immigrants from Europe, where the Mormons had established a flourishing missionary movement. A crisis developed when the Washington government was unable to control the hierarchy of _____, who had been made territorial governor in 1850. A federal army marched in on the Mormons in 1857. Fortunately the quarrel was finally adjusted without bloodshed. The Mormons later ran afoul of the antipolygamy laws passed by Congress in 1862 and 1882, and their unique martial customs delayed statehood for Utah until 1896.

Unitarians

Deism helped to inspire an important spinoff from the severe Puritanism of the past - the ____ faith, which began to gather momentum in New England at the end of the 18th century. They held that God existed in only one person, and not in the orthodox Trinity. Although denying the deity of Jesus, they stressed the essential goodness of human nature rather than its vileness; they proclaimed their belief in free will and the possibility of salvation through good works; they pictured God not as a stern Creator but as a loving Father. Embraced by many leading thinkers (like Ralph Waldo Emerson), the ____ movement appealed mostly to intellectuals whose rationalism and optimism contrasted sharply with the hellfire doctrines of Calvinism, esp. predestination and human depravity.

Irish immigration (reasons, locations, treatment)

During the 1840s and 1850s over a million and a half ___ immigrants, and nearly as many Germans, swarmed to America. They came partly because Europe seemed to be running out of room. The population of the Old World had more than doubled in the 19th century, and Europe began to generate a seething pool of apparently "surplus" people. America beckoned most strongly to the struggling masses of Europe, and the majority of migrants headed for the "land of freedom and opportunities." Also, a terrible rot attacked the potato crop, on which the people had become dangerously dependent (about 2 million people died). The people fled the Land of Famine for the Land of Plenty, flocked to America in the "Black Forties." They were too poor to move west and buy the necessary land, livestock, and equipment, so the swarmed into the larger seaboard cities (Boston and NY mostly). Forced to live in squalor, they were rudely crammed into the already-vile slums. Scorned by older American people, especially Protestant Bostonians. They did the hard, "back-breaking" labor. The Irish were hated by native workers. "No Irish Need Apply" (NINA) was a sign commonly posted at factory gates. ADD?

interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney)

Frustrated in his earlier attempts to monopolized the cotton gin, Whitney turned to the mass production of muskets for the U.S. Army. Up to this time, each part of a firearm had been hand-tooled, and if the trigger of one broke, the trigger of another might not fit. Whitney seized upon the idea of having machines make each part, so that all triggers, for example, would be as much alike as the successive imprints of a copperplate engraving. The principle of ____ was widely adopted by 1850, and it ultimately became the basis of modern mass-production, assembly line methods. By perfecting the cotton gin, Whitney gave slavery a new lease on life, and perhaps made the Civil War more likely. At the same time, by popularizing the principle of ____, Whitney helped factories to flourish in the North, giving the Union a decided advantage when the showdown came.

capture of Santa Anna at San Jacinto

General Sam Houston's small army retreat to the east, luring Santa Anna near the site of the city that now bears Houston's name. Texans number 1300, while the Texans numbered 900. In April 1836, Houston turned, taking full advantage of the Mexican siesta. He wiped out the pursuing force and captured Santa Anna. The leader signed two treaties in which he agreed to withdraw Mexican troops and recognize the Rio Grande as the extreme southwestern boundary of Texas.

Edgar Allan Poe

He spent much of his youth in Virginia and was an eccentric genius. Orphaned at an early age, cursed with ill health, and married to a child-wife of thirteen who fell fatally ill of tuberculosis, he suffered hunger, cold, poverty, and debt. Failing at suicide, he took refuge in the bottle and dissipated his talent early. He was gifted lyric poet, as "The Raven" attests. He also excelled in short story, esp. the horror type, in which he shared his alcoholic nightmares with fascinated readers. If he did not invent the modern detective novel, he at least set new high standards in tales like "The Gold Bug." He was fascinated with ghostly and ghastly, as in "The Fall of the House of Usher" and other stories. He reflected a morbid sensibility distinctly at odds with the usually optimistic tone of American culture. Partly for this reason, he has perhaps been even more prized by Europeans than by Americans. His brilliant career was cut short when he was found drunk in a Baltimore gutter and shortly thereafter died.

Henry David Thoreau: "Walden"; also "Civil Disobedience"

He was Emerson's close associate - a poet, a mystic, a transcendentalist, and a nonconformist. Condemning a government that supported slavery, he refused to pay his Massachusetts poll tax and was jailed for a night. He is also well known for "____: Or Life in the Woods." The book is a record of his two years of simple existence in a hut that he built on the edge of ___ Pond, near Concord, Mass. He believed that he should reduce his bodily wants so as to gain time for a pursuit of truth through study and meditation. His essay "On the Duty of ____" and "____" exercised a strong influence in furthering idealistic thought, both in America and abroad. His writing later encouraged Mahatma Gandhi to resist British rule in India, and, still later, inspired the development of American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr.'s thinking about nonviolence.

John C. Calhoun

He was a South Carolinian who was educated at Yale. As a foremost nullifier, he died trying to reconcile strong states' rights with a strong Union. In his last years, he advocated a Siamese-twin presidency, probably unworkable, with one president for the North and one for the South. His former plantation home is now the sit of Clemson University. He secretly wrote "The South Carolina Exposition" when he was VP. The Exposition denounced the Tariff of Abominations as unjust and unconstitutional. It bluntly proposed the states should nullify the tariff.

John Tyler

He was a Virginia gentleman of the old school - gracious and kindly, yet stubbornly attached to principle. He had earlier resigned from the Senate, quite unnecessarily, rather than accept distasteful instructions from the Virginia legislature. He had forsaken the Jacksonian Democratic fold for that of the Whigs, largely because he could not stomach the dictatorial tactics of Jackson.

Georgia Catlin

He was a painter and student of Native American life. He was among the first Americans to advocate the preservation of nature as a deliberate national policy. In 1832 he observed Sioux Indians in South Dakota recklessly slaughtering buffalo in order to trade the animal's tongues for the white man's whiskey. Appalled at the spectacle and fearing the preservation of Indians and buffalo alike, he proposed the creation of a national park. His idea later bore fruit with the creation of a national park system, beginning with Yellowstone Park in 1872.

'Tippecanoe (Harrison) and Tyler Too"

He was an aging hero who was known for his successes against the Indians and the British as the Battles of Tippecanoe and the Thames. Therefore he won this nick name. "Old Tip, he wears a homespun shirt, He has no ruffled shirt, wirt, wirt. But Matt, he has the golden plate, and he's a little squirt, wirt, wirt." He later became president, but was only in office a month before he died. (William Henry Harrison)

Herman Melville "Moby Dick"

He was an orphaned and ill-educated New Yorker. He went to sea as youth and served eighteen adventuresome months on a whaler. Jumping ship in the South Seas, he lived among cannibals, from whom he providently escaped uneaten. His fresh and charming tales of the South Seas were immediately popular, but his masterpiece, "_______," was not. This epic novel is a complex allegory of good and evil, told in terms of the conflict between a whaling captain, Ahab, and a giant white whale, ____. The captain, having lost a leg to the marine monster, lives only for revenge. His pursuit finally ends when ___ rams and sinks Ahab's ship, leaving only one survivor. The whale's exact identity and Ahab's motives remain obscure. In the end the sea, the terrifyingly impersonal and unknowable universe of ____'s imagination, simply rolls on. The book was widely ignored at the time of its publication; people were accustomed to more straightforward and upbeat prose. His brooding masterpiece about the mysterious white whale had to wait until the more jaded twentieth century for readers and for proper recognition.

Washington Irving "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"

He was born in New York City, and was the first American to win international recognition as a literary figure. He published in 1809 his "Knickerbocker's History of New York," with its amusing caricatures of the Dutch. When the family business failed, he was forced to turn to the goose-feather pen. In 1819-1820 he published "The Sketch Book," which brought him immediate fame at home and abroad. Combining a pleasing style with delicate charm and quiet humor, he used English as well as American themes as included immortal Dutch American tales as "Rib Van Winkle" and "_______."

Martin Van Buren (1836)

He was the New York successor of Jackson who the Whigs portrayed as an imperious aristocrat. He was a yes-man through which Jackson could try and live a third term. He was not popular among Jacksonites although he promised to follow in the foot steps of his predecessor. The Whigs were not able to nominate a presidential candidate; they planned to run several candidates with different regional appeal so that no one candidate would win the majority. The House of Representatives, where the Whigs might have a chance, would have to break the deadlock. Van Buren still won by a close 765,483 to 739,795 popular vote and 170 to 124 electoral vote.

James Fenimore Cooper "Leatherstocking Tales"; "Last of the Mohicans"

He was the first American novelist, as Washington Irving was the first general writer, to gain world fame and to make New World themes respectable. Marrying into a wealthy family, he settled down on the frontier of New York. Reading one day to his wife from an insipid English novel, Cooper remarked in disgust that he could write a better book himself. His wife challenged him to do so - and he did. He launched out upon an illustrious career in 1821 with his second novel, "The Spy" - an absorbing tale of the American Revolution. His stories of the sea were meritorious and popular, but his fame rests most enduringly on the "Leatherstocking Tales." His novels had a wide sale among Europeans, some of whom came to think of all American people as born with tomahawk in hand. Actually Cooper was exploring the viability and destiny of America's republican experiment, by contrasting the undefiled values of "natural men," children of the wooded wilderness, with the artificiality of modern civilization.

Joseph Smith, Mormons, polygamy

In 1830, ____ - a rugged visionary, proud of his prowess at wrestling - reported that he had received some golden plates from an angel. When deciphered, they constituted the Book of ____, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (____) was launched. It was a native American product, a new religion, destined to spread its influence worldwide. After establishing a religious oligarchy, he ran into serious opposition from his non-_____ neighbors. His cooperative sect antagonized rank-and-file Americans, who were individualistic and dedicated to free enterprise. The ___ aroused further anger by voting as a unit and by openly but understandably drilling their militia for defensive purposes. Accusations of ___ likewise arose and increased in intensity, for ____ was reputed to have several wives.

Clay's recharter bill and Jackson's veto

In 1832, the Bank War broke out when Daniel Webster and Henry Clay presented Congress with a bill to renew the Bank of the US's charter. The charter was not set to expire until 1836, but Clay pushed for renewal four years early to make it an election issue in 1832. Clay looked upon the bank issue as a surefire winner. Clay's recharter bill was sent through Congress to the White House, where if Jackson did not sign it, he would alienate himself from his western followers. If he vetoed it, he would presumably lose the presidency in the forthcoming election by alienating the wealthy and influential groups in the East. But the "best people" were now only a minority, and most feared Jackson anyhow. Jackson vetoed it, and declared the monopolistic bank unconstitutional. Of course, the Supreme Court had earlier declared it constitutional in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, but Jackson acted as though he regarded the executive branch as superior to the judicial branch. His veto message not only squashed the bank bill, but amplified the power of the presidency.

The Lone Star Rebellion of 1836, Sam Houston

In 1836, the Texans declared their independence, unfurled their Lone Star flag, and made __________ their commander in chief. Santa Anna's 6,000 men went to Texas and trapped a band of nearly 200 pugnacious Texans at the Alamo in San Antonio.

denial of statehood, Republic of Texas

In 1837, Texas wanted to be annexed for states hood as part of the US. However, antislavery crusaders in the North opposed the annexation calling it a scheme to bring to slave states into the Union. For some time Texas was their own country, the ______. ADD

John C. Fremont in California

In 1846 General Stephen W. Kearny led a detachment of 1700 troops over the famous Santa Fe Trail from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe, which was easily captured. But before his could reach California, the fertile province was won. Captain _____, the dashing explorer, just "happened" to be there with several dozen well-armed men. In helping overthrow Mexican rule in 1846, he collaborated with American naval officers and with the local Americans, who had hoisted the banner of the short-lived California Bear Flag Republic.

Cyrus Field and trans-Atlantic telegraph cable

In 1858, ____ (called "the greatest wire-puller in history") finally stretched a cable under the deep North Atlantic waters from Newfoundland to Ireland. Although this initial cable went dead after three weeks of public rejoicing, a heaver cable laid in 1866 permanently linked the American and European continents.

problems with pet (wildcat) banks

In bringing down the federal bank, surplus federal funds were placed in several dozen state institutions called "____" which were chosen for their pro-Jackson sympathies. Without a sober central bank in control, the ___ banks and smaller "___" banks flooded the country with paper money. Jackson tried to rein in the runaway economy in 1836. "____" currency had become so unreliable, esp. in the West, that Jackson authorized the Treasury to issue Specie Circular.

Nathanial Hawthorne "The Scarlett Letter"

In somber Salem, Mass., this writer grew up in an atmosphere heavy with the memories of his Puritan forebears and the tragedy of his father's premature death on an ocean voyage. His masterpiece was "______" (1850), which describes the Puritan practice of forcing an adulteress to wear the scarlet "A" on her clothing. The tragic tale chronicles the psychological effects of sin on the guilty heroine and her secret lover (the father of her baby), a minister of the gospel in Puritan Boston.

McCormick reaper

In the 1830s Virginia born ____ contributed to the the most wondrous contraption of all: a mechanical mower-reaper. The clattering cogs of ____'s horse-drawn machine were to the western farmers what the cotton gin was to the southern planters. Seated on his red-chariot reaper, a single husbandman could do the work of five men with sickles and scythes. It made ambitious capitalists out of humble plowmen, who now scrambled for more acres on which to plant more fields of billowing wheat.

clipper ships and Far East trade

In the 1840s and 1850s, a golden age dawned for American shipping. Yankee naval yards began to send down the ways sleek new craft called ____. Long, narrow, and majestic, they glided across the sea under towering masts and clouds of canvas. In a fair breeze, they could outrun any steamer. The stately clippers sacrificed cargo space for speed, and their captains made killing by hauling high-value cargoes in record times. They wrested much of the tea-carrying trade between the Far East and Britain from their slower-sailing British competitors, and they sped thousands of impatient adventurers to the goldfields of California and Australia.

Election 1828 "Old Hickory" Jackson

In the election of 1828, both National Republicans and Democratic-Republicans were criticizing the others every move. On voting day, the electorate split on largely sectional lines. Jackson was strongest in the West and South. The middle states and the Old Northwest were divided, while Adams won the backing of his own New England and the propertied "better elements" of the Northeast. When popular vote was converted to electoral votes, Jackson won by far: 178 votes to 83. He was the first president from the West, the first nominated at a formal party convention (in 1832), and only the second without a college education (Washington was the first).

election 1832, Jackson v. Clay

In this election Jackson (Democrat) and Clay (Whig/National Republican) were the leading candidates. For the first time, a third party entered the field. The Anti-Masonic party opposed the influence and fearsome secrecy of the Masonic order. They appealed to long-standing American suspicions of secret societies, which they condemned as citadels of privilege and monopoly - a note that harmonized with the democratic chorus of the Jacksonians. Since Jackson was a public member of the Masons, the Anti-masons were also anti-Jacksons. Clay's campaign had ample funds, including "life insurance" from the Bank of the Unites States. However, Jackson easily beat Clay 219 to 49.

Cherokees and Sequoyah

Jackson's democrats were committed to western expansion, but such expansion necessarily meant confrontations with the current inhabitants of the land. Federal policy toward the Native Americans varied. Beginning in the 1790s, the Washington government ostensibly recognized the tribes as separate nations and agreed to acquire land from them only through formal treaties. Much energy was devoted to "civilizing" and Christianizing the Indians. Although many tribes violently resisted white encroachment, others followed the path of accommodation. The Cherokees of Georgia made especially remarkable efforts to learn the ways of the whites by adopting the system of settled agriculture (giving up their seminomadic life) and a notion of private property. Missionaries opened schools among the Cherokees, and the Indian Sequoyah devised a Cherokee alphabet. In 1808 the Cherokee National Council legislated a written legal code, and in 1827 it adopted a written constitution that provided for executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Some even became successful cotton plantation owners (also owning slaves). But in 1828, the Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian affairs and Indian lands.

Whig Party

Jackson's opponents, angered at his exercise of presidential power, began to coalesce as the _____ - a name deliberately chosen to recollect 18th century British and Revolutionary American opposition to the monarchy. It contained so many diverse elements that it was mocked as first as "an organized incompatibility." Hatred for Jackson and his "executive usurpation" was its only apparent cement in its formative days. The ___ first emerged in the Senate, where Clay, Webster, and Calhoun joined forces in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his single-handed removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the US. The party attracted group alienated by Jackson: supporters of Clay's American System, southern states' righters offended by Jackson's stand on nullification, the larger northern industrialists and merchants, and eventually many of the evangelical Protestants associated with Anti-masonic party. They called for international improvements such as canals, railroads, and telegraph lines; the institution of prisons, asylums, and public schools.

free incorporation

Laws of "____," first passed in New York in 1848, meant that businessmen could create corporations without applying for individual charters from the legislature.

Deism

Many Founding Fathers, including Jefferson and Franklin, embraced the liberal doctrines of ____ that Paine promoted in his book, "The Age of Reason." ___ relied of reason rather than revelation, on science rather than the Bible. They rejected the concept of original sin and denied Christ's divinity. Yet they believed in a Supreme Being who had created a knowable universe and endowed human beings with a capacity for moral behavior. ___ helped to inspire an important spinoff from the severe Puritanism of the past - the Unitarian faith.

Election 1840 -- Whigs

Martin Van Buren was renominate by the Democrats in 1840, albeit without terrific enthusiasm. The Whigs united under one candidate: Ohio's William Henry Harrison who was mainly nominated because he was issueless and enemyless. John Tyler of Virginia was selected as his vice presidential running mate. The Whigs published no official platform, and a Democratic editor played into their hands by attacking Harrison - and by doing so, the West. Whigs adopted log cabins and hard cider as their symbols for campaign because of this criticism. Harrison won by 234 to 60 electoral votes.

Texas annexation issue

Partly because of the fears aroused by British schemers, Texas became a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844. The foes of expansion attacked annexation, while southern hotheads cried, "Texas or Disunion." The proexpansion Democrats under James K. Polk finally triumphed over the Whigs under Henry Clay, the hardy perennial candidate. Lame duck president Tyler thereupon interpreted the narrow Democratic victory, with dubious accuracy, as a "mandate" to acquire Texas. Many "conscience Whigs"" feared that Texas in the Union would be red meat to nourish the lusty "slave power." Aware of their opposition, Tyler despaired of securing the needed two-thirds vote for a treaty in the Senate. He therefore arranged for annexation by a joint resolution. This solution required only a simple majority in both houses of Congress. After a spirited debate, the resolution passed early in 1845, and Texas was formally invited to become the twenty-eighth star on the American flag.

Santa Anna

Polk didn't want war (in California), but when war came, he hoped to fight it on a limited scale and then pull out when he had captured the prize (California). The dethroned Mexican dictator _____, then exiled with his teenage bride in Cuba, let it be known that if the American blockading squadron would permit him to slip into Mexico, he would sell out his country. Incredibly, Polk agreed to this discreditable intrigue. But the double-crossing ___, once he returned to Mexico, proceeded to rally his countrymen to a desperate defense of their soil.

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848 (list parts)

Polk was anxious to end the shooting as soon as he could secure his territorial grounds. Accordingly, he sent along with Scott's invading army the chief clerk of the State Department, Nicholas P. Trist, who among other weaknesses was afflicted with an overfluid pen. Trist and Scott arranged for an armistice with Santa Anna, at the cost of $10,000. The wily dictator pocketed the bribe and then used the time to bolster his defenses. Polk, disgusted with his blundering envoy, abruptly recalled Trist. The wordy diplomat then dashed off a 65 page letter explaining why he was not coming home. The president was furious, but Trist, grasping a fleeting opportunity to negotiate, signed the _____ on February 2, 1848, and forwarded it to Washington. The terms of the treaty confirmed the American title to Texas and yielded he enormous area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean and embracing coveted California. This total expanse was about one-half of Mexico. The US agreed to pay $15 million for the land and to assume the claims of its citizens against Mexico in the amount f $3,250,000.

free blacks "slaves without masters"

Precarious in the extreme was the standing of the South's free blacks, who numbered 250,000 by 1860. In the upper South, the free black population traced its origins to a wavelet of emancipation inspired by the idealism of Revolutionary days. In the deeper South, many free blacks came were mulattoes, usually the emancipated children of a white planter and his black mistress. There were also some blacks that purchased their freedom with earnings from labor after hours. Many free blacks owned property, and some even owned slaves. The free blacks were kind of a "third race." They were prohibited from working in occupations and forbidden from testifying against whites in court. They were vulnerable to being hijacked back into slavery by unscrupulous slave traders. They were also unpopular in the North. Several states forbade their entrance, most denied the right to vote, and some barred blacks from public schools.

Monster Bank of the US, Nicholas Biddle

President Jackson did not hate all banks and businesses, but he distrusted monopolistic banking and over-big businesses. The national government minted gold and silver coins in the mid 19th century but did not issue paper money. Paper notes were printed by private banks whose value fluctuated with the health of the bank and the amount of money printed, giving private bankers considerable power over the nation's economy. The US bank had the most power almost acting as a branch of government. It was the principal depository for the funds of government and controlled much of the nation's gold and silver, and its notes had a stable value. The bank was a important part of the nations expanding economy. It was a private institution accountable not the people but to its moneyed investors. ______ was its president, and he held an almost unconstitutional amount of power over the nation's financial affairs. He was dubbed "Czar Nicolas I," and the bank was called "hydra of corruption."

Southern arguments in defense of slavery

Proslavery whites launched a massive defense of slavery as a positive good. Slavery, they claimed, was supported by the authority of the Bible and the wisdom of Aristotle. It was good of the African, who were lifted from the barbarism of the jungle and clothed with the blessings of Christian civilization. They also pointed out that master-slave relationships really resembled those of a family.

Gag Resolution in the House (J.Q. Adams' objection)

Regrettably, the controversy over free people endangered free speech in the entire community. Piles of petitions poured in upon Congress from the antislavery reformers, and in 1836 sensitive southerners drove through the House the so-called ______. It required all such antislavery appeals to the tabled without debate. This attack on the right of petition aroused the sleeping lion in the aged ex-president, Representative _____, and he waged a successful eight-year fight for its repeal (he was antislavery).

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

Southerners were hostile to tariffs. It was branded the "Black Tariff" and the "___________". Several southern states adopted formal protests. In South Carolina flags were lowered to half-mast. Southerners believed, not illogically, that the Yankee tariff discriminated against them. The bustling Northeast was experiencing a boom in manufacturing, the developing West was prospering from rising property values and a multiplying population, and the energetic Southwest was expanding into virgin cotton lands. But the Old South was falling on hard times, and the tariff provided a convenient and plausible scapegoat. Southerners sold their cotton and other farm produce in a world market completely unprotected by tariffs but were forced to buy their manufactured goods in an American market heavily protected by tariffs. Protectionism protected Yankee and middle-state manufacturers. The farmers and planters of the Old South felt they were stuck with the bill.

denominational diversity and slavery divisions

Revivals also furthered the fragmentation of religious faiths. Millerites, or Adventists, rose from the superheated soil of the Burned-Over District (NY) in the 1830s. Named after the eloquent and commanding William Miller, they interpreted the Bible to mean that Christ would return on October 22, 1844. The failure of Jesus to descend on schedule dampened but did not destroy the movement. The Second Great Awakening tended to widen the lines between classes and regions. The more prosperous and conservative denominations in the East were little touched by revivalism, and Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Unitarians continued to rise mostly from wealthier, better-educated levels of society. Methodists, Baptists, and the members of other emerging sects spawned by the swelling evangelistic fervor tended to come from less prosperous, less "learned" communities in the rural South and West. Religious diversity further reflected social cleavages when the churches faced up to the slavery issue. By 1844-1845 both the southern Baptists and the souther Methodists had split with their northern brethren over slavery. The secession of the southern churches foreshadowed the secession of the southern states. First the churches split, then the political parties split, and then the Union split.

Roman Catholic Schools

Roman Catholics, seeking to protect their children from Protestant indoctrination in the public schools, began in the 1840s to construct an entirely separate Catholic education system - an enormously expensive undertaking for a poor immigrant community, but one that revealed the strength of its religious commitment.

Oregon Territory (Treaty of 1818 share with British)

Scattered American and British pioneers in ____ continued to live peacefully side by side. At the time of negotiating the Treaty of 1818, the US had sought to divide the vast domain at the 49th parallel. But the British, who regarded the Columbia River as the St. Lawrence of the West, were unwilling to yield this vital artery. A scheme for peaceful "joint occupation" was thereupon adopted, pending future settlement.

Horace Mann and education reforms

Schoolteachers in early free schools usually only taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. Reform was urgently needed. Into the breach stepped ____, a brilliant and idealistic graduate of Brown University. As secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, he campaigned effectively for more and better schoolhouses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum. His influence radiated out to other states, and impressive movements were chalked up. Yet education remained an expensive luxury for many communities. As late as 1860, the nation counted only about 100 public secondary schools - and nearly a million white adult illiterates. Black slaves in the South were legally forbidden to receive instruction in reading or writing, and even free blacks, in the North as well as the South, were usually excluded from schools.

Amelia Bloomer

She revolted the current "street sweeping" female attire by donning a short skirt with Turkish trousers - "bloomers," they were called - amid much bawdy ridicule about "Bloomerism" and "loose habits."

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

She was a mother of seven who had insisted on leaving "obey" out of her marriage ceremony. She shocked fellow feminists by going so far as to advocate suffrage for women. At the memorable Women's Rights Convention (1848) in Seneca Falls, New York, she read a "Declaration of Sentiments," which in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence declared that "all men and women are created equal."

"the South Carolina Exposition" theory of nullification

South Carolinians took the lead in protesting against the Tariff of Abominations. Their legislature went so far as to publish in 1828 a pamphlet known as __________________. It had been secretly written by John C. Calhoun, and it denounced the recent tariff as unjust and unconstitutional. Going a stride beyond the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, it bluntly proposed that the states should nullify the tariff.

large-scale cash-crop agriculture

Subsistence farming (growing just for you, your family, and your cows) gave way to production for the market, as large-scale ("extensive"), specialized, cash-crop agriculture (selling crops; not growing just for self) came to dominate the trans-Allegheny West. With it followed mounting indebtedness, as farmers bought more land and more machinery to work with. Soon the hustling farmer-businesspeople were annually harvesting a larger crop than the South - which was becoming self-sufficient in food production - could devour.

public tax-supported schools

Tax-supported primary schools were scarce in the early years of the Republic. They had an odor of pauperism about them, since they existed chiefly to educate the children of the poor. Advocates for "free" education met stiff opposition. Well-to-do, conservative Americans gradually saw the light. If they did not pay to educate other peoples "brats," the "brats" might grow up into a dangerous, ignorant rabble - armed with the vote. Taxation for education was an insurance premium that the wealthy paid for stability and democracy. Tax-supported public education, though miserably lagging in the slavery-cursed South, triumphed between 1825 and 1850. Hard-toiling laborers wielded increased influence and demanded instruction for their children. Early free schools stayed open only a few months of the year. Schoolteachers, most of them men in this era, were too often ill-trained, ill-tempered, and ill-paid. They usually only taught the "three R's" - "readin', 'ritin', and 'rithmetic."

fertility rate and contraceptives

The "___," or number of births among women age fourteen to forty-five, dripped sharply among white women in the years after the Revolution and, in the course of the 19th century as a whole, fell by half. Birth control was still a taboo topic for polite conversation, and contraceptive technology was primitive, but clearly some form of family limitation was being practice quietly and effectively in some families, rural and urban alike. Women undoubtedly played a large part (maybe the leading part) in decisions to have fewer children. This newly assertive role for women has been called "domestic feminism," because it signified the glorified power and independence of women, even while they remained wrapped in the "cult of domesticity."

women in the Lowell textile mill (Waltham, Mass.)

The Boston Associates proudly pointed to their textile mill at ____, Massachusetts, as the showplace factory. The workers were virtually all New England farm girls, carefully supervised on and off the job by watchful matrons. Escorted regularly to church and from their company boardinghouses and forbidden to form unions, they had few opportunities to share dissatisfactions over their grueling working conditions.

Webster-Ashburton Treaty 1842

The London Foreign Office took an unusual step as the Aroostook War deepened in 1842. It sent to Washington a nonprofessional diplomat, the conciliatory financier Lord _____. He speedily established cordial relations with Secretary ____, who had recently been lionized during a visit to Britain. The two statesmen finally agreed to compromise on the Maine boundary. On the basis of a rough, split-the-difference arrangement, the Americans were to retain some 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 square miles of the wilderness in dispute. The British got less land but won the desired Halifaz-Quebec route. An overlooked bonus sneaked by in the small print of the same treaty: the British, in adjusting to the U.S.-Canadian boundary farther west, surrendered 6,500 square miles. The area was later found to contain the priceless Mesabi iron ore of Minnesota.

"Corrupt Bargain" of 1824

The last of the old-style elections was marked by the ____ of 1824. Four presidential candidates towered above the others: John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts), William H. Crawford (Georgia), Andrew Jackson (Tennessee), and Henry Clay (Kentucky). All four confessed to be "Republicans," but there was no real political parties yet. Jackson won more popular votes than his rivals, but no one won the majority vote in the electoral college. In this deadlock, the House of Representatives was directed by the 12th Amendment to choose the top 3 candidates. Clay was thus eliminated, yet as Speaker of the House, he presided over the very chamber that had to pick a winner. Crawford suffered a stroke and was out of the picture. This left Adams and Jackson, who Clay hated. Clay told everyone to vote for Adams, who in exchange made Clay his Secretary of State. John C. Calhoun was VP.

women on the plantation

The plantation system also shaped the lives of southern women. The mistress of a great plantation commanded a sizable household staff of mostly female slaves. She gave daily orders to cooks, maids, seamstresses, laundresses, and body servants. Relationships between mistresses and slaves ranged from affectionate to atrocious. However, slavery strained the bonds of womanhood. Virtually no slaveholding women believed in abolition, and relatively few protested when their husbands and children of their slaves were sold.

westward movement

The rise of Andrew Jackson, the first president from beyond the Appalachian Mountains, exemplified the inexorable westward march of the American people. As Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in 1844,"Europe stretches to the Alleghenies; America lies beyond." By 1840, the "demographic center" of the American population map had crossed the Alleghenies. By the eve of the Civil War, it had marched across the Ohio River. Life was grim for the pioneer families were poorly fed, ill-clad, and housed hastily erected shanties. They were prone to disease, depression, and premature death. Breakdowns and madness were all to frequently the "opportunities" for secluded pioneer women. Pioneering Americans were often ill-informed, superstitious, provincial, and fiercely individualistic. Pioneers in a hurry often exhausted the land in the tobacco regions and then pushed on, leaving behind barren and rain-gutted fields. They discovered that if they burned cane fields, European blue grass grew well. "Kentucky bluegrass," as it was inaccurately called, made ideal pasture for livestock - and lured thousands more American homesteaders to Kentucky.

two-party system

The second dramatic change that resulted from the 1840 election was the formation of a vigorous and durable _____. The Jeffersonians had been so successful in absorbing the programs of their Federalist opponents that a full-blown two-party system had never truly emerged in the subsequent Era of Good Feelings. The idea had prevailed that parties of any sort smacked of conspiracy and "faction" and were injurious to the health of the body politic in a virtuous republic. By 1840, political parties were accepted because of Jackson's and Van Buren's tenacity. Democrats glorified the liberty of the individual and were fiercely on guard against inroads of "privilege" in government. Whigs supported natural harmony of society and the value of community, and were willing to use government to realize their objectives. They hated leaders whose appeals to self-interest fostered conflict among individuals, classes, or sections.

Nat Turner rebellion

The slaves universally pined for freedom. In 1831 the semi-literate _____, a visionary black preacher, led an uprising that slaughtered about sixty Virginians, mostly women and children. Reprisals were swift and bloody.

Robert Fulton's steamboat--The Clermont

The steamboat craze, which overlapped the turnpike craze, was touched of by ___. He installed a powerful steam engine in a vessel that posterity came to know as the ____ but a dubious public dubbed "___'s Folly." On a historic day in 1807, the quaint little ship churned steadily from NYC up the Hudson River toward Albany. It made the run of 150 miles in 32 hours. The success of the steamboat was sensational. People could now in large degree defy wind, wave, tide, and downstream current.

economic problems of the slave system

The temptation to over-speculate in land and slaves caused many planters to plunge beyond their depth. Although the black slaves might in extreme cases be fed for as little as ten cents a day, there were other expenses. The slaves represented a heavy investment of capital, perhaps $1,200 each in the case of prime field hands, and they might deliberately injure themselves or run away. An entire slave quarter might be wiped out by disease or even by lightning, as happened in one instance to twenty ill-fated blacks. ADD

transcendentalism

This movement of the 1830s resulted in part from a liberalizing of the straightjacket Puritan theology. It also owed much to foreign influences, including the German romantic philosophers and the religions of Asia. The ____ rejected the prevailing theory, derived from John Locke, that all knowledge comes to the mind through the senses. Truth, rather, "transcends" the senses: it cannot be found by observation alone. Every person possesses an inner light that can illuminate the highest truth and put him or her in the direct touch with God, or the "Oversoul." These mystical doctrines of ____ defied precise definition, but they underlay concrete beliefs. Foremost was a stiff-backed individualism in matters religious as well as social. Closely associated was a commitment to self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline. These traits naturally bend hostility to authority and to formal institutions of any kind, as well as to conventional wisdom. Finally came exaltation of the dignity of the individual, whether black or white - the mainspring of a whole array of humanitarian reforms.

Democratic-Republicans and Jackson (Democrats)

This party, headed by ____, had split from the Republicans of the Era of Good Feelings along with their competitor, the National Republicans. These followers presented their hero as a champion to the common man, while attacking Adams as a corrupt aristocrat. They argued that the will of the people had been thwarted in 1825 by the backstair "bargain" of Adams and Clay. The only way to right the wrong was to seat Jackson, who would then bring about "reform" by sweeping out the "dishonest" Adams gang.

Samuel F.B. Morse's telegraph

This was among the inventions that tightened the sinews of an increasingly complex business words. ___ finally secured from Congress, to the accompaniment of the usual jeers, an apportion of $30,000 to support his experiment with "talking wires." In 1844 he strung a wire forty miles from Washington to Baltimore and tapped out the historic message, "What hath God wrought?" The invention brought fame and fortune to him, as he put distantly separated people in almost instant communication with one another.

national nominating conventions

This was called during the election of 1832 to name candidates. Each party formally names their nominee and adopt formal platforms, publicizing their positions on the issues.

American Temperance Society

This was formed at Boston in 1826. Within a few years, about a thousand local groups sprang into existence. They implored drinkers to sign the temperance pledge and organized children's clubs, known as the "Cold Water Army." Temperance crusaders also made effective use of pictures, pamphlets, and lurid lecturers, some of whom were reformed drunkards.

nullies vs. unionists

Through Jackson's fist term, _____ tried strenuously to muster the necessary 2/3 vote for ____ in the South Carolina legislature. They were blocked by the determined minority of _____. Congress tipped the balance by passed the new Tariff of 1832 which pared away the worst of the "abominations" of 1828, but it was still protective and fell far short of meeting southern demands. Worse yet, to many southerners it had a disquieting air of permanence. In state elections of 1832, these two groups went head to head. The ____ emerged with more than a two-thirds majority. The state legislature called for a special convention, where it was solemnly declared that the existing tariff to be null and void within South Carolina.

opposition to Whig ideas

Tyler was at odds with the majority of his adoptive Whig party, which was pro-bank, pro-protective tariff, and pro-internal improvements. When the Whigs tried to pass a bill for a "Fiscal Bank" (and later a "Fiscal Corporation") Tyler flatly vetoed it. The proposed Whig tariff also felt the prick of the president's pen. Tyler appreciated the necessity of bringing additional revenue to the Treasury. But he looked upon the tariff with a frosty eye because it provided for a distribution among the states of revenue from the sale of public lands in the West. Tyler could see no point in squandering federal money when the federal money when the federal Treasury was not overflowing, and he again vetoed the bill. Clayites redrafted the tariff bill, chopping out the offensive dollar-distribution scheme and pushing down the rates to about the moderately protective level of 1832. Tyler had no fondness for the bill, but realized the need for additional revenue, so he passed it. CHANGE?

Seneca Falls Women's Rights Convention 1848

Unflinching feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York, in a memorable _____ in 1848. The defiant Stanton read a "Declaration of Sentiments," which in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence declared that "all men and women are created equal." One resolution formally demanded the ballot for females. Amid scorn and denunciation from press and pulpit, the Seneca Falls meeting launched the modern women's rights movement.

increased urbanization and problems

Urban continued explosively. By 1860 there were forty-three cities, and bout three hundred other place claimed over five thousand inhabitants apiece. Such overrapid urbanization unfortunately brought undesirable by-products. It intensified the problems of smelly slums, feeble street lighting, inadequate policing, impure water, foul sewage, ravenous rats, and improper garbage disposal.

women's education (Ohio's Oberlin College)

Women's higher education was frowned upon in the early decades of the 19th century. A woman's place was believed to be at home, and training in needlecraft seemed more important than training in algebra. Prejudices also prevailed that too much learning injured the feminine brain, undermined health, and rendered a young lady unfit for marriage. Women's schools at the secondary level began to attain some respectability in the 1820s. Oberlin College, in Ohio, jolted traditionalists in 1837 when it opened its doors to women as well as men. (Oberlin had already created shock waves by admitting black students.)

Samuel Slater and cotton spinning machine

___ has been acclaimed the "Father of the Factory System" in America. A skilled British mechanic, he was attracted by bounties being offered to British workers familiar with textile machines. After memorizing the plans for machinery, he escaped to America in disguise, where he won the backing of Moses Brown. Laboriously reconstructing the essential apparatus with the aid of a blacksmith and carpenter, he put into operation in 1791 the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread.