APWH Period 1 & 2

Samsara

endless cycle of existence

paleolithic era

"old stone age" way of life in which stones were the most prominent tools people led nomadic lives of hunting and gathering for food. Not strictly a time period in history (people today live the nomadic lifestyles of hunter gatherers)-- it is to be contrasted with agricultural and industrial economic systems and the social patterns emanating from them Archaeologists have found evidence that paleolithic people traveled around in small, foraging bands that were basically egalitarian Because they had no consistently reliable source of food, they were almost always on the move

6 ap world history themes

1 interaction between humans and the environment 2 development and interaction of cultures 3 state building, expansion and conflict 4 creation, expansion and interaction of economic systems 5 development and transformation of social structures

Four Noble Truths-- Buddhism

1) All of life is suffering 2) Suffering is caused by false desires for things that do not bring satisfaction 3) Suffering may be relieved by removing the desire 4) Desire may be removed by following the Eightfold Path.

Huang He- Shang

1650 BCE - 1027 BC China- Huang He (Yellow) River valley Government- organized army, irrigation, and flood control projects Religion- recognized link between ruler and heaven Record Keeping- pictographs, ideographs, oracle bones, calendar

Indus valley- Mohenjo-Daro & Harappa

2500 BCE - 1500 BCE Urban planning- zones for homes/businesses, sewers, building codes, uniform size of bricks Record keeping- pictograph seals carved by craftworkers, still no idea what they say Religion- Upanishads and Vedas fave rise to Hinduism, Buddhism and many traditions like ritual bathing

Nile- Egypt

2700 BCE - 1087 BCE Government- pharaoh=god Religion- pharaoh=god Public Works- build for the pharaoh Record Keeping- papyrus, 1st paper

East Asia: Qin and Han China

After the fall of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) China fell into a period of chaos known as the Period of the Warring States Although a time of conflict and strife, this period was one of the most fruitful in terms of intellectual output In the quest to understand how China could have fallen into a period of instability, great thinkers pondered questions such as "What is the best form of governance?" and, related to that question, "What is the nature of man?" The differing answers to these questions formed the basis of Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism. The Period of Warring States ended when the warrior Qin Shi Huang centralized power and destroyed regional opposition Although it lasted only 14 years, the Qin Dynasty set in place many important aspects of Chinese civilization. The Qin Dynasty and its administrative regions-- Each region was subdivided and placed into the bureaucratic chain that enabled the emperor to have his hand in every area of the empire. The Qin emperor is best known for his famous tomb discovered in 1974 The amount of man power and resources required to build this tomb display the centralized power of emperor Qin Shi Huang. One of the most important things the Qin did was create a bureaucracy Bureaucrats are employees of the state whose position in society, unlike nobles or aristocrats, does not rest on an independent source of wealth Members of the bureaucracy only had positions and power as granted by the emperor Generally speaking, the bureaucrat's high status and wealth is based on his obedience to his superior Land owning aristocrats, on the other hand, have large estates and personal fortunes to fall back on; they have a vested interest in influencing the government in their personal favor Aristocrats also tend to make decisions based on what is best for their location, thus becoming a decentralizing force By assigning bureaucrats to regions, the Qin bypassed the powerful aristocracy and governed through those whose position depended on loyal obedience to the state Additionally, the practice of Legalism reinforced the bonds of obligation between bureaucrat and superior In this manner, the bureaucracy became a tool of centralization for China and placed the entire empire under the leadership of the Qin emperor A bureaucracy is an hierarchical chain of authority that allows a central leader to project power across a large area divided into many administrative regions In order to bring unity to China, the Qin also built roads and bridges, constructed defensive walls, standardized units of weight and measurement, created a standard currency, and made one common form of Chinese writing The harsh Legalism of the Qin allowed it to do much during its short reign of 14 years, but this same strict political philosophy also generated much resentment among the common people As soon as the emperor died, the people revolted and slaughtered many of the remaining Qin officials Unlike previous eras, Chinese civilization did not regress into chaos for long The Han dynasty came to power and ruled China for about 400 years, roughly 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E The ability of the Han to maintain a strong central government over such a vast area was greatly facilitated by the Qin reforms under Legalism Under the leadership of emperor Han Wudi, the Han Dynasty is responsible for some very important innovations that would have a lasting effect on China: the official adoption of Confucianism and the rise of the civil service examinations. The Han adopted Confucianism because it was the most organized educational network from which they could draw people for the bureaucracy To make certain new recruits were educated well, they began testing them through a rigorous system of civil service examinations; to be in the Han bureaucracy, one had to demonstrate a mastery of Confucian ideas on these tests One effect of this was that the Han bureaucracy was filled with people profoundly influenced by Confucian thought They were taught to model good behavior for those under them and to respect and submit to those in authority over them Thus Confucianism not only became deeply embedded in Chinese culture, it also came to re-enforce the political bureaucracy by advocating obedience and benevolent rule A synthesis was forged between China's political structure and a belief system

Indian ocean sea lanes

Although Indian Ocean trade would reach its heyday in the post-classical period, it was an important trade network during this time, particularly for the Gupta Dynasty Pepper, cotton textiles, and dye became lucrative commodities on this maritime network A unique feature of Indian Ocean trade was its dependence on the weather; Each monsoon season brought with it predictable patterns of winds, which reversed six months later Merchants had to time their departures with these cycles of winds in mind.

Development of record keeping (cuneiform, hieroglyphs, pictographs, quipu)

As the buying and selling of goods became more involved, people needed a systematic way to remember information Complex financial exchanges required a means to record quantities, previous agreements, exchange values and contracts From trade writing was born The ability to use written symbols to record quantity and meaning is a giant stride in the development of civilization. Previously, small communities retained their collective memories and celebrations through oral traditions; legends, lore, and their meanings were memorized and passed on through stories told to the younger generations This method works well in small agricultural villages, but oral traditions are not sufficient enough to provide large urban populations with a common identity, or social "glue," to hold them together Writing inaugurated an information revolution in which stories and records could be disseminated much faster and with greater accuracy What began as a need to keep records of trade paved the way for written laws, precise communication that did not depend on memory, literary traditions, and a treasure trove of written documents that have given historians a window into the past. An example of the cuneiform system of writing Because the medium of soft clay made it difficult to make circular motions, cuneiform has an angularity to its script It seems that the Middle East is where writing began The Sumerians, in southern Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq), were the first to develop written language, probably around 3500 B.C.E. Their system of writing, cuneiform, began as literal representations of quantity and pictures Later these gradually took on abstract characters and became phonetic After Egypt had contact with Mesopotamia, they too developed a system of writing called hieroglyphs This written language was only deciphered in modern times when Napoleon discovered the Rosetta Stone during his invasion of Egypt in 1798. The dissemination of systems of writing is a perfect example of the interaction of early societies in the ancient world Writing technology spread into new areas from locations in which it had independently developed Sometime after writing was discovered by the Sumerians, a group of people called Akkadians migrated into the city-states of Sumer in Mesopotamia They spoke a Semitic language that would later be called Babylonian, and was related to Hebrew, the language of the ancient Jews This spoken language was completely different from their Sumerian hosts, but they had no system to record it Consequently, the Akkadians borrowed the cuneiform writing system from the Sumerians and adapted it to their spoken language Because cuneiform became phonetic it could be adapted to any spoken language Soon, eight languages in the ancient world had borrowed cuneiform to record their spoken languages, including Assyrian, Armenian, and Persian. Developing later and completely independent from Mesopotamia and Egypt, Chinese writing retained the basic elements of its pictorial characteristics as it evolved In some instances, a semblance of the original image may still be seen in some Chinese characters

Transformation in Religious and Cultural Traditions- Buddhism

Buddhism began north of India (in Nepal) and, like Christianity, saw limited acceptance in the first few centuries after its founder's death. The way of life originally taught by the Buddha was not easy. Although he had rejected both the life of pleasure and the life of extreme deprivation, the Buddha called his followers to renounce friends, family, and belongings in the quest for enlightenment. Absolutely central to this spiritual calling was a monastic life and the rejection of all possessions, except a modest robe and a begging bowl. This call to austerity did not fit well with the values of most people, particularly merchants on the caravan routes. A sect of Buddhism called Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle), which was much more accommodating of the lifestyles of ordinary people, gained wide acceptance. In this school of "easy" Buddhism, Nirvana was state of awareness open to anyone in any walk of life. Mahayana Buddhists elevated Buddha to the level of a god. Salvation was much easier with the help of Bodhisattvas, individuals who postponed enlightenment to share their surplus karma with average people trying to attain nirvana. This is to be contrasted with the Theravada sect, which maintained the strict teachings about the monastic life and sacrificing possessions and family in the quest for nirvana. Mahayana Buddhism permitted a new acceptance of worldly values Mahayana Buddhism became identified with Silk Road trade more than any other belief system. Monasteries and the routes between them formed the network through which valuable goods flowed. Its close connection with trade made conversion to Buddhism an attractive option for the Hindu Vaishya caste. This merchant caste believed that buying and selling was their dharma, or religious duty. Converting to Buddhism and benefiting from its commercial advantages allowed them to better perform their dharma. More generally, Buddhism delivered people from the harshness of the Hindu caste system. As a self-styled religious practice, Mahayana Buddhism was a liberating alternative to the strict system of sacrifices presided over by the Brahmin priestly caste. In addition to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, Ashoka's rule had other direct effects on the spread of Buddhism. He sponsored Buddhist monks and missionaries and commissioned the building of Buddhist monasteries. He used his stone edicts to spread the word of his conversion and to diffuse Buddhist teachings

Transformation in Religious and Cultural Traditions- Christianity

Christianity gradually spread across the vast domain of the Roman Empire. As with Buddhism, missionaries were instrumental in the diffusion of the faith. Using Rome's infrastructure of roads and trade routes, missionaries like St. Paul preached Christianity in Greece, Anatolia, and the city of Rome itself. It survived persecutions by several Roman Emperors. Although most converts were initially from the middle classes, the religion gained an occasional convert in the higher ranks. There were a number of reasons why it appealed to average Romans. Unlike the polytheistic religions of the Empire, Christianity promised eternal rewards for ethical behavior, a belief that gave meaning to everyday choices and actions. Individuals could now participate in an unseen world of cosmic importance and were taught a way to secure life beyond the grave. Also, where Roman religions recognized social status and citizenship, Christianity taught that all people are equal before God. Despite its early gains, by the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was still a minority belief comprising perhaps only 5 percent of the Roman population. By the end of that century it would be the official religion of the empire. *The most important event in this dramatic change was when Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity* and, through the Edict of Milan, *gave it official acceptance.* Later in 392, Emperor Theodosius made it the official religion of the empire; he banned pagan ceremonies, shut down temples to Roman gods, and ordered idols destroyed. Now that Christianity was connected officially to the state, it grew wealthy. The Church solicited donations from the rich and could own land. The empire constructed churches and dispatched missionaries. Christianity spread to new areas of Eastern Europe, in part, because two Byzantine missionaries created the Cyrillic alphabet for the Slavic spoken language. Christian morality was reinforced by the state through the Code of Justinian, which fused Christian teachings with Roman law. Supported by the Roman state, Christianity was propelled into a significant role in world history. As it benefited from imperial patronage Christianity returned the favor by endowing the state with religious legitimacy. The very model of Christianity--one God reigning supremely over the universe through a network of angels and saints--was complimentary to the model of Constantine ruling the empire through a centralized bureaucracy; the empire mirrored the hierarchical cosmology of Christianity. Constantine represented himself as one who ruled on God's behalf, not only performing the normal functions of political rule but making appointments to prominent church offices and intervening in doctrinal disputes. This union of political and religious authority under one ruler was called caesaropapism. The Roman Empire, now reordered as a community of belief and union of church and state, laid claim to supernatural support. Although the political development of the fallen western half of the Roman Empire was much different than the eastern (Byzantine) half, Christianity became the religion of choice for kings there as well. As the Roman Catholic Church grew in power and prestige, Germanic kings converted to Catholicism in order to reinforce their political power. When Clovis I of the Franks converted to Catholic Christianity, it set him apart from other kings vying for power and put him in alliance with landholding elites of the former patrician classes. As it traveled the Silk Roads, Christianity adopted local practices and blended with local beliefs. Such adaptations aided its spread by "camouflaging its newness" before potential converts. For example, Turks in Central Asia converted to Christianity because the practices of the Nestorian priests were nearly identical to that of their own shamans. The Christian cross was used as a charm to bring good weather and ward off evil spirits and disease. There were some mass conversions which have led scholars to speculate if the converts merely took Christianity as another form of "shamanism" that had demonstrated greater power. Although Christianity did not have the same success in China as Buddhism did, it merged there with other beliefs as well. A Christian monument in the Chinese capital of Xi'an included Daoist symbols of yin and yang along with the Buddhist lotus flower. Nestorian Christians in China preached the "Eight Cardinal Virtues," which were basically a restatement of the Buddhist Eight Fold Path. The message of Jesus became The Way (or the Dao) and saints were referred to as buddhas. [28] The Silk Roads were not the only trade route upon which Christianity spread. Through maritime routes, it made its way to Egypt and Axum and formed the Coptic Church. A kingdom in northern Ethiopia converted and retained a unique form of Christianity distinct from Catholic and Eastern Orthodox forms. Across the English channel, monks took Christianity to the British Isles where it was prone to Celtic influences. In short, Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity spread inside the borders of the Roman Empire while Nestorian and Coptic versions went beyond them. In all areas it absorbed influences from its host culture.

Africa class notes

Civilization vs. civilized Few written records, oral histories-griot Muslim and European interpretations (bias) Issues- point of view/perspective-- experiences, environment, philosophy, religion, culture, job, class, race/ethnicity, gender, age

Exchange of food (Rome and china)

Cotton is indigenous to South Asia and has a long history of cultivation in India As transregional networks of exchange expanded, cotton spread out of India into the Middle East where it placed strains on the agricultural systems there In Persia, for example, wheat and barley could be planted in the Fall, remain dormant over winter, and left to sprout in the Spring, thus avoiding the terribly hot summer months of the Iranian piedmont Cotton, on the other hand, is a summer crop, planted in April and harvested in the Fall Consequently, much of Persia (modern day Iran) was initially too hot and dry to accommodate this important crop. The solution to this problem was the introduction of a new irrigation system known as the qanat system. Rice was another crop that spread during this time period. First cultivated on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, it spread from China across the caravan routes of the central Asian steppes. Because Buddhist monks were vegetarian and avoided the meat-based diets of pastoral nomads, they would carry rice with them on their journeys across the steppes. Sugarcane likewise spread during this time. It was first grown in India and probably spread through the Khyber pass, into Afghanistan, and then diffused across the central Asian caravan routes.

Agriculture (8000 BCE)

Drought came to the Middle East The large animals hunters depended on died out or migrated, forcing some people to settle down wherever they found a secure source of water Nomadic way of life ended and human beings became farmers The practice of agriculture transformed the social and economic characteristics of human societies, also changed the nature of the crops that were farmed. Agriculture was discovered independently at many different locations in the world, then diffused into other areas as the practice was learned and adopted by others It is important to note that not everyone adopted agriculture. Some societies remained hunter-gatherers and others remained pastoral.

Buddhism- class notes

Entered China via Silk Road Gave answers during disunity after Han Dynasty All life is suffering, suffering is caused by greed and desire- 8 fold path, meditation Impact on China after Han Dynasty

Transformation in Religious and Cultural Traditions- Hinduism

During the Mauryan Dynasty, the active role played by Ashoka in promoting Buddhism put Hinduism on the defensive. Brahmin priests resisted his efforts, and after the fall of Ashoka's Dynasty India experience a Hindu revival. Buddhism began to recede. Further diminishing its appeal was the invasion of the Kushans from the north. The Kushan king had converted to Buddhism, an act that decreased its popularity in India "by associating it with foreign rule." When the Gupta brought dynastic rule back to India, they directly supported Hinduism. The ironic result of these trends is that Buddhism did not keep a significant presence in India, the place of its origin. Buddhism's decline in India was accompanied by the rise of a popular and devotional form of Hinduism. Transformed by its competition with Buddhism, popular Hinduism emphasized the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita rather than the rituals of the Vedas or the philosophical musings of the Upanishads. As such, the new Hinduism stressed that a deep spirituality was available to any person by "selflessly performing the ordinary duties of their lives." Hindus at at any level of society could make spiritual progress by mechanically carrying out the dharma of their caste in a detached and emotionless way. This emphasis on action meant that members of the merchant caste, for example, were performing their religious duty by carrying on the activities of trade. Shorn of complicated rules and dependence upon sacred rituals, religious activity--once the exclusive domain of priests--was now open to anyone. This devotional form of Hinduism became extremely popular with the masses. To some degree, the new practice of Hinduism took on some of the characteristics of Mahayana Buddhism. As merchants spread their Hindu faith it became hard to tell the two apart. This is particularly true with a branch of Hinduism called bhakti which emerged in southern India and spread to the north.. Intensely passionate, this form of Hinduism stressed intense emotions directed at specific Hindu gods, most popularly Vishnu and Shiva. Despite the reputation Hinduism has of being a non-missionary religion, there is strong evidence that certain sects of Hindus actively sought to spread the religion. Through missionaries and merchants, the bhakti faith made its way to Southeast Asia and spread alongside Buddhism. Here the two religions blended to such an extent that believers often didn't distinguish between them at all. Hindu temples, Buddhist stupas and monasteries blended the symbols and practices of both religions. One attraction of Hinduism was that people did not have to give up their traditional gods to practice it. As an inclusive religion, Hinduism readily absorbs the gods and practices of other belief systems. It is a belief system about all belief systems.

Development of agricultural production, trade and transportation-- Woven Textiles

Early textiles were made of dried plants and fibers, and were woven by hand Later, people made looms to speed up the process of textile production In villages and cities, textile production became another skilled craft, another example of the specialization of labor.

Bantu Migration class notes

From modern Cameroon Expanded East and South Combined with Arab languages in East to form Swahili Grew yams (wet) Got sorghum and millet (dry) from East Got copper, iron, steel technology from West Africa Combination was lethal to Pygmies and Khoisans Demonstrated importance of combination of agriculture and manufacturing

excessive mobilization of resources and social tensions, wealth gap

Han - Bureaucrats became corrupt and bribery was wide spread. As the supervision of the central government began to decline, local landlords stepped up to take more control of their provinces. Political decentralization occurred. The local aristocrats added their own taxes on to the already high tax burden of the empire. Crushing tax debts forced many peasant farmers to sell their land to local aristocrats; some peasants sold their children into slavery to alleviate debt. This created a situation common to most all failing states: *the distribution of wealth across society became disproportionately imbalanced*, as more of the wealth fell into the hands of fewer people. Peasants hated the merciless forces that seemed beyond their control, and their sense of helplessness led them to revolt. Rome - Rome Emperors and the upper classes adopted increasingly luxurious and extravagant lifestyles at the expense of the tax paying citizens. This cause not only great resentment among the lower classes, but the upper classes became more self-centered and less concerned about social and political responsibilities. New artistic and cultural styles were not being created. People came to view life as futile and meaningless. Weakened politically, economically, culturally, and psychologically, the Roman Empire no longer had the strength or the desire to fend off the Germanic invaders.

Mediterranean sea routes

Maritime trade routes, unlike land-based routes such as the Silk Roads, were better suited for heavy and bulky items Wine, olive oil and grain were mainstays of this network Other items of trade included timber, marble, glassware, perfumes, silver, spices and silk Like the Silk Roads, the the Mediterranean trade network went through major changes during the classical period In its early stage, merchants trading on these sea lanes were predominately from the city states of Phoenicia and the Greek peninsula The Phoenicians were sea-faring people who traded widely across the Mediterranean area, especially in the era before the classical age They established a network of colonies across the region, the most famous of which was Carthage As the Phoenician presence in the Mediterranean declined, the Greeks became more involved In order to feed their people, Greek cities created a network of colonies throughout the Mediterranean Grain poured into the city-states of Greece from the colonies, for which they in turn traded olive oil and wine, products much better suited to Greek soil A major consequence of this trade was the diffusion of Greek culture across the Mediterranean region. The most significant change in Mediterranean trade occurred when Carthage fell to Rome and the entire rim of the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman government Roman laws were now enforced across the region, providing a consistent legal system The wide spread use of Latin facilitated trade Piracy on the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman navy During this Roman period, trade reached its peak Like the Greeks before them, the Romans depended on massive grain imports to feed their urban centers, while silk was imported to satisfy the demands of the upper class. The Romans exported copper, tin, glass, wine and olive oil

Exchange of ideas (Rome and china)

Merchants also spread the ideas and beliefs they carry in their heads. As major world religions spread from one area into another they adapted to local circumstances and preexisting traditions Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism all spread across trade routes far from their places of origin and all were modified in the process

Advanced knowledge of terrain and climate (monsoon winds)

On the Indian Ocean merchants were recognizing the seasonal patterns of monsoon winds and they began adapting their voyages to harness these winds.

Pastoralism

Pastoral nomads were somewhat of a transitional group between hunter-gatherers and neolithic farmers They depended on herds of animals which they kept and followed *(Pastoralism)* Because their migrations were connected to the needs of animal herds, pastoral nomads moved in patterns based on climate. Agriculture was probably discovered by pastoral nomads who, upon returning to a location from the previous year, found that spilled seeds they had gathered germinated into crops Africa, Europe and Asia all had people who practiced pastoralism.

Zoroaster class notes

Religion contains both monotheistic and polytheistic elements Includes concepts of Messiah, heaven, hell, free will

Rig Veda

Rig Veda of the Ayrans in South Asia The Rig Veda is the earliest of the collection of Vedas, or religious hymns, that characterize the Vedic Period in India's history As we have seen above, the monotheism of the Hebrews tends to generate an exclusivist attitude in religious matters On the contrary, one of the most salient lines in the Rig Veda is "Truth is one, but the wise speak of it in many different ways." Even in the earliest of the Vedas we see the beginning of an inclusivist religious culture that seeks to absorb other religious traditions in its search for the truth This will later be a characteristic of Hindu culture

Developments of cities- Rome, Athens, Chang'an, Alexandria, Teotihuacan

Served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and political administration for states and empires.

Tigris & Euphrates- Mesopotamia

Sumerians: 3500 BCE-1700 BCE Religion- priests death with all powerful gods who controlled natural forces (floods) Ziggurat- huge many tiered temple Hammurabi's Code- uniform set of laws for Babylonians, places where all could see, punishment fit the crime, possibly 1st written code cuneiform- cutting symbols into clay using a styles, recorded laws, history, knowledge

Development of maritime technology (lateen sail, Dhow ships)

The Dhow, a long slender boat with a lateen sail, became a common vessel for Indian Ocean trade. Although its origins are not completely clear, the Chinese, Arabs, and Indians were certainly involved in its creation and/or modification. The dhow was used for heavy items that were not as fit for land-based trade. One of its primary characteristics was the lateen sail which allowed sailors to tack against the wind. The dhow and lateen sail did for maritime trade what the saddle and stirrup did for land trade: they helped people widen networks of trade and communication thus accelerating the diffusion of goods, ideas, and culture.

Hebrew monotheism

The Hebrews were Semitic people who migrated from Mesopotamia According to Genesis chapter 12 in the Hebrew scriptures, God made a covenant with Abraham and led him out of his city to a land promised to all his descendants The Hebrews held to monotheism, a belief in only one supreme God who presided over all the cosmos. Monotheism is not just polytheism stripped down to one God-- Its belief in a single deity means that all other gods are necessarily false, a position that implies an exclusive claim to religious knowledge This influence of Hebrew monotheism can be see in Christianity and Islam which developed centuries later Monotheism also has a strong ethical dimension The gods of polytheism usually represent aspects of nature, and rituals and sacrifices aim to secure the weather needed for successful harvests Monotheistic religions hold that God is a personal being and He directly intervenes in human history God has ethical requirements about how His followers act, and will judge mankind accordingly. Thus Monotheistic religions tend to emphasize corporate and personal morality

Spread of crops, changes in farming and irrigation techniques (qanat system)

The Qanat used hydraulic and gravitational force to extract water from the ground without the use of any energy at all By linking vertical shafts and gently sloping horizontal passages, water was drawn from the aquifer and released to the agricultural fields at a lower level This system not only allowed for the cultivation of cotton, but was applied to other crops as well The effect was profound; Qanats doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use in Iran. Persia was able to enjoy larger surpluses of agriculture thus increasing urbanization and social stratification. The qanat system spread throughout the Middle East and as far as China.

Roman Architecture

The Roman architecture can be divided into two periods, the first when they were a Republic and used a lot of the same ideas from the Greeks and Phoenicians, and the second when they became an Empire and acquired the knowledge and diversity from the other nations they conquered As the Romans changed from a Republic to an Empire their architecture started to develop and they started to create new buildings and structures, like forums, basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, temples, roads and aqueducts In the beginning many of their buildings were built out of wood, but then they started using more strong and lasting materials like stone and marble, and also since they had conquered so many people they had more than enough slaves to contribute to the building process During the 1st century B.C.E. invented concrete which helped them create vaults, arches, and domes by putting concrete into molds so they could create buildings of great size since the arch could support more weight than other structures

Eurasian Silk Roads

The Silk Roads were made up of an indirect chain of separate transactions through which goods crossed the entire land area of Eurasia Rarely did merchants themselves travel the length of these routes; in fact, few of them knew the complexity and breadth of the Silk Roads Merchants primarily engaged in local instances of "relay trade" in which goods changed "hands many times before reaching their final destinations." Because the Silk Roads crossed land it was much more expensive and dangerous to move goods Consequently, trade focused on luxury items that would bring a nice profit making the greater risks worthwhile Particularly important were luxury items with a high value to weight ratio The Silk Roads had their origins in Asia as nomadic and settled people exchanged goods In part, it began because of environmental conditions The soil in China lacks selenium, a deficiency that contributes to muscular weakness, low fertility, and reduced growth in horses Consequently, Chinese-raised horses were too frail to support a mounted soldier rendering the Chinese military weak in the face of the powerful cavalries of the steppe nomads Chinese emperors needed the superior horses that pastoral nomads bred on the steppes, and nomads desired things only agricultural societies could produce, such as grain, alcohol and silk Even after the construction of the Great Wall, nomads gathered at the gates of the wall to exchange items Soldiers sent to guard the wall were often paid in bolts of silk which they traded with the nomads Silk was so wide spread it eventually became a currency of exchange in Central Asia. Merchants became agents of cultural diffusion The oasis towns that connected segments of trade became nodes of cultural exchange, especially Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism spread rapidly, leap-frogging from oasis town to oasis town The process was facilitated by these towns which often built beautiful Buddhist temples to attract Buddhist merchants abroad Nestorian Christianity also spread across the Silk Roads into China Not surprisingly, silk took on a sacred meaning in Buddhist and Christian rituals Merchants also carried disease; The disease epidemics that devastated the classical civilizations were spread across large ecological zones via the Silk Roads The Romans, Gupta, and Han were centers of production and huge markets for goods Moreover, the laws and legal systems of these empires provided security for merchants, encouraging them to take more risks As always, the primary items of trade were luxury goods, and nomadic people continued to play an important role; their movements sometimes served as important connections between segments of trade, buying in one place and selling in another Some nomads became settled people and made their living off of trade Nevertheless, the volume of trade on the Silk Roads was connected to the strength of the classical civilizations during this period and declined when they fell into ruin

Domesticated pack animals (horses, oxen, llamas, camels)

The camel, originally a herd animal, was domesticated in the middle east for its use in the incense trade. Camels extended the scope and volume of trade in the arid Arabian climate. They carried military supplies for the Assyrian armies under the command of Sargon II In Central Asia nomads domesticated the horse and became expert trainers, so much so that the Han dynasty traded silk with them for their horses. llama - A hoofed animal indigenous to the Andes Mountains in South America. First domesticated animal of the americas.

Use of resources, mobilization of labor

The earth's natural resources are not distributed equally Thus it was only natural that some states were better situated geographically to compete with others and become successful Discovery of bronze was a great boost to the production of better tools and weapons; it led to larger agricultural yields and more advanced tools.

use of tools

The peopling of the earth required human beings to adapt to a variety of climates-- Tools made this possible In the Paleolithic era, most tools were made from stones Bones, rocks with sharp edges, and small pieces of copper were used to scrape hides, hunt, fish and sew As these mobile bands came in contact with each other, they borrowed ideas and tools

Techniques- diplomacy

There is more to winning a battle than military strategy and advanced weapons Diplomacy, or the *negotiation with allies and foes*, was crucial for imperial conquest For example, when the Han Dynasty pushed westward they came into conflict with the powerful confederation of nomadic tribes called the Xiongnu. In the ensuing war, the Han Emperor Wu sought alliances with small countries on his western border, offering a Han princess in marriage to the king of Wusun to secure him as an ally. Thus obtained, these allies helped the Chinese defeat the Xiongnu. Such matrimonial alliances were common with the empires of the classical ages Another form of diplomacy is the creation of tributary states. Emporer Samudragupta of the Gupta Dynasty used this method on several occasions to bring stability to his empire. After defeating rival kingdoms he would allow a defeated king to retain his rule providing he paid the Gupta a determined price, called a tribute. This was often a more practical alternative than trying to rule remote kingdoms directly. In a tributary system, defeated kings basically purchase the right to rule from the victors, making them indirect subjects of the conquering power.

Rulers and governing- use of religious connections and military

These hierarchies as well as the power of the leader were most often sanctioned by religion in the ancient world A close relationship existed between the power of the state and religious belief Ancient kings adorned themselves with images of divine approval and performed their duties with a mixture of ceremonial and religious rites Their decrees, military victories and laws were portrayed as being somehow connected with a higher, spiritual cause Not until the European Enlightenment would politics be shorn from religion, and both given separate domains in public life

Karma

This widely used word actually refers to the pattern of cause and effect that transcends individual human lives Whether or not an individual fulfills his/her duties in one life determines what happens in the next. Every action has a consequent reaction

Water control

To farm, land must be cleared of trees, rocks, and other impediments to sowing seeds and soil needs to be broken up and water must be diverted to irrigate crops when rain becomes scarce Needs drove human beings to learn to work together in more goal oriented ways than hunter-gatherers had Cooperation proved to be an advantage in survival

Development of agricultural production, trade and transportation-- Plows

Tools permit the same amount of work to be done by fewer people In agriculture, perhaps the most important early tool was the plow Plows break up the compacted earth and turn the soil to prepare for the sowing of seeds The more efficient the plow, the fewer number of workers are needed to prepare for planting More efficiency in agriculture led to greater surpluses, which in turn allowed for more social stratification and specialization.

Trans-saharan caravan routes

Trans-Saharan trade was another network that would reach its peak in the post-classical age (600 to 1450) when Islam comes to the region Nevertheless, merchants carried goods across these routes during the classical age, facilitated by the domestication of the camel Many of the items that were exchanged between Egypt and Nubia in the previous period continued across the Saraha (slaves, gold, and ivory.) One of the most important items that merchants carried to sub-Saharan Africa from North Africa was salt, a needed commodity before refrigeration

New technology for pack animals (yokes, saddles, stirrups)

Uses of the camel were made possible by the development of a saddle which allowed the animal to be loaded with much cargo. Camels could carry up to 50 percent more cargo than other pack animals, could go longer without water, and lived longer than most of them as well. The invention of the stirrup, a small ring or strap that holds the feet of rider, allowed for much greater control of the animal. Yoke - a wooden beam, normally used between a pair of oxen or other animals to enable them to pull together on a load when working in pairs, as oxen usually do. Used largely for transportation among nomadic peoples and for farm work among sedentary peoples. With new technologies such as the stirrup and saddle, pack animals permitted humans to greatly increase their ability to trade, travel, and communicate.

Exchange of disease (Rome and china)

When Roman troops moved into Mesopotamia in the second century, a major epidemic of smallpox broke out among the soldiers stationed in Parthia By 166 B.C.E. it spread across much of the Roman Empire, reaching the city of Rome itself. Enduring for 15 years, probably 10 percent of the population of the Roman Empire, about 5 million people, perished from disease. Merchant ships on maritime trade routes and pack animals on caravan routes introduced the Roman Empire to devastating epidemics. Horses, upon which Roman expansion and trade depended, were often the culprits for carrying diseases to humans. Most historians consider these devastating epidemics a key factor in the fall of the western Roman Empire. Smallpox probably first arrived in China with the Huns around 250 B.C.E. Contact with Roman civilization along the Silk Roads continually reintroduced China to smallpox and in the third and fourth centuries C.E., the disease destroyed half the population of northern China. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, bubonic plague spread from Constantinople to China, and Buddhist monks subsequently spread the plague to Japan. As with Rome, each devastating epidemic weakened the foundations of civilization It meant fewer men to be called up for military service, thus decreasing security With fewer people to work in agriculture, food surpluses dropped, and with them, the basis for a complex society Lastly, a sharp drop in the population deprived the government of taxpaying peasants making it difficult to fund the basic functions of the state

Greco-Roman society

Women had no formal rights and could be killed or made to wear a special garment for adultery Slaves came from conquered lands which often fueled more conquest Slavery probably discouraged technological innovation in areas of production

Environmental impact

With agriculture, human beings arrange and concentrate plants in ways they would never exist in nature-- borrow crops from other regions and import them to their farms Such practices intensify and accelerate the natural processes of erosion and environmental diversification Pastoralism likewise concentrated animals to a repetitive cycle of grazing lands As grasslands were stripped of plants, erosion accelerated

sutra

a rule or aphorism in Sanskrit literature or a group of aphoristic doctrinal summaries prepared for memorization

Dukkha

no pleasure is permanent, like Samsara

North America: from Chaco to Cahokia

-The unusual establishment of large settlements in North America during the classical era. -Chaco canyon in present-day northwestern New Mexico. -900 AD to 1200 AD. -Five major pueblos emerged during the phenomenon, settlements were based on above-ground huts and gathering areas, small population, elaborate, unnecessary roads leading out of Chaco, large-scale drought ended the civilization. -Societies with large mounds based on burial rituals. -Eastern woodlands of North America (especially Mississippi River Valley). Cahokia were located in present-day St. Louis, Missouri. -600 AD to 1400 AD. -Had independent agricultural revolution, built striking burial mounds, Hopewell culture was most elaborate, "Hopewell Interaction Sphere" linked huge region in network of exchange and trade, Cahokia had a central mound resembling a pyramid, societies were stratified, corn-based agriculture helped society function, *Cahokia had larger presence than Chaco people.*

Mediterranean: Roman

*LAW AND ENGINEERING* Borrowed from Greeks From polis to empire- large scale conquest Continued use of assemblies (with less power) Codified laws- 12 Tables, Justinian Engineering Large-scale massive (monumental) structures Clean water Gladiatorial contests Circus Maximus Chariot races Bread and circus Entertaining the masses Roads helped trade and army Fell b/c soil exhaustion, plumbing lined with lead, overextended army

8 features of a civilization

1 food surplus- extra food that can be sold for a profit and/or needed goods 2 government- provide for common needs of the people like keeping order within and providing protection from outside forces 3 public works- structures (roads, dams) paid for by the government funds for public use 4 religion- well-developed sense that something greater than humans exists and attempts to both placate and challenge this power 5 social organization/classes- importance associated with different duties gives a person a rank; hunting, government 6 specialization- complex society requires tat people focus on doing one job or even part of one job well in order to meet everyone's needs, the more complex a society, the more needs it has 7 trade and conquest- ability to acquire needed goods and materials through peaceful or forceful means 8 writing/record keeping- a system that allows people to keep track of records or events

Mesoamerica- Olmecs

1500 BCE-200 CE City state government that united for religious celebrations under the authority of a Priest/shaman Dirt and clay pyramids used for political power and religious ceremonies Colossal stone heads of rulers used as power symbols Polytheist nature worship Shaman ruled, claimed to shape-change, control nature (rain, sun, crops), fly, killing enemies from a distance, and bear off-spring even though they are men. Maize Domesticated 3000BCE-- Major staplecrop in Mesoamerica First major civilization of modern day Central America Located in the southern tropical lowlands of present day Mexico Known for their elaborate work in art, such as architecture and sculpting Colossal heads (large sculpted human head figures, made out of boulders)-- The detail in the sculptures show the Olmec's advancement in both art, and tools necessary to create detailed sculptures Depicts the culture and mythology of the Olmec people One of their most notable achievements was the Olmec's creation of successful water and drainage systems in urban areas Olmec's legacy will be the culture and traditions: such as sculpting and sacrifice rituals, that were a large influence on Mayan and Aztec civilizations of the future

Institutions- Centralized governments

A centralized government is one in which most decisions for the entire state are made by one executive power This usually involves one leader, or a small group of individuals, having authority over all regions of a state from a single location, such as a capital city Although all states are necessarily centralized to some degree, some governments can lean more toward decentralization Examples of centralized states in the classical age are Han China, Mauryan India, and the Byzantine Empire Centralized states can be efficient, but require some apparatus to project power and hold distance provinces together. They can also can be the target of blame when people become discontented.

Institutions- decentralized governments

A decentralized government allows more control and decision making to be made at the level of local provinces or counties An illustration would be a school in which the administration allows teachers to create many of the rules and procedures for their own classrooms, as opposed to a more centralized system in which an administrator micro-manages every aspect of the classroom from an administrative office. More decentralized states were Gupta India and the Zhou Dynasty of China. Although decentralized governments put people more in touch with the powers that govern them, they often find it difficult to unite for the common good in times of crises

Development of agricultural production, trade and transportation-- Pottery

Agriculture created the need for storage containers and cooking pots-- craftsmen learned to make pots from clay and other materials, became essential for storing food, wine, and other goods Could also be used for religious or ceremonial purposes Became a medium for group identity and artistic expression as people came to etch designs on the exterior of pots.

Domestication of animals and plants

Agriculture was discovered at different times by different people The crops people cultivated depended on what was indigenous to their location Professor Jared Diamond has pointed out that the nature of edible plants that grew in individual places had a profound effect upon the development of human societies For example, regions that grew cereal grains had an advantage over those that grew less durable or nutritious foods. Cereal grains (rice, barley, wheat and corn) produced a harvest rich in carbohydrates and other nutrients. They were easy to dry and store. In storage, cereal grains would not spoil as quickly as legumes or yams. As a result, societies that cultivated these crops were more likely to produce surpluses of food

Ancestor veneration (Africa, East Asia, Andean areas)

Another belief system that existed outside the official codified religions of core civilizations was ancestor worship In many cultures there is a profound sense of respect given to the elderly Their many years of life have endowed them with wisdom which they model and transmit to those less experienced The movement from this practice to the veneration of dead ancestors is only natural given the belief that their spirits live on after death The practice of ancestor worship, like that of shamanism and animism, varied widely across locations but largely focused on receiving advice from the ancestors about everyday practical matters In China the ancestors communicated with the living through oracle bones This process was relatively simple-- Possible answers to important questions were written on large bones or turtle plastrons. The cracks that ran through these answers when heat was applied to the bone provided advice from the ancestors, providing they were properly interpreted by a shaman or specially gifted person. The use of oracle bones had several important results. First of all, they raised the importance of having a written script and having people who could read and write. Secondly, the thousands of oracle bones that survive today provide imporant information about early Chinese civilization. The entire dynastic succession of the Shang Dynasty, China's river valley civilization, can be constructed through information found on extant oracle bones.

The Vedic religion

Around 1500 B.C.E. a group of pastoral nomads know as Aryans began to cross the Hindu Kush mountains into what is today northern India and Pakistan They brought with them religious hymns, or songs, known as Vedas For generations priests had memorized these holy poems verbatim and had passed down this wisdom orally These priests presided over sacrifices of cows and other animals in order to appease their gods, such as Indra, the god of thunder and war The Vedas told the story of the creation of 4 social groups called varnas into which all people were categorized Centuries later, Portuguese visitors to India would call these groups castes Gradually, these nomadic people began to settle down, practice agriculture, and integrate with the indigenous people living in South Asia Iron tools helped them produce large surpluses of agriculture As they abandoned their nomadic lifestyles and became more urban, the sacrificial system outlined in the Vedas began to seem less relevant Holy men who lived outside of towns and villages practiced aestheticism and drew followers, or disciples These teachers were outside the official religious practices and focused more on philosophical issues, such as the meaning of life and what man's place in the universe is The teachings of these holy men formed the basis of a body of teachings called the Upanishads and they mark the end of the Vedic period The core of the Upanishads, the teachings about karma, atman, and reincarnation, would be integral to the formation of Hinduism in the classical age.

Vedic religions and Hinduism through Sanskrit (caste system, Brahman, reincarnation)

Around this same time (600-500 B.C.E.) the Vedic Period in South Asia was coming to a close In Key Concept 1.3 we saw that as the Aryans settled down and took up agriculture the system of priestly sacrifices outlined in the Vedas were not as relevant to their sedentary way of life The reaction against the stale formalism of the Vedic Period begins with the a body of writings known as the Upanishads. The name Upanishads implies one who sits at the feet of a master; we see the shift away from the official priests to an emphasis on wandering mystic teachers or gurus The Upanishads have less to do with formal rituals and focus instead on reflections about life's meaning and how man is related to the universe Although the influence of the Vedas would remain strong in South Asia, the Upanishads added ideas about reincarnation, karma, and the imperishable atman that resides in every living thing From the foundations of the Vedas and the philosophical musings of the Upanishads arose the religion of Hinduism The beginnings of Hinduism are difficult to trace, but the religion originated with the polytheism that the Aryans brought as they began invading the Indian subcontinent sometime after 2000 BCE Aryan priests recited hymns that told stories and taught values and were eventually written down in The Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism Hinduism assumes the eternal existence of a universal spirit that guides all life on earth A piece of the spirit called the atman is trapped inside humans and other living creatures The most important desire of the atman is to be reunited with the universal spirit, and every aspect of an individual's life is governed by it When someone dies, their atman may be reunited, but most usually is reborn in a new body A person's caste membership is a clear indication of how close he or she is to the desired reunion Vedas- ritual based (practices), ancient Upanishads- spiritual based (thinking), human based

Literature and Drama (Greek plays)

As major religions solidified and matured during this classical age, so did forms of artistic expression Literary traditions continued to be codified Some areas developed distinctive forms of art, such as drama Indeed, for the gift of theater we owe a debt to the ancient Greeks Today's spectator based activities, from modern Broadway shows, to stadium sports, to religious services, illustrate the influence of Greek theater Theater was born out of the religious festivals of the Greek god Dionysus The worship of Dionysus, which involved erratic, intoxicated dancing under the influence of wine, seems to have been influenced by Central Asian shamanism The festivals became so sensational that they later drew spectators, and the participants--soon to be called actors--began consciously performing for their audiences The performances evolved into dramatic recreations of historical situations, comedic portrayals of the human condition, satires of current politicians, and explorations of the tragedies of fate Theatrical competitions--probably created to bring cultural unity to the city-states of ancient Greece--reinforced this form of art across the region of Attica (a region of Greece that included Athens.) Even when the cult of Dionysus was made illegal, this form of art continued and produced many well known actors and playwrights Amphitheaters across the Greco-Roman world attest to the popularity of drama Tragedy- serious drama about common themes (love, hate war) Featured a tragic hero with extraordinary abilities BUT some tragic flaw that caused the hero's downfall Comedy- satires that make fun of customs, politics, and/or respected people

Shamanism, animism, connections to natural world

As the foundations were being laid for what would become the major world religions, other less codified beliefs thrived. Some of these beliefs were not religions per se, but rather orientations and practices concerned with spiritual things Shamanism, for example, is not a religion, but a set of practices geared toward manipulating the natural world through rites and ceremonies performed by a shaman, an individual thought to have connections with the supernatural forces of the universe Closely related to Shamanism is Animism which holds that objects in the material world are inhabited by spirits In actuality, animism does not generally make a distinction between the physical and spiritual realms The practice of animism varies widely in different parts of the world Both Shamanism and Animism were primarily found outside the areas in which religious traditions were being codified, However, elements of both could be found in major civilizations, particularly among those who did not learn to read

Social and gender hierarchies intensified and cities multiplied

As these civilizations grew economically and demographically through trade, their societies became more stratified The simple divisions of people into social classes became more complex Patriarchal and hierarchical divisions, as we have seen, became reinforced through laws, religion, and custom

Community building and social structure-- development of elites, patriarchy

At its most basic element, civilization is based on the food supply In hunting/gathering societies, most all of the people were engaged in acquiring and processing food-- there was a higher degree of equality, no significant differences that distinguished certain people from others However, in communities that practiced agriculture this basic equality began to break down-- *The surpluses of food produced by farming created the conditions for the rise of social inequality.* The ability to produce a surplus freed some people from having to spend all their time producing food; individuals could now specialize in other skills Artisans crafted weapons, jewelry, and other specialty products that could not be produced as readily by nomadic people surpluses of food created the need for a warrior class to emerge; The stores of grain kept by neolithic people were the perfect targets for raiding groups of nomadic people-- some members of the village thus were trained in the skills of defense to protect the fruit of their labor; the first militaries were born With these divisions of people came inequality, Some groups gained more prestige and status than others Priests who presided over rituals that were believed necessary for harvests gained elite positions and authority Warriors were essential for the protection of food Highly skilled craftsman who could work with metals or produce tools became highly valued Social hierarchies emerged in societies that were able to produce surpluses of food. As societies became more established and generated more wealth inequalities became wider Merchants, the priestly class, or military elites gained high honor and status than ordinary people The organization of people into hierarchical groups from highest to lowest is called stratification. Sometime after the Neolithic Revolution patriarchy emerged-- refers to a social system in which males have more respect, authority, or control than females. It is hard to isolate a single cause or event that led to this form of gender inequality, but several theories have been advanced

Reincarnation

Atman spirits are reborn in different people after one body dies This rebirth has no beginning and no end, and is part of the larger universal spirit that pervades all of life.

Methods to maintain food production and provide rewards for loyalty of elites (slavery, rents and tributes, peasant communities, family and household protection)

Because the production of large surpluses of agriculture was necessary for the specialization of labor and large armies, empires developed methods to extract maximum productivity from land Some slavery was practiced in all classical civilizations, but the Mediterranean world clearly exceeded Asia in the development of this institution Slaves may have comprised as much as one third of the Roman Empire. Another common form of labor sponsored by empires was the Corvée System; In this system, governments required subjects, usually peasants, to provide labor as a payment of tax. A specified number of labor days had to be offered to the state as an obligatory taxation. Many large imperial projects were completed using the corvée system. The Qin built their defensive wall using it; in 130 B.C.E. the Han built a canal to better move grain to the capital city using corvée labor. Under Jeraboam, the Hebrew kingdom of Israel used the corvée system first with conquered Cananites, then on their own population.

Buddhism (sutras, Ashoka, missionaries)

Began in this time period as an offshoot of Hinduism Buddhism began in India in the Ganges River area during the 6th century BCE Its founder was Siddhartha Guatama, who later became known as the Buddha, or the "Enlightened One." Siddhartha was the son of a wealthy Hindu prince who grew up with many advantages in life However, as a young man he did not find answers to the meaning of life in Hinduism, so he left home to become an ascetic, or wandering holy man His Enlightenment came while sitting under a tree in a Deerfield, and the revelations of that day form the basic tenets of Buddhism Although Buddhism, like Hinduism, emphasizes the soul's yearning for understandings on a higher plane, it generally supported the notion that anyone of any social position could follow the Eightfold Path successfully Buddhists believed that changes in thought processes and life styles brought enlightenment, not the powers of one's caste Although the Buddha actively spread the new beliefs during his long lifetime, the new religion faced oppression after his death from Hindus who saw it as a threat to the basic social and religious structure that held India together Buddhism probably survived only because the Mauryan emperor *Ashoka* converted to it and promoted its practice However, in the long run, Buddhism did much better in areas where it spread through cultural diffusion, such as Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.

Christianity (origins and issues in Roman Empire)

Christianity grew directly out of Judaism, with its founder Jesus of Nazareth born and raised as a Jew in the area just east of the Mediterranean Sea During his lifetime, the area was controlled by Rome as a province in the empire Christianity originated partly from a long-standing Jewish belief in the coming of a Messiah, or a leader who would restore the Jewish kingdom to its former glory days Jesus' followers saw him as the Messiah who would cleanse the Jewish religion of its rigid and haughty priests and assure life after death to all that followed Christian precepts In this way, its appeal to ordinary people may be compared to that of Buddhism, as it struggled to emerge from the Hindu caste system Christianity's broad appeal of the masses, as well as deliberate conversion efforts by its early apostles, meant that the religion grew steadily and eventually became the religion with the most followers in the modern world. Jesus was a prophet and teacher whose followers came to believe that he was the son of God He advocated a moral code based on love, charity, and humility His disciples predicted a final judgment day when God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to eternal hell Jesus was arrested and executed by Roman officials because he aroused suspicions among Jewish leaders, and he was seen by many as a dangerous rebel rouser After his death, his apostles spread the faith Especially important was Paul, a Jew who was familiar with Greco-Roman culture He explained Christian principles in ways that Greeks and Romans understood, and he established churches all over the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and even as far away as Rome Christianity grew steadily in the Roman Empire, but not without clashes with Roman authorities Eventually in the 4th century CE, the Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and established a new capital in the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople As a result, the religion grew west and north from Rome, and also east from Constantinople, greatly extending its reach

Indian Architecture

Classical Indian architecture reflected the religious and cultural values of Hindu society The plan of the temple was representative of the order of the cosmos Although the entire temple is a sacred place, not all rooms are afforded the same level of reverence The temple complex usually has a courtyard or anteroom though which worshipers first enter Then, as one enters the temple itself, there are small congregational rooms Finally, the center, or "womb chamber", is almost always a square and houses the image or representation of the god This main chamber is the holiest place in the temple and requires quiet reverence and prayer Thus the temple design reflects spacial hierarchies similar to the hierarchies of the Hindu caste system

Confucianism (social harmony and proper rituals)

Confucius contemplated why China had fallen into chaos, and concluded that the Mandate of Heaven had been lost because of poor behavior of not only the Chinese emperor, but all his subjects as well His plan for reestablishing Chinese society profoundly affected the course of Chinese history and eventually spread to many other areas of Asia as well He emphasized the importance of harmony, order, and obedience and believed that if five basic relationships were sound, all of society would be, too: Emperor/subject - the emperor has the responsibility to take care of his subjects, and subjects must obey the emperor Father/son - the father takes care of the son, and the son obeys the father Older brother/younger brother - the older brother takes care of the younger brother, who in turn obeys him Husband/wife - the husband takes care of the wife, who in turn obeys him Friend/friend -The only relationship that does not assume inequality should be characterized by mutual care and obedience. Confucius also defined the "superior man" - one who exhibits ren (kindness), li (sense of propriety), and Xiao (filial piety, or loyalty to the family) Confucianism accepted and endorsed inequality as an important part of an ordered society It confirmed the power of the emperor, but held him responsible for his people, and it reinforced the patriarchal family structure that was already in place in China Because Confucianism focused on social order and political organization, it is generally seen as a philosophy rather than a religion (Religions are more likely to emphasize spiritual topics, not society and politics.)

Dharma

Duties called dharma are attached to each caste position For example, a warrior's dharma is to fight honorably, and a wife's duty is to serve her husband faithfully Even the lowliest caste has dharma attached to it If one fulfills this dharma, the reward is for the atman to be reborn into a higher caste Only the atman of a member of the highest caste (originally the priests) has the opportunity to be reunited with the universal spirit

Classical China (class notes)

Dynastic cycle Zhou (ancient/bronze) rule by alliances focus on bronze (ancient) used for worship and sacrifice Qin (pre-classical) Authoritarian and tyrannical (Shi Huang Di) Took power from regional aristocrats and made them move to his court Built Great Wall over 3000 miles with slaves Began census and standardized weights and measures Standardized roads and cart axle sizes Short lived and unpopular Han (classical) Used centralized administration and standardization of Qin without brutality Civil service exams/training school (Confucius) Extensive bureaucracy- check against tyranny from Qin Identifying group for most Chinese Initial expansion followed by long peace Trade via Silk Road Art focused on figurines of people and animals

Techniques- building public works and defenses

Effective armies also need engineers. To ease the role of defense, armies were aided by defensive walls The famous Great Wall of China was first constructed by the Qin Dynasty to protect them from nomadic tribes on their northwestern frontier The Qin constructed miles of walls and connected preexisting walls It's noteworthy that the purpose of a wall was not to establish a permanent defensive boundary for the empire They were made to secure conquered areas with an eye to expansion. "Build and move on was the principle of the wall, not setting up a fixed border for all time." These earthen walls were later fortified with stone by the Ming Dynasty, and this is the wall most familiar with tourists today The Romans likewise constructed Hadrian's Wall to divide their territory of Britain from the Scottish Pics whose raids became problematic for them In any case, walls were not effective without being manned by soldiers; both the Chinese and the Romans built fortifications and garrisons at points along their walls As empires expanded beyond their resources, the thinning of armies on the boundaries of an empire allowed defensive walls to be easily breached A fortress made a powerful territorial claim for the empire who built it, and anyone challenging the territory on which the fortress was built had to take the fortress first The city of Rome built fortifications on the seven hills surrounding the city When the Mauryans took the province of Kalinga they built a fortification there to secure it as a possession Most classical civilizations built fortresses to shore up their most vulnerable areas; only the Gupta did not do this, perhaps because as a decentralized state it was less able to garner resources for the collective good Due to the size of their imperial reach, empires built roads as well These facilitated travel and trade but often the construction of roads was motivated by need to move armies across the empire The Romans excelled in roads, which they called Viae Viae militares, or military roads, served to move troops easily to defend or expand the empire. Indeed, for the Romans, the construction of roads was primarily motivated by military needs

Literature and Drama (Indian epics)

Epics, or a Mahakavya, are known as the specialty of Sanskrit and are also the earliest forms of literature Indian literature is thought to be the earliest literature of the world Literature during this time largely incorporated art In this art, the gods portrayed in the story were depicted and it was grandiose The art was very detailed and included humans, animals, scenery, color and much more The two most famous epics are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana Classical epics were made by using parts of the two original epics An epic is supposed to be divided into chapters, or Sarga Every chapter is composed in an individual and specific manner depending on the subject or theme of the Sarga Epics are thought of as art as much description is provided besides the main plot Imagery is widely used to describe festivals, forests, mountains, seasons, and so on Stanzas are composed so they flow with the story line but are also an individual idea or image

use of fire

Fire sterilized food, brought people together in small groups and protected against predators Helped people adapt to colder climates and became the focal point for the telling of stories through which values and knowledge were transmitted food cooked with fire eased the digestive process more of the body's energy became available for the development of the brain may have helped Homo sapiens develop the capacity for language, giving them a tremendous advantage over other mammals

exchange of people, ideas and goods like crops & technologies between small groups or bands

Foraging, or hunting and gathering, does not produce a large quantity of food limitation of the food supply kept foraging people in small groups of only a few people, also meant that they were nomadic, moving on to a new location once they stripped an area of its edible plants Gives us insight into their social relations-- small groups preferred not to marry in their own societies and would send girls to other foraging groups for marriage *Related by kinship bonds, hunter/gatherer groups would meet to exchange tools and gifts, and to participate in rituals.* likely there was movement of individuals among groups Relative social and gender equality-- Men may have taken leadership roles in some groups, but generally everyone was equally involved in the acquisition of food impractical for nomadic people to accumulate more than a few things, so material possessions did were not an indicator of economic or social class Such categories probably did not even exist for hunter-gatherers-- Some modern researchers have argued that paleolithic people had more leisure time, more varied and nutritious diets, and were healthier than those who settled and became farmers

7 ap world history "habits of mind"

Four Habits of Mind are in the first category: • Constructing and evaluating arguments: using evidence to make plausible arguments. • Using documents and other primary data: developing the skills necessary to analyze point of view, context, and bias, and to understand and interpret information. • Developing the ability to assess issues of change and continuity over time. • Enhancing the capacity to handle diversity of interpretations through analysis of context, bias, and frame of reference. Three Habits of Mind are in the second category: • Seeing global patterns over time and space while also acquiring the ability to connect local developments to global ones and to move through levels of generalizations from the global to the particular. • Developing the ability to compare within and among societies, including comparing societies' reactions to global processes. • Developing the ability to assess claims of universal standards yet remaining aware of human commonalities and differences; putting culturally diverse ideas and values in historical context, not suspending judgment but developing understanding.

Effects of Belief Systems on Gender Roles

Gender roles have been a huge part of civilizations ever since the beginning of time Religion helped dictate what the roles of each gender were Men were generally viewed as the leader of the family and were always high ranking officials in the religious communities Women on the other hand have been regarded as support systems to men Civilizations automatically adapted this type of thought because their belief systems took a certain stance, which recommended that people of that belief system went with it The reason for this is uncertain, but many sources say that because women give birth, they needed to be protected For example, India had a gender specific society The Gupta Empire was a prime example of this, as women were denied educational opportunities

Greek Architecture

Greek culture placed a high regard on symmetry, proportion, and the pursuit of the ideal Greek statues do not so much depict an individual person as they do celebrate an ideal Most all Greek statues have identical proportions (the height six times the length of the foot; hence our modern measurements) The Parthenon is a model of symmetry and proportionality The Greeks produced distinctive forms of architecture which reflected their values of symmetry, rationalism, and proportionality Applied geometric principles to make forms pleasing to the eye Used surroundings as foundation and tried to make structures part of surroundings

Mediterranean: Phoenician, Greek, Hellenic & Roman

Hellenism is the culture of ancient Greece as spread across the ancient world by Alexander of Macedonia (the Great) Alexander's father, Phillip of Macedonia, sent his son to Greece where he was a student of Aristotle There he learned the Hellenistic culture Although there was much religion in Athens, there was generally no religious caste or priestly order to decide what the official version of any body of knowledge was As a result, Athens placed a higher premium on individual inquiry than any of the other classical civilizations Because they believed the world to be rational and symmetrical, the Greeks stressed logic and systematic thinking; western philosophy was born They were curious about the nature of the world and were not hindered in their attempt to formulate theories about it The Greeks never did establish a veritable science; they placed too much emphasis on theories without ever subjecting those theories to physical experiments In other words, they would hold to a hypothesis about the physical world if no logical argument could be found to contradict it; they would never test the hypothesis experimentally They came up with half of the scientific method As these elements of Greek culture became more cosmopolitan with the expanding empire of Alexander the Greek, the resulting culture was called Hellenism Alexander purposefully attempted to spread this culture (after defeating Persia he ordered ten thousand of his troops to remain in Persia and marry Persian women in order to establish Greek families there.) Hellenism influenced India for a short time as well But when cultural contact with India ceased, the Greek influence soon disappeared.

Alexander the Great

Hellenization Trade and Markets- exchange goods and ideas Schools- learning Marriage- blending of cultures and families Gyms- workout and discuss issues Museums and Libraries- preserve art and ideas

Buddhism (class notes)

Middle path between asceticism and indulgence Four noble truths 8 fold path to achieve Nirvana (release) Mauryans led by Ashoka Conquered subcontinent with extreme brutality Converted to Buddhism and preached dharma Urged officials to oversee the welfare of the people and used as model for legal code

Chariots & Horseback riding

In ancient China around 4000 to 10000 years ago, the average citizen typically walked as a way of transportation or rode on a horse Few people had a chariot or wagon pulled by oxen The soldiers of ancient Chinese military didn't have many means of transportation either, generally what they had were their feet, horses, and chariots. The chariot was a light vehicle, usually on two wheels, pulled by one or sometimes more horses Usually the chariots would carry two standing people, one driver and one soldier, who would use bows or javelins The chariot was the ultimate military weapon in Eurasia from 1700 BCE to 600 BCE The chariot, however, was also used for hunting and sporting competitions such as the Olympic Games.

Techniques- issuing and regulating currency

It was in the best interest of classical governments to make trade more accessible-- Higher profits brought in more tax revenue to the government Although Roman roads were built at first to move armies, they greatly facilitated trade across the empire When the Qin emperor centralized China after the Period of Warring States, he constructed an infrastructure of roads and bridges to increase trade and gather taxes from formerly isolated areas As Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade brought wealth to Gupta India, emperors commissioned the production of coins to ease transactions and make it easier to compare the value of goods All classical governments enacted policies to facilitate commercial activities

Sassanids (class notes)

Last Iranian empire Pre-Islam Fought Romans and Byzantines Traded with China, sent ambassadors Connection between priests and military

Andean South America- Chavin

Located in the Andes mountain range (present day Peru) from 900-200 B.C.E Polytheistic people, one of the first cultures to believe in an underworld Social structure with a very strong elitist leader, which we can connect to the idea of the underworld, as a way the Elite kept his people morally in order Best known for their architectural adaptation to the mountainous region- finding materials to build with was not easy Both granite and black limestone were used a strong building material, but were not found in Chavin territory Shows that the Chavin had an organizational social structure and intellect to bring these building materials from another place back to the civilization even though they were at a disadvantage geographically; displays some of mankind's earliest resource collecting or even possibly trade

Mesoamerican Architecture

Mesoamerican architecture refers to the building traditions of the cultures found in parts of Mexico and Central America before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century In these cultures, the construction of pyramid-temples became the sort of popular thing to do One of the earliest pyramidal structures is found in the center of the Olmec culture at La Venta, and it is a mound of ground and clay about 100 feet high The pyramids in Mesoamerica were usually heaps of soil faced with stones, and they typically had a sort of platform only for the most privileged individuals of the community Later when the Mayan architecture started to develop the corbelled vault came into the scene, and also ceremonial centers started to increase in the Maya Lowlands, as well as other monuments A general element of these sites was tlachtli or ball court, which were often the architectural core of the cities

Andean South America: Moche

Moche was a civilization near the coast of Peru, and was an Andean civilization that built irrigation networks and urban centers that had brick temples They built the irrigation networks and canals of water for their agricultural reasons They are also known for their paintings and artwork of gold. Located in a present day map of the Andes region The prominent civiliation in modern-day Peru around 600 C.E., before the rise of the Incan Empire The Moche did not have any political unification, and instead depended on trade and agriculture -Classical civilization in South America. -Peru. -100 AD to 800 AD. -Succeeded Chavin civilization, had complex irrigation system, governed by warrior-priests who lived on top of pyramids, rulers would meditate spiritually with the use of drugs, humans were sacrificed through rituals, rulers had immense wealth, environment was fragile, dissolved due to dramatic weather pattern changes.

Caste System

Note that Hinduism supported the continuation of the caste system in India, since castes were an outer reflection of inner purity For example, placement in a lower caste happened because a person did not fulfill his/her dharma in a previous life Higher status was a "reward" for good behavior in the past

Legal codes (Hammurabi's Code)

Once systems of writing had been developed it became possible for civilizations to create laws and legal codes Perhaps the best example of an ancient legal code is the Code of Hammurabi developed by the Babylonians It is not coincidental that the Babylonians were the first to create a codified system of laws They were one of the earliest empires in history and consequently needed some uniformity and order imposed by a central government over an increasingly diverse population Babylonians adopted cuneiform from the Sumerians of Mesopotamia Cuneiform was more versatile and efficient than pictorial systems of writing, thus allowing for a more literate public The Code of Hammurabi was created as a way to make the laws known to the population, not only to institute limitations on people's lives but also to protect people from arbitrary rule and give them legal leverage The preamble to the Code of Hammurabi states that Babylonian (rather then the more academic Sumerian) was to be the language spoken in the courts and in which the laws were written Because they were inscribed on large black columns across the empire, all people would know what the law required of them. One striking feature of the Code of Hammurabi is its strict "eye-for-an-eye" relation between an offense and its punishment. Here, for example, are some excerpts from Hammurabi's Code: If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death. If it kill a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house. More importantly Hammurabi's Code reinforced the social and gender hierarchies of Babylonian civilization The law imposed different penalties for the same crime committed by people of different social status The penalty for thief, for example, could be a fine for someone of the upper class and a much harsher penalty, such as dismemberment or death, for someone of the lower class Thus the inequalities that naturally formed with surpluses of agriculture were standardized and perpetuated in laws that were made known to everyone in the empire That is not to say that laws were wholly exploitative and unjust In the Babylonian Empire, a slave had the right to sue his or her master for unfair treatment We have records for such cases in which slaves won against their masters The laws of an empire brought uniformity to a new type of political state that was inherently diverse in its ethnic and cultural constitution

Hittites- iron weapons

Problem with bronze- brittle and would sometimes break upon contact with armor, bones or rocks. Soon, man learned to make a superior metal: iron. The production was more complex-- Whereas bronze could be produced on an open fire, such fires were not hot enough to produce iron Man learned to dramatically increase the temperature of fires by blasting air into the coals; This fed the fire more oxygen than it would get from a normal burn. With such fires, iron could be smelted. Iron weapons stayed sharp and easily shattered bronze weapons. Armies brandishing these weapons had a significant advantage over armies using stone or other metals. Because its production required additional technological skills, iron-making skills were kept secret by those who first learned how to make it. But it was iron that allowed for the first major wars of territorial expansion. Hittites first learned to manufacture iron The methods of iron production were guarded so carefully the Hittites cut out the tongues of those who knew how to make it in order to prevent this technology from falling into the hands of their enemies Armed with iron weapons, the Hittites were able to expand their civilization and project their power on surrounding people. Imperial conquest had begun.

Guptas (class notes)

Smaller in scale Better management Intermarriages, law code enforced by regional reps, service roads, caste system "know your role," drama and math Art Spiritual perfection (vs. physical perfection of the Greeks) Wheel of law represents moral action and speed at which Buddha's teaching takes hold Hands form the "wheel-turning" gesture *Social Status* All cvs played down important of individual, none did it as rigidly as India with their caste system which defines duties and jobs by caste Brahmins, warriors/rulers, traders, manual laborers, untouchables/dalits Contrast with Western assumptions

Social structure and gender relations (patriarchy)

Social hierarchies and stratification that formed in foundational civilizations became more complex in large empires In classical India, the caste system evolved in order to accommodate the growing complexity of Gupta society-- Castes divided into subcastes, or jati, which soon became the backbone of Indian society. Jati formed their own courts through which Indian society was regulated in the absence of a strong central government. Thus Indian families tended to associate closely with other families involved in the same occupations as themselves. Despite changes that occurred in class, caste and labor during the classical age, all empires continued to practice patriarchy In some societies it was very harsh; in other societies women could advance and engage in business Indeed, belief systems certainly gave shape to how it was practiced in day to day life in every society But without exception, political, social and economic life in imperial civilizations remained dominated by males throughout this period

Greco-Roman logic and empirical though

Socrates Socratic method- teaching through questions Examine ideas through truth and reason Executed for corrupting the youth and not revering the gods of Athens Plato Student of Socrates who wrote down dialogues Founder of Academy and author of Republic Ideal society would be governed by a philosopher king- person with greatest insight and intellect Aristotle Plato's student and Alexander's tutor Inventor or science and logic- every truth follows logically from other truths Man is most important being in world due to his possession of a rational soul

Trade between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley

Surpluses of agriculture in the southern area of Mesopotamia produced large populations and more complex social classes; Yet the region lacked metals necessary for more advanced tools and the new urban elites desired "prestige materials" to showcase their personal wealth and status Contact with the Harappan society of the Indus River region met these needs Merchants carried metals and semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli from the Indus valley to eager markets in Mesopotamia When maritime routes emerged, bulk items like cotton textiles, grain and timber where traded Mesopotamians traded terra-cotta pots, gemstones and pearls Trade was facilitated by written contracts and enclaves of merchants which developed along the routes Mesopotamian seals, used to sign negotiated trade agreements, have been found in the cites of the Indus valley

Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Mayan city-states

Teotihuacan was a large Mesoamerican city at the height of its power in 450-600 C.E The city had a population of 125,000 to 150,000 inhabitants and was dominated by religious structures, including pyramids and temples where human sacrifice was carried out The growth of Teotihuacan was made possible by forced relocation of farm families to the city and by agricultural innovations, including irrigation works and chinampas ("floating gardens") that increased production and thus supported a larger population The elite lived in residential compounds separate from the commoners, and controlled the state bureaucracy, tax collection, and commerce Teotihuacan appears to have been ruled by alliances of wealthy families rather than by kings. The military was used primarily to protect and expand long-distance trade and to ensure that farmers paid taxes or tribute to the elite. Teotihuacan collapsed around 750 C.E. The collapse may have been caused by mismanagement of resources and conflict within the elite, or as a result of invasion. The Maya were a single culture living in modern Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and southern Mexico, but they never formed a politically unified state. Various Maya kingdoms fought each other for regional dominance. The Maya increased their agricultural productivity by draining swamps, building elevated fields and terraced fields, and by constructing irrigation systems. The Maya also managed forest resources to increase the production of desired products. The largest Maya city-states dominated neighboring city-states and agricultural areas. Large city-states constructed impressive and beautifully decorated buildings and monuments by means of very simple technology—levers and stone tools. The Maya believed that the cosmos consisted of three layers: the heavens, the human world, and the underworld. Temple architecture reflected this cosmology, and the rulers and elites served as priests to communicate with the residents of the two supernatural worlds. Maya military forces fought for captives, not for territory. Elite captives were sacrificed; commoners were enslaved. Maya elite women participated in bloodletting rituals and other ceremonies, but they rarely held political power. Non-elite women probably played an essential role in agricultural and textile production. The most notable Maya technological developments are the *Maya calendar, mathematics, and the Maya writing system.* Most Maya city-states were abandoned or destroyed between 800 and 900 C.E. Possible reasons for the decline of Maya culture include the disruption of Mesoamerican trade resulting from the fall of Teotihuacan, environmental pressure caused by overpopulation, and increased warfare.

Techniques- raising armies

The Han army was primarily made up of soldiers conscripted from the civilian population into military service Unlike the troops, whose service was temporary, officers in the Han army were career professionals who advanced through the ranks by demonstrating knowledge of classic texts on military theory, such as Sun Tzu's Art of War. (This was not unlike Chinese politicians who gained entrance to the bureaucracy by demonstrating knowledge of the Confucian classics.) The Roman army was probably the most effective killing machine of the ancient world. After the Punic Wars, the infantry was comprised of professional soldiers, not farmers called up for temporary service. They expanded their war machine by "organizing the communities that they conquered in Italy into a system that generated huge reservoirs of manpower for their army . . . Their main demand of all defeated enemies was they provide men for the Roman army every year. " But even in the face of superior numbers and technology, the organization and flexibility of the Roman army was remarkable. In the Mayan army social elites served as officers and soldiers were conscripted from the local populations. Mesoamerican armies were typically smaller than those in Eurasia, consisting at the most of several thousand soldiers, instead of tens of thousands like the Romans and Han. Mayan weapons did not utilize metals. The non-lethal nature of such wounds allowed them to take live prisoners, many of which were needed for ritualistic sacrifices. Some scholars believe warfare was common among the Mayan, and there is evidence that low-intensity fighting occurred even between Mayan cities. However, the overall scale of warfare was significantly less among the Mayan than it was for Han China and the Roman empire.

Techniques- supply lines

The armies of ancient empires required complex logistical operations, especially when they were on the move The minimum daily rations for a soldier was 3 pounds of grain and 2 quarts of water-- Thus an army of 65,000 men required at least 195,000 lbs of grain and 325,000 lbs of water each day It seems almost miraculous that ancient armies were able to provide for themselves without modern vehicles and paved roads Armies of the classical age created supply trains of animals and wheeled carts; This increased the provisions that could be carried but also introduced new impediments: the average pack animal required 10 lbs of grain per day thereby increasing the necessary provisions, and carts pulled by some animals slowed the movement of an army to a crawl (most terrain was rough and had no roads) For this reason, Alexander the Great limited pack animals to horses and camels and eliminated carts completely from his supply line Traveling with his army was a significant number of non-combatants whose job it was to manage the movement of supplies across the ranks of soldiers All of this required tedious centralized planning And given the fact that the average army could only carry enough supplies to last them for 10 days, sustaining supply lines was very important for armies These lifelines were also vulnerable to enemy attacks that could bring devastation by cutting an army from its provisions

Developments of cities- Athens

The city of Athens was a city-state in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea on the Greek Peninsula founded in about 3000 BCE by Theseus, the king who united the mountainous villages that became Athens One of the most famous accomplishments of Athens was their development of Democracy for the first time in ancient history Their governmental system forms the backbone of modern day Democracies In order to defend their Democracy, Athens needed a military; they chose to develop a naval army Thus, another of Athens' accomplishments was the invention of the trireme ship This ship design helped them to defeat Persia and defend themselves, until succumbing to plague, from Sparta

South Asia: Maurya and Gupta India

The classical age of India's history was comprised of two important dynasties, the Mauryan and the Gupta The rise of the Mauryan Dynasty was precipitated by the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia in 327 B.C. Although Alexander left no lasting impression on India, he did clear out several small Aryan states and create the power vacuum which allowed Chandragupta Mauryan to establish his namesake dynasty. Under Mauryan rule much of the Indian subcontinent was united for the first time under one central government They were able to rule such a large area by using a well organized bureaucracy Chandragupta maintained his bureaucracy with a systematic use of spying, brutality and intimidation The most important ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Ashoka He retained the bureaucracy created by this grandfather Chandragupta, but imposed a system of law across his empire known as the Edicts of Ashoka These rules brought cohesion and legal consistency across the empire, as the Code of Hammurabi did for the Babylonians Thus Ashoka relied on both a bureaucracy and a codified legal system to centralize his rule. Under Ashoka's rule the empire expanded and the bureaucracy became more organized He created central organizations to ensure that his edicts and policies were carried out across his empire An important event during Ashoka's rule was his conversion to Buddhism, a change that moderated the harsh precedents set by his grandfather Ashoka today is remembered as one of ancient India's most influential and benevolent leaders When Ashoka died the Mauryan empire soon crumbled After a period of disorder and regional kingdoms, the Gupta Dynasty emerged and once again united India under a single government The Gupta empire never grew to the size of the Mauryan The organization of their empire was considerably different as well Ashoka used the bureaucracy to manage most details of the empire The Gutpas, on the other hand, let most decisions and policy making up to local leaders They also preferred to negotiate or intermarry with local rulers to keep the peace Although they ruled over a smaller area than the Mauryans, *the Gupta era was the greatest period of political stability in classical India* However, this lack of centralized rule came with an eventual price The various regions of India had their own distinctions and were never integrated into the whole as they were under Ashoka In fact, the Gupta empire would break along these regional divisions as the empire was threatened by *internal corruption and nomadic invaders* After the fall of the Gupta dynasty, the Indian subcontinent would remain fragmented into regions for over 1500 years Thus the pattern of rule in classical India alternated between large but decentralized empires and networks of disjointed regional kingdoms

Epic of Gilgamesh

The earliest literary tradition we know of is the Epic of Gilgamesh Originating from the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, it spread and was adapted to other nearby civilizations The hero of the epic is Gilgamesh, who sets out to find the meaning of human life after his companion Enkidu dies, only to discover that eternal life is only for the gods The mortality of mankind suggested in this story is in contrast to many other civilizations' belief in the afterlife during this same time Some experts have suggested that this pessimistic cultural outlook might have been influenced by the harshness of Mesopotamian life, with its randomly flooding rivers, political disunity, and their lack of natural barriers to invaders Nevertheless, the Epic of Gilgamesh reflects the culture of ancient Mesopotamians

Southwest Asia: Persia (Sassanid)

The first Persian Empire was the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE) which reached its height under Cyrus the Great At its peak it encompassed present day Iraq and Iran, Syria, Israel, Anatolia, parts of Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, much of Central Asia, and Macedonia to the north of classical Greece The antagonism between the Persians and Greek civilization would provoke the wrath of Alexander the Great, whose conquest of Persia ended the Achaemenid Empire Much smaller than its predecessor was the Parthian Empire (247 BCE-224 CE) The Partians were the arch rivals of the Roman Empire and defeated them in Rome's early attempts at eastward expansion This conflict evoked the most famous political propaganda in Roman history, the Augustus of Prima Porta The last of the Persian Empires was the Sassanid Empire, or Neo-Persian Empire (224-651 CE) The collapse of the Sassanid Empire in 651 C.E. was one of the primary factors in the rapid spread of Islam in the next unit of study One result of these Persian Empires was the diffusion of religious ideas associated with Zoarastrianism

Daoism (balance between humans and nature through medicine, poetry, metallurgy, architecture)

The founder of Daoism is believed to have been Laozi, a spiritualist who probably lived in the 4th century BCE The religion centers on the Dao (sometimes referred to as the "Way" or "Path"), the original force of the cosmos that is an eternal and unchanging principle that governs all the workings of the world The Dao is passive - not active, good nor bad - but it just is It cannot be changed, so humans must learn to live with it According to Daoism, human strivings have brought the world to chaos because they resist the Dao A chief characteristic is wuwei, or a disengagement from the affairs of the world, including government The less government, the better Live simply, in harmony with nature Daoism encourages introspection, development of inner contentment, and no ambition to change the Dao

external problems and security issues

The migration of the Huns - Droughts in central Asia forced a nomadic group called the Huns to migrate south and west during this time period. This brought them in contact with the settled classical civilizations. They placed pressure on the Han and Gupta, attacking their frontiers and raiding their lands. As they pushed westward, they forced Germanic peoples to put pressure on the Roman Empire. Over-extension of borders - All empires found that their borders had grown so large that their military had trouble guarding them. Their imperial ambition out-stripped their resources. The Chinese could not effectively man the Great Wall with soldiers to keep out the Huns. Rome grew so large they could not raise the armies to protect its frontiers. The spread of epidemics and disease - The trade routes that connected civilizations and allowed them to prosper also spread diseases. Han China and Rome lost thousands to disease, thus depleting their tax base just as they needed fund to protect their borders. All classical civilizations had to deal with migrations and invasions of nomadic people. The Qin and Han dynasties struggled against the Xiongnu Confederacy, and we have seen above that the invasion of the Huns was a factor in the collapse of the Han Dynasty. The white Huns invaded the Gupta and exposed the inability of its decentralized system to coordinate a unified defense. As the Huns migrated westward they pressed Germanic tribes of central and eastern Europe against the frontiers of the Roman Empire. When resources were too scared to sustain their defenses, the Roman's found these "barbarians" at the gates of their capital city.

Environmental damage

The mobilization of resources required by classical empires had vast environmental consequences. The materials required by settled people and the need for surpluses of agriculture led to the *deforestation* of enormous tracks of land In the Mediterranean civilizations, entire forests were cut down to provide building timbers, burning fuel, and to extend farming areas Desertification- Land degradation in areas resulting from various factors, climatic variations, and human activities. Cause: Farming malpractice, removing too much vegetation, drought, overpopulation, migration in Arabian Peninsula and Middle East. Effect: Land is not fertile and farming communities began to decline and were dispersed and had to resort to a new way of obtaining food. Soil erosion- The washing away of soil over time by water or overuse, usually as a result of deforestation. Occurred in Rome

Trade between Egypt and Nubia

The monarchs of Egypt longed to control the region called Nubia to the south of them At this time in history, Nubia was the only place in sub-Saharan Africa known to the outside world Homer referred to it as the "remotest nation." The coveted trade items of sub-Saharan Africa, most notably ivory, gold and slaves, made their way north through the land of Nubia Although they sought to exploit this trade corridor, the Egyptians despised Nubian people and culture and had no desire to occupy it The trade between Egypt and Nubia brought many Egyptian cultural and political practices to the states of Nubia Their political structure resembled that of the pharaohs; Nubians adopted hieroglyphs, the Egyptian system of writing; they built pyramids as burial tombs; and their god Amun was a direct borrowing from Egyptian religion Thus trade became the vehicle of cultural and political interaction between urban societies

Eight Fold Path to Enlightenment-- Buddhism

The ultimate goal is to follow the path to nirvana, or a state of contentment that occurs when the individual's soul unites with the universal spirit. The eight steps must be achieved one by one, starting with a change in thoughts and intentions, followed by changes in life style and actions, that prelude a higher thought process through meditation. Eventually, a "breakthrough" occurs when nirvana is achieved that gives the person a whole new understanding of life.

Brahman

The universal spirit is represented by Brahman, a god that takes many different shapes Two of Brahman's forms are Vishnu the Creator, and Shiva the Destroyer Hinduism is very difficult to categorize as either polytheistic or monotheistic because of the central belief in the universal spirit-- Do each of Brahman's forms represent a different god, or are they all the same? Brahman's forms almost certainly represent different Aryan gods from the religion's early days, but Hinduism eventually unites them all in the belief in Brahman Ultimate reality: everything and nothing Goal: realization of Brahman through mental action

Monumental architecture and urban planning-- Ziggurats, pyramids, defensive walls, streets, sewage and water systems

The vast amount of resources civilizations garnered enabled them to fund public and civic projects such as temples, defensive walls, roads, irrigation and sewage systems Sewage disposal networks have been unearthed at some of the oldest cities In the city of Lothal in the Indus River valley, a complex sewage system had a main line running through the city with smaller lines connecting to it Projects of this nature require planning and organization to a degree that can only be carried out by a government Road construction is another example of the state marshaling resources for projects that advance the good of city Note that the formation of a large gathering of settled people in one area (a city) necessitated a complex government to organize needed services such as irrigation, sewage systems, and roads. Not all public work projects were undertaken for practical urban purposes The close relationship between the state and religion meant that governments supported the construction of temples and religious monuments The city-states and empires of Mesopotamia constructed large temples called ziggurats Religious practice centered around these large buildings, to which people brought offerings of animals, vegetables, fruits and butter Here priests would offer sacrifices, both human and animal, which were thought to secure the good will of the gods. The ziggurat could perform social and military functions as well In the temple schools children learned religion, mathematics, geometry and other subjects Being accessible only by three long sets of stairs, the top of the ziggurat provided safety during times of flooding and invasion.

Development of agricultural production, trade and transportation-- Wheels and wheeled vehicles

The wheel was invented in the late neolithic period in Mesopotamia and in the northern Caucasus region of Central Europe Can be used in vehicles to facilitate the movement of goods Hittites developed the chariot, a wheeled vehicle used in battle When the Hyksos gained chariots they were able to successfully invade Egypt Also contributed to the advancement of other crafts-Pottery could be turned on a horizontal wheel, and they could be used for spinning yard Later, the power of moving water could be harnessed with a water wheel Numerous toys have been found with wheels.

Promotion of arts & citizenship by elites (sculpture, painting, weaving)

These same surpluses allowed civilizations to promote the arts Human nature seems to have an innate propensity for artistic expression, and we embellish the things we make far beyond what their function or utility alone require Forms of art give a sense of identity to individuals and groups, just as music and clothing styles still do today In the earliest civilizations, jewelry making, painting, sculpting and other forms of art were promoted and funded by elites, those possessing the wealth to support labor not inherently necessary for human survival

Judaic Monotheism through Hebrew Scriptures, conquest and diasporic communities

We saw previously that the Hebrews developed a monotheistic faith As their numbers grew and they became a more organized society, their beliefs, ceremonial laws, history, and hymns became codified into a common body of scripture This collection of scripture is called the *Torah* (or Tanakh) and corresponds with what non-Jews call the Old Testament of the Bible Torah prescribes detailed guidelines covering ethics, social and civil relations, and even rules about diet and personal hygiene Taken together, the beliefs and practices codified in the Torah formed the religion of *Judaism*, a monotheistic religion inexorably connected with a specific ethnic group, the Hebrews (or Jews) Central to this religion is the belief that the Hebrews entered into a special covenantal relation with their God through the patriarch Abraham These guidelines, compounded with the belief that the creator God had chosen them as a special ethnic group, endowed the Jewish people with a well defined sense of identity This sense of identity would follow them as foreign empires conquered the Hebrews and led them into captivity As captives of foreign empires, some cultural influence from their host civilizations was inevitable; nevertheless, even as *diasporic communities* the Hebrews attempted to preserve their identity through ceremonial and cultural traditions This struggle to avoid assimilation helped maintain their identity but also sometimes brought them into conflict with their host cultures

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism was the religion of Persia (modern day Iran) before the coming of Islam There is debate as to whether it is monotheistic or not It teaches that the world is caught in a war between a good God and an evil God, but that the good God is destined to win Our actions contribute to this cosmic struggle; Thus it is a belief system very much interested in ethics. The religion began with the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek) and teaches a final judgment, eternal life for the good, resurrection, and a place of eternal punishment for the evil The commonalities with other monotheistic faiths is clear There are only several thousand adherents to this religion today, mostly in Iran and India

Book of the Dead

a description of the ancient Egyptian conception of the afterlife and a collection of hymns, spells, and instructions to allow the deceased to pass through obstacles in the afterlife

Dharma

everything is linked casually, law of moral actions

missionaries

monks and nuns travelling land/sea trade routes to spread faith, establishing communities, monasteries, and learning centers Emperor Ashoka and King Kanishka were prominent leaders who promoted Buddhism during the classical period

Atman

nature of individual self

Development of agricultural production, trade and transportation-- Metallurgy

the knowledge of working with metal provides the tools for many other areas of labor, such as farming, textiles, and the forging of weapons The earliest metallurgists worked with copper, a metal that can be hammered into shape directly from the ground As new metals were found and alloys discovered, metallurgy became a highly skilled practice Metals have different densities, grains, and characteristics that must be learned A major break-though in metallurgy was Bronze-- an alloy of copper and tin; Required these base metals to be heated and mixed together, but the result is a product that is harder and more useful than the softer copper, which cannot hold a cutting edge for long Bronze would transform human societies by producing larger surpluses of agriculture and allowing for the creation of superior weapons.

global perspective

when someone can think about a situation as it relates to the rest of the world

Moksha

withdraw from normal existence, desires and attachments, this state is permanent once achieved